Infectious Disease

- Are caused by a pathogen and can be transferred from one individual to another through direct or
indirect contact

Classification of Pathogens
Pathogen – organisms that cause disease in plants and animals that can be cellular or non-cellular
Cellular – made up of living cells
Non-cellular – a non-living agent
Pathogens
- Prions
- Virus
- Bacteria
- Protozoa
- Fungi
- Macro-parasites

Pathogen Distinguishing Features Example

Prion NON-LIVING (non-cellular) Scrapie In sheep
- Infectious protein molecule Mad cow disease in cattle
- Does not contain DNA or RNA Kuru in humans
- Mostly attacks brain or nerve cells
- Molecular level-low nm
- Not visible with light microscope
Virus NON-LIVING (non-cellular) Smallpox
- Contains DNA, RNA and protective AIDS
coat Hepatitis B
- Requires a living host cell to Influenza
replicate Measles
- Less than 500nm
- Not visible with light microscope
Bacteria LIVING (cellular) Whooping cough
- Unicellular, prokaryotic cell Tetanus
- Have DNA and RNA Tuberculosis
- Cell wall surrounding cell but no Anthrax
membrane organelles
- Up to 100 um
- Visible with light microscope
- Larger than viruses but smaller than
protozoa
- Genetic material = plasmids and
circular chromosomes
Protozoa LIVING (cellular) Malaria
- Eukaryotic unicellular organisms Giardiasis
- Usually, complex life cycle
- 50-150 um
- Visible with light microscope
- Membrane bound nucleus and
organelles
Fungi LIVING (cellular) Thrush
- Eukaryotic cells with a cell wall Tinea
- Some unicellular but most are. Ringworm
 multicellular
- Vary in size from microscopic to
macroscopic
Macro-parasites LIVING (cellular) Tapeworm
- Eukaryotic cells, multicellular Paralysis tick
organisms
- Visible with naked eye
- External parasites = ectoparasites
- Internal parasites = endoparasites

Direct Transmission of Infectious Disease

Person to person contact
- Occurs when an infected individual touches or exchanges body fluids with another individual
- E.g., kissing, sexual contact, biting
- E.g., herpes, HIV and chickenpox
Droplet Spread
- The result of droplets spray caused by talking, coughing and sneezing
- E.g., influenza, measles and tuberculosis

Indirect Transmission of Infectious Disease

Airborne Contact
- Some pathogens can remain suspended in the air for many hours outside the body
- They can travel long distances and infect an individual long after the original host has left the area
Contaminated Objects
- Occurs when a surface or object containing the pathogen is touched and the pathogen is
transferred to the mouth, nose or eyes before washing hands
Food & Drinking Water
- Several pathogens are transmitted as a result of improper treatment, handling or storage of food
and water
Animal to Person Contact
- Usually occurs from a scratch or bite from infected animal or from handling waste
Vector-borne
- Usually spread by blood sucking insects, mosquitos, fleas and ticks
- E.g., malaria

Epidemics
An outbreak of an infectious disease that spreads rapidly among individuals in a defined area or population
at the same time.
Pandemic- typically the spread of a new disease across a continent or even worldwide
Case Study – Ebola
- A sever and often fatal disease in humans
- 2014-2016 Ebola virus disease in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone
- Causes severe bleeding and organ failure
- In March 2014 the WHO officially declared an outbreak of Ebola with 49 cases and 29 deaths
- Declared over in 2016
- Over 28 000 cases were recorded and 11310 died
Transmission
- Direct contact
- Highly contagious
- Contact with an infected person’s blood or other bodily fluids (vomit, diarrhea, urine, semen or
sweat)
- Not spread through the air or casual contact
- Coming in contact with someone who has recently died from Ebola = burying/cleaning a body
Cause/origin
- Fruit bats are the natural host of Ebola who transmits it to humans
Host Response to Ebola
- Virus infects dendritic cells which prevents an immune response to the virus
- Replicates and infects the cells of multiple organs = cell death as a result
Symptoms
- Initial symptoms: fever, aches and pians, weakness, fatigue, sore throat, loss of appetite, vomiting,
diarrhea and abdominal pain
- Later Symptoms: internal bleeding or coughing blood
Prevention & Control
- Avoid animal to human transmission by cooking meat thoroughly
- Avoid human to human transmission by wearing personal protective equipment
- Ensure good hygiene
- Contact tracing
- Surveillance of known hot spots
- Safe burials
- Quarantine

Robert Koch & Louis Pasteur

Until mid-19th century people believed living things were produced by spontaneous generation = organisms came into
existence directly from non-living matter e.g., maggots came from rotting meat
Germ theory replaced this idea
Germ theory = states that germs already exist in the environment and that these life forms do not spontaneously
generate.
Koch & Pasteur provided evidence for this theory
Louis Pasteur’s swan-neck flask experiment
Aim – to demonstrate that microbes were air-borne and did not spontaneously generate
- Predicted that microbes were present tin the air and that food spoils when these microbes land and
become active
Contributions
- Disproved spontaneous generation
 - Developed world’s first attenuated vaccine = artificially generate vaccines for anthrax and chicken
cholera
- Demonstrated that fermentation was caused by living organisms = discovery became central to
alcohol production and understanding that microorganisms were responsible for food and
beverage spoilage
- Invented pasteurisation = invented process that involves heating liquids to high temps to kill
microorganisms that could cause spoilage or disease (still used in milk production)
Koch’s Postulates
Aim – to demonstrate that infectious diseases are caused by specific microscopic pathogens
Contributions
- Postulates = a set criterion that establishes whether a particular organism is the cause of a
particular disease
1. The pathogen must be found in all animals suffering from the disease, but not in healthy
animals
2. The microorganism must be isolated and cultured in the lab and accurately described and
recorded
3. When a sample of the pure culture is inoculated into a health host, this host must develop the
same symptoms as the original host
4. The microorganism must be able to be isolated from the second host and cultured and
identified as the same as the original species
- Demonstrated that bacillus anthracis was the causative pathogen in anthrax
- Demonstrated that the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis
- Confirmed that vibrio cholera was the causative pathogen of cholera
- Developed the agar plate technique for growing microorganisms

Diseases that impact on agricultural production

Plant Diseases
- Typically caused by various fungi and bacteria
o Panama disease = caused by fungus (fusarium oxysproum), the pathogen is resistant to
fungicide and cannot be controlled chemically
o Potato blight = caused by fungus (phytophthora infestans)
Plant Disease – Fire Blight
Background & cause
- Attacks pome fruit (apples and pears)
- Excluded from Australia as a result of a strict quarantine where all plant products are prevented
from entering the country
- Cause = highly infectious disease caused by the bacterium erwinia amylovora
Effect & impact
- Attacks blossoms, leaves, shoots, fruits and roots
- Results in tissue death and bacterial ooze droplets on infected tissue
- Spread through rain, insects wind and pruning tools
- Difficult to contain
- Prevention = on-farm biosecurity to prevent entry and spread of pests and diseases and ensuring all
staff and visitors are instructed in and adhere to on-farm hygiene practices
- Impact = all apple and pear growing areas in Australia are considered high risk areas, in 1997 fire
blight was found in the botanic gardens = costing Australia $20million in lost revenue
Animal Diseases
- Typically caused by viruses and bacteria
o Newcastle disease = a viral disease of domestic poultry and wild birds
o Anthrax = caused by the bacterium bacillus anthracis and affects a wide variety of domestic
and wild animals
Animal Disease – foot and mouth disease
Background & cause
- Highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals such as sheep, goats and pigs
- Australia is considered free of FMD as a result of strict quarantine
- Cause = caused by the foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV)
Effect
- Causes fever and blisters in the mouth and hooves of cattle, goats, sheep’s and pigs
- Leads to severe production losses
- Infected animals recover but the disease often leaves them weakened and debilitated = herds are
destroyed
Impact
- A 2001 outbreak in the UK cost more than $19 billion in export losses
- Many countries will only import livestock and meat from countries free of FMD = if Australia has an
outbreak, it will mean severe economic consequences

Pathogen Adaptations
Facilitate entry into hosts:
Bacteria adhesion in the urinary tract:
- Some bacteria have developed special protein complexes called adhesins that allow the bacteria to
bind to the epithelium lining of the urinary tract to resist the mechanical washing of urine, and the
gravitational gradient of the tract.
Protozoan Vector Transmission
- Protozoans such as the plasmodium group have developed the ability to thrive in the bodies of
Anopheles Mosquitoes and be transmitted through vector bites, enabling the direct entry of the
pathogen into the blood.

Facilitate Transmission between hosts:

Gastrointestinal Pathogens:
- An adaptation of pathogens such as the giardia causing protozoan include the causation of massive
outputs of diarrhoea and therefore massive outputs of the protozoan. This adaptation increases the
likelihood of transmission between individuals.
Anthrax Bacteria
- An adaptation of the anthrax bacteria Bacillus Anthracis is its ability to survive in the exposed
conditions of the soil for long periods of time. This enables the pathogen to remain virulent and
thus causes an extensive number of cases over a significant period of time.

Inquiry Question – How are diseases transmitted?

- Infectious diseases are caused by a pathogen and can be transferred from one individual to
another.
- A pathogen is a biological agent that causes disease or illness in a host, including prions, viruses,
bacteria, protozoans, fungi and macro-parasites.
- Transmission of infectious diseases can be direct or indirect.
- An epidemic is defined as an outbreak of an infectious disease that spreads rapidly among
individuals in a defined area or population at the same time e.g., Ebola breakout.
- Pasteur demonstrated that life did not ‘spontaneously generated’. Pathogens are air-borne.
- Koch first proposed a set of postulates to explain disease spread.
- Pathogens continue to have significant impact on agriculture.

Plant Responses to Pathogens

Plant pathogens are broken into two groups:
- Biotrophs – a pathogen that does not kill the host (bacterial and viral pathogens)
- Necrotrophs – infection results in death of host (fungal pathogens)
Symptoms of viral plant infection:
 - Chlorosis
- Yellowed leaves
- Mosaic leaf pattern
- Crinkled leaves
- Growth stunting
Symptoms of fungal plant infection:
- Chlorosis
- Leaf and stem wilting
- Leaf and stem rusting
- Leaf blotching
- Leaf mildew

When responding to these pathogens plants only have an innate immune response, physical and chemical
barriers that enable the destruction of infectious agents.
Two types of innate immune responses exist to block the entry of, and destroy pathogens, these are called
the Passive and Active responses.
o Passive = structural for the prevention of entry, these may be chemical or physical barriers
o Active = an induced change in the cells or organism to destroy pathogens

Passive defences come first (physical and chemical), and then active defences come after (recognition,
active and delayed)
Passive

Chemical Barriers Physical Barriers

- Plant defensins such as proteins: These - Thick cell walls: Prevent the entry of pathogens
proteins/peptides have antimicrobial and into internal plant tissues
antifungal properties and bind to pathogen- - Wax cuticle: Prevent the entry of pathogens
secreted ‘effector’ protein that allow the plant into internal plant tissues
to identify infection. - Bark: acts as a barrier and prevents entry
- Secretory cells, glands, and ducts: secrete - Stomata: can be closed when signalled
defensive compounds
- Enzymes: break down pathogen derived toxins
- Caffeine: toxic to insect and fungi
- Saponin: disrupts cell membrane of fungi
Example
- Coastal Wattle and Golden Wattle in response to powdery mildew (fungal disease)
o Able to produce cyanogenic glycosides that are cytotoxic to both insect grazers and invading
pathogens
o The chemical blocks enzymes involved in cellular respiration which deters or kills the insect
pest or pathogen
- Eucalyptus in response to eucalyptus rust (Fungal pathogen Puccinia psidii)
Physical Chemical

Cell wall Production of antimicrobial peptides and toxic

secondary metabolites are released upon pathogen
attack

Cutin and waxes are fatty substances that make up the Essential oils are produced and stored in sub-dermal
thicker cuticle which prevents pathogens from entering secretory glands = toxic to pathogens

Stomata can close and prevent fungal pathogens from

gaining entry
Active
Pathogen recognition – plants recognise pathogens by detecting certain physical and chemical signals
(fragments of cell walls of bacteria)
Rapid Repones – help seal off any wounds and destroy pathogens quickly
o Release of hydrogen peroxide (kills microbes)
o Reinforcement of cell wall
o Programmed cell death
Delayed Response – limit the spread of the pathogen, repair wounds in the bark through cell production
and gum secretion
Examples:
- Thickening of the cell walls with lignin: This is done for the repair of cells for stronger structural
defences to prevent reinfection.
- Hypersensitive response: The Hypersensitive response works in conjunction to the plant defensins.
(The follow -up after recognition) Once the plant has recognised the effector protein secreted by
the pathogen, the plant will initiate the hypersensitive response. This response in plants stops the
spread of a pathogen by activating rapid cell death near the site or at the site of infection. The
death of a host cell stops the intracellular spread of the pathogen.
- Abscission Layers: The development of abscission tissues around the site of infection causes the
infected tissue to separate from the healthy tissue to prevent transmission.
- Lignitubers: the development of lignitubers is initiated when fungal hyphae penetrate the exterior
layers of tissues or cells of a plant. The plant will form a layer of lignin around the tip of the hyphae,
inhibiting the growth of the hyphae into other cells or tissues.
Animal Reponses to Pathogens
The animal response to pathogens can be broken into three lines of defence.
The innate immune response refers to the first and second line of defence, which are NON-SPECIFIC.
It is in the second line of defence that the infected cells undergo chemical and physical changes.
The physical and chemical barriers and responses work in conjunction with one another

Animal Physical/chemical How it helps the host body to fight against the
response to the response infection
presence of
pathogens
Granuloma Physical Cells die to seal off an area of tissues that is
formation – the infected. The infected cells are surrounded by a
healthy cell dies wall of dead cells. The infected cells inside the
out once the granuloma then die, causing the destruction of
cell is infected pathogens that are infecting them. This prevents
the infection from spreading to other areas.
Example: Tuberculosis
Vomiting and Physical Vomiting happens in response to many different
diarrhoea signals, one of which is the presence of pathogens
in the gut. This is the body’s way of expelling
harmful substances.
At the other end of the digestive system, diarrhoea
expel microorganisms quickly from the
 gastrointestinal system
Increased Physical When the bladder lining is attacked by a pathogen,
urination a common response by the body is inflammation
and the need to pass small amounts of urine
frequently. This is thought to be a response by the
body to help flush out pathogens.
Inflammation Chemical Inflammation helps wound repair and leads to
pathogen destruction.
When cells are damaged by pathogens, they
release chemical signals such as Histamines and
prostaglandins.
These chemicals cause the capillaries to dilate,
increasing the blood flow to the site of infection,
causing the area to become red, hot and swollen.
These chemicals also increase the permeability of
the blood vessels, which allows certain white blood
cells (phagocytes) to move from the blood into the
tissues to attack the invading pathogens.
Chemicals that increase the body’s temperature
are released, which inhibits the growth of
pathogens.
The Chemical The complement system is a group of around 30
Complement soluble proteins that assist other defence
system mechanisms in destroying extracellular pathogens.
These proteins circulate in the blood, attracted to
pathogen- antibody complexes which act as a signal
for phagocytes to destroy the pathogen. Some
complement proteins can ‘punch’ holes in
microbial cell membranes, causing the cell content
to leak out and destroying them.

Inquiry Question – How does a plant or animal respond to infection?

- Viruses are non-cellular but contain DNA or RNA while Fungi are eukaryotic heterotrophic
organisms containing a cell wall.
- Plants have a combination of both physical and chemical defence mechanisms to prevent the entry
or inhibit the spread of pathogens.
- There are 4 main components that work in conjunction with one another. Gene-for-gene
resistance, Basal resistance, Hypersensitive response (HR) and Systemic acquired resistance (SAR).
- Plants lack an adaptive immune response.
- Phytophthora cinnamomic is a fungal pathogen that affects both eucalyptus and acacia
- Vertebrates have 3 lines of defence. The first line of defence consists of a range of physical and
chemical barriers that are non-specific and prevent entry of pathogens.
- Physical barriers include skin, mucous membrane and cilia. Chemical barriers and responses include
stomach acid and enzymes.

Innate & Adaptive Immunity (Second & third line of defence)

Antigen - any molecules that the body recognises as foreign and that triggers the immune response
- When pathogens enter the body they have chemical markers, called antigens, on their surface; the
immune system recognises these as not belonging to the body (non-self)
- Not only pathogens = any foreign cell fragments, protein debris or toxin produced by bacteria
contain antigens.
Antibody – a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a foreign
substance
- Do not destroy pathogen directly
- Bind to antigens on the surface of the pathogen which prevents invasion and attracts cells that will
come to the site and destroy them (neutralisation)
- Antibodies bind to soluble antigens causing them to become insoluble and precipitate in solution
(precipitation)
- Bind to antigens and form antigen-antibody complex’s which activates phagocytes leading to
destruction (agglutination)
Innate Immunity First Line of Defence – prevent don’t kill
Chemical Barriers Physical Barriers
Urine Skin
Sterile and slightly acidic, flushes and cleans ureters, A tough outer barrier that covers the body and
bladder and urethra and helps prevent growth of prevents penetration by pathogens due to
microorganisms
Tears Mucus
Contain lysozymes that destroy the cell walls of Respiratory, reproductive and digestive tracts are
some bacteria, when tears are produced, and the covered in a thick layer of mucus which traps the
eyelid blinks the pathogens are washed away entering of pathogens
Saliva Cilia
Contains lysozymes and washes away Tiny hairs that line the respiratory surfaces,
microorganisms from the teeth and the lining of the constantly beating in an upwards direction to move
mouth mucus containing trapped pathogens towards the
throat where it is coughed or sneezed out

Comparison
Characteristics Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity
Prescence Innate immunity is something Adaptive immunity is created in response
already present in the body to exposure to foreign bodies
Specificity Non-specific Specific
Response Rapid Slow (1-2 weeks)
Potency Limited and lower potency High potency
Memory No memory Long term memory

Innate Immunity Second lines of Defence

- Inflammation
o A sign that the body’s is internal defence systems are at work
o Damaged cells release special chemical alarm signals
1. Histamines – trigger vasodilation (blood vessels get bigger/widen = enhances blood flow
to area which makes it swollen) and increase vascular permeability (allows white blood
cells to enter the infected area from the blood vessels)
2. Prostaglandins – associated with the pain and fever of inflammation
- Phagocytosis (phagocytes = white blood cells)
o The process by phagocytes changes their shape so they can engulf the pathogen/foreign
particles, once inside they release enzymes (lysozymes) to destroy the pathogen
o Phagocytes = white blood cells that can squeeze out of blood vessels and directly destroy
pathogens
o Examples of phagocytes = neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells
o Macrophages & dendritic cells = antigen presenting cells to T helper cells
o Neutrophils = first to move to the site of infection
- Lymph system
o Pathogens are picked up in the lymphatic fluid and trapped inside the lymph nodes where
they are attacked and destroyed by phagocytosis
- Cell death
 o Macrophages, after engulfing a pathogen, undergo apoptosis (cell death) which causes both
the cell and pathogen to die
Adaptive Immunity
Cells involved = Lymphocytes (B & T lymphocytes)
Each lymphocyte has a receptor for a particular antigen and is able to proliferate to create clones of the
initial lymphocyte with the receptor antigen
B – activate humoral immunity = produces antigen-specific antibodies
T – activate cell mediated immunity = does not involve antibodies

B Lymphocytes
- Originate and mature in the bone marrow
- Stored in the lymph nodes and lymphoid tissue (spleen and tonsils)
- Each B cell has a different antibody that will only respond to a specific pathogen
- Live for a few days, if they encounter an antigen they will activate if not they die
- Once a B cell binds to a specific antigen it can differentiate and divide, assisted by cytokines and
signalling provided by T helper cells
- Differentiate into 2 types
o Plasma cells = produce antibodies, short lived and are specific to the antigen
o Memory cells = long lived, stored for subsequent infections, upon re-exposure to the same
antigen these cells can divide and give rise to antibody-secreting plasma cells
T Lymphocytes
- Produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland
- They multiple and are released by the thymus into the blood stream and remain in the body long
after it has been exposed to a pathogen
- Has a particular surface receptor that can recognise a specific antigen
- Depending on function they are classified as helper, cytotoxic, memory or suppressor T cells
o Helper = stimulates/ activates B and T cells, has a receptor protein that will recognise only
one type of antigen, become activated once presented with an antigen by a phagocyte or
antigen presenting B cell, releases a cytokine chemical (interleukin 2) that activates
cytotoxic T cells and B cells specific to this antigen, release chemicals that increase the
activity of macrophages
o Cytotoxic/killer = directly destroys antigens, recognise and kill foreign, infected or abnormal
host cells by releasing toxic compounds
o Memory = remembers antigen for future encounters, remain in the body so that it can
respond more quickly to future invasions by the same antigen
o Suppressor = inhibits B and T cells, responsible for stopping the immune response when the
infection has been defeated
Mechanisms of adaptive immune response (see printed out diagram)
Antibody or Humoral Mediated Immunity
- Involves B cells, which produce antibodies against foreign antigens and release them into 
blood and lymph.
- Defends body against bacteria and viruses outside cells
Cell mediated Immunity
- Involves T cells.
- Effective in defending the body against bacteria and viruses that are inside the cells, cancerous
cells and transplanted tissue, protozoa, fungi, flat worms

Innate & Acquired Immunity

Innate
 - Present from birth
- Retains no memory = no ongoing protection
- White blood cells involved in innate immunity:
o Monocytes
o Neutrophils
o Eosinophils
o Basophils
o Natural killer cells
- Other participants in innate immunity:
o Complement system
o Cytokines
Monocytes, - D & Mac cells develop from Monocytes after they move from the bloodstream into
macrophages & tissues
dendritic cells - D & Mac will increase in size and produce enzyme filled granules = used to kill pathogens
during phagocytosis
- Both D & Mac are antigen presenting cells = participate in acquired immunity
Neutrophils - Most common type of WBC
- Produce neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) = fibres that bind and trap pathogens
prevent further spread
- Are not antigen presenting cells = no role in acquired immunity
Eosinophils - Possess enzyme filled granules which destroy pathogens
- Primary role is to target foreign cells that are too large to engulf = attach and immobilise
them
Basophils - Do not carry out phagocytosis
- Contain histamine filled granules
- When released histamine increases blood flow to damaged tissues = inflammation
occurs and attracts neutrophils and eosinophils
Natural Killer cells - Primarily involved in initial defence against viral pathogens and cancer cells
(NK cells) - Are cytotoxic = contain cytoplasmic granules filled with perforin and. proteases
- NK cell detects a non-self-cell and attaches to it and releases cytotoxic molecules =
death
Complement System - Consist of more than 20 proteins circulating the blood and tissue fluid
- Once an antigen is recognised the normally inactive proteins are activated in
a protein cascade
- Function in both the innate and acquired immune system
- Roles = Kill bacteria, tag bacteria for phagocytosis, neutralise viruses,
promote antibody formation
Cytokines - Large and diverse group of proteins produced by a wide range of immune
cells = macrophages, neutrophils, B and T cells
- Act as chemical messengers in both in the innate and acquired immune
system
- Roles = attract phagocytes to area of infection, stimulate activity of NK cells,
inhibit activity of WBC once infection is defeated

Acquired
- Adaptive immune system must learn how to attack and destroy pathogens
- Can take up to 15 days to produce antibodies
- Once a memory of a pathogen has been obtained the individual has acquired immunity
- Memory B and T cells reduce the time taken to respond to the pathogen and produce significantly
produce more antibodies to fight the pathogen

 Upon second exposure the immune response will always be larger and faster

Inquiry Question - How does the human immune response respond to exposure to a pathogen?
 - The innate immune system provides nonspecific resistance that attempts to destroy any invading
pathogens. The adaptive immune response is specific.
- B and T cells can exist as naïve, effector cells or memory cells.
- B cells are responsible for antibody mediated immunity while T cells are responsible for cell
mediated immunity.
- Helper T cells are activated by APC’s and stimulate the cloning of specific B and T cells.
- Antibody functions include neutralization and agglutination.
- In response to the first exposure, both B and T memory cells form in relatively small numbers. They
are long lived and remain ready to activate should a further exposure to the pathogen occur.

Active & Passive Immunity

Passive – protection provided to an individual by the transfer of antibodies produced by another organism
o Natural Passive immunity e.g., mother to foetus through placenta or mother to baby through
breastfeeding
o Artificial Passive Immunity = involves and individual receiving an injection of antibodies produced
by another organism
- Passive immunity is short lived and has no immunological memory as no memory cells are produced
Active – is the protection provided by an individual’s own immune response (B and t memory cells
produced, resulting in immunological memory)
o Natural Active Immunity = develops from the adaptive immune response to a natural infection
o Artificial Active Immunity = administering antigens to induce an adaptive immune response
(vaccinations)
- Can be lifelong and has immunological memory

Factors involved in limiting local, regional and global spread of infectious diseases
Factor Description of how factor influences the spread of disease Scale of impact
Local/Regional/Global
Waste disposal Can spread from the patient to practitioner, to handler and Local
ultimately back to the public
If not disposed of properly it can encourage the spread of disease
Cholera = spread through contaminated water
Antibiotic Misuse Has led to a rise in antibiotic resistant bacteria which is a global Global
threat to infectious disease control.
Regional Certain regions can be naturally isolated whilst others are at a Regional
geography higher risk, this can help prevent or spread diseases
People in isolated areas are less likely to contract the disease
Overcrowding Overcrowding increases the risk/chance of host-to-host Local
transmission
Food trade Increased trade of fresh food around regional can create a Regional
possible source of pathogen transmission
2016 = frozen mixed berries were imported from China and
resulted in Australians contracting Hepatitis A
Seasonal climate Local seasonal variations in temperature and perception patterns Regional
variation may influence the availability of vectors
Malaria = mosquitoes like warm, moist environments
Population This increases the difficulty of limiting disease, many refugees Global
migration have experienced trauma, food security, overcrowding and lack
of access to basic health care which significantly increases the
spread of the disease
People travel for work and recreation which increases the
movement of people making it hard to control the disease and
increasing the spread
Local cultural Local cultural practices can influence attitudes to medical advice, Local
practices burial rituals and suspicion towards western medical practices
Dead relatives can spread diseases
 Quru = some tribes in PNG, when their relatives died, used to eat
pieces of brain tissue as a burial practice which means they also
contracted the disease

Factors Involved in Disease Transmission

- Pathogen factors
o Incubation period can be short or long
o Pathogens can come from natural reservoirs = water, food and the environment
- Host factors
o Developing nations at a higher risk due to poverty, war and drought
o Malnutrition puts people at a higher risk of infection
o Concurrent illnesses in a host can reduce the effectiveness of their immune systems
- Environmental and geographical factors
o Environmental conditions may favour the preservation of a pathogen = mosquitos require
warm weather and water
o Certain environments may predispose to the spread of disease = natural disasters can lead
to poor sanitation and an increase in Cholera
- Societal factors
o Anti-vaccination campaigns
o Lack of education on epidemics
o Poverty and lack of access to vaccines and education
o Isolated societies with a small gene pool = at a greater risk
o Rise in international travel

Factors involved in Monitoring and Control

- Local (neighbourhood, village, town or city)
o Sanitation
o Overcrowding
o Poor communication networks
o Animal husbandry practices = facilitate the transmission of swine flu from animals to
humans
o Local cultural and spiritual beliefs may influence attitudes to medical service
- Region (mountains, deserts, rainforests or grasslands)
o Increased trade of fresh food
o Coastal regions = at a higher risk
o Mountainous regions or islands = have a natural isolation factor
- Global (worldwide)
o Increased movement around the globe for work, travel and migration
o Many refuges have experienced overcrowding, lack of access to health care (vaccinations),
hygiene and food security = pre-migration medical examinations are carried out to prevent
the spread
o Misuse of antibiotics and other medications = led to a rise in resistant bacteria (global threat
to disease control)

Procedures that can prevent the spread of disease

Procedure How it Prevents the Spread of Diseases
Hygiene practices Prevents the creation of a pool of pathogens from which diseases can spread
- Cleanliness and personal hygiene can limit the growth and transmission of diseases as pathogens
require the right conditions to survive
- Collecting and disposing of sewage, household, medical and industrial waste and providing clean
water, water should be regularly tested to check for the presence of pathogens = ensures the
spread of the disease is limited and contained
- Water quality must be maintained
- Water that has been contaminated with the faeces of animals could contain unsafe levels of
pathogens
- Food practices = washing hands, wearing gloves, cleaning utensils and surfaces, storing food
correctly, proper handling and disposal of food, and avoiding sneezing and coughing around food
limit the spread of disease
- Personal examples = using protection during sex, hand washing, good dental hygiene, avoid
sharing food, wash clothes frequently and avoid coughing on others
Quarantine Limits the spread of pathogens by isolating infected hosts until the pathogen is eliminated, thus
preventing transmission from host to host
- Include isolation, compulsory hospitalisation, closing schools and workplaces
- Prevents the spread of disease and contains the disease in one place
- Containing people for the period of communicability means the disease is less likely to spread
- Limiting travel both internationally and nationally
- Surveillance, monitoring, screening and clearance procedures at airports
Vaccination-passive Prepares the host for any future challenge from a pathogen
and active immunity - Decrease the incidence of diseases
- Can protect from infection
- Diphtheria = common cause of childhood deaths globally a vaccination was introduced and has
been almost eradicated in Australia due to high vaccination rates
- Expose the body to small amounts of the disease/pathogen which allows the immune system to
remember and adjust which means upon re-exposure the immune system can fight it more
efficiently
- Passive immunity is provided when a person is given antibodies
- Artificial active acquired immunity comes about through vaccination
Public Health Raise the levels of awareness and knowledge about the causes and transmission of infectious diseases.
Campaigns This enables people to make more informed choices based on scientific knowledge
- Promote healthy behaviours
- Inform people about the disease, how it is transmitted and how to stop the spread
- Through media outlets, community organisations or other institutions
- Can be short or long term
- HP information focusing on behavioural risk factors relating to sexually transmitted diseases
- SHORT TERM - Western Sydney water supply was infected by parasites = a health campaign was
formed and educated the public about the parasites, about the treatment of the water and bans
on water sources
- LONG TERM – whooping cough = NSW government campaign was formed that promoted
vaccinations, isolation and good hygiene practices
Use of pesticides Designed to kill pathogens directly or eliminate the vectors that transmit them
- Can eradicate insect vectors = mosquitoes and midges to control malaria and other vector borne
diseases
- Potato leaf roll = infects Australian potato crops, farmers regularly spray crops with pesticides to
eliminate this pest
- Due to overuse a genetic resistance has developed among species = 90% of sheep parasites are
resistant to pesticides
- Used in agriculture to control insect infestation and plant diseases
Genetic engineering Creating organisms that are resistant to the effects of the pathogen without having to rely on costly
vaccination programs
- Produces plants and animals that are resistant to common pests and diseases
- Produced vaccines for human and animal use
- Produced vectors with a diminished capacity to spread disease
- Produced transgenic animals for harvesting biomedical products
- Can create disease resistance plants
 - Engineering can silence genes in targeted pathogens by disabling the gene
- Engineering the genes of vectors can control the spread of disease
- Cows = cows are being genetically engineered to produce large quantities of human antibodies
to treat a wide range of infectious diseases

Antibiotics & Antivirals

Antibiotics
- Drugs (natural or synthetic) used to fight bacterial infections
- First antibiotic was created by chance in 1928
- Many different antibiotics most come from one of 7 main classes and are either bactericidal or
bacteriostatic
- Both groups contain a range of narrow and broad drugs
- Bactericidal antibiotics kill the bacteria by interfering with the formation of the cell membrane, cell
wall or its cell contents, e.g., penicillin
- Bacteriostatic antibiotics stop bacteria from multiplying by interfering with DNA replication, protein
production or other cellular metabolic processes, e.g., amoxicillin
- Examples:
o Penicillin (amoxicillin) = for skin and ear infections etc
o Macrolides (erythromycin) = soft tissue, skin &. Sexually transmitted infections
Effectiveness
Positives Negatives
The discovery of penicillin rates as one of Only work on bacterial infections
humanities greatest discoveries. Estimates
are that 200 million lives have bene directly
saved from antibiotics.
Due to different cell structures, e.g., cell Misuse and overuse have led to multiple
wall, bacteria are more easily targeted than examples of antibiotic resistance
viruses
People can be allergic to antibiotics
Can be side effects = diarrhea, nausea &
upset stomach

Antivirals
- A drug that kills or suppresses a virus’s ability to replicate (viruses can only replicate in a host)
- How antivirals act:
1. Inactivation of virus envelope proteins.
2. Prevention of viral attachment and entry to the host cell.
3. Prevention of viral replication.
4. Prevention of viral protein synthesis.
5. Preventing release of new infectious virus from the host cell.
- WHO believes development of antivirals are essential for human health
- Examples:
o Tamiflu = treat 2 weeks of age and older who have the flu (influenza A & B) and sometimes
used for prevention
o Relenza = treat flu symptoms caused by influenza virus in people who have had symptoms
for less than 2 days
Effectiveness
Positives Negatives
Can be designed to target specific viral Developing safe and effective antiviral
pathogens drugs is challenging as viruses use the host
cells machinery to reproduce = drugs used
to target. Virus often cause harm to host

Can significantly improve the health
outcomes and life expectancy of infected
individuals
cell
Viruses have a very high mutations rates =
can lead to drug resistance
Pharmaceutical companies that develop the
antiviral drugs have a monopoly on the
market and this is reflected in the drugs
cost

Environmental & Quarantine methods used to control a pandemic/epidemic

Pandemic - COVID 19
Causative pathogen – SARS-CoV-2
Mode of Transmission –
o Direct
 Droplets – an infected person sneezes, coughs or talks and droplets carry the virus into the
air, anyone within 6 feet of the person can breathe this in
o Indirect
 Surface – when you touch surfaces that an infected person has coughed or sneezed on
 Airborne – the virus can last in the air for up to 3 hours
Symptoms –
o Most common
 Fever
 Cough
 Tiredness
 Loss of taste and smell
o Serious
 Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath
 Loss of speech or mobility
 Confusion
 Chest pain

Details
Who – First person known to have covid was an office worker in Wuhan with no recent travel history,
although there is reason to believe it had been circulating in China for months before
What – An infectious disease caused by the coronavirus SARAS-CoV-2, coronaviruses are a large family of
viruses causing respiratory infections.
Where – First identified in Wuhan
When – Covid was first identified in 2019 and was declared a pandemic early 2020
How – Multiple theories
o Originated in bats and was passed to people through an intermediate animal

Incidence Statistics
USA – Sep 21st, 2022, = average daily new cases 54186
NZ – Sep 27th, 2022, = average daily new cases 1398
AUS – Sep 20th, 2022, = average daily cases 6543
Thailand – Sep 19th, 2022, = average daily cases 4965

Environmental
- Domestic and International Travel Ban
- Domestic and International Border Closure
- Closure of public spaces
 - Closure of schools
- 1 person per 4 square meter rule
- Restricted number of persons per enclosed space
Quarantine
- Two Weeks Quarantine for infected
- Advised to stay at home
- Restricted social rules
- Patrolled highways to prevent domestic travel
- Advised to work from home
These measures put in place and maintained over several months saw the decline in Covid-19 cases and
a significant decrease in community transmission. The compliance from the Australian public further
attributed to the decrease in disease incidence and prevalence. Further internal border closures and
domestic flight bans were made from spot outbreaks of COVID-19, such as the recent outbreak in
Metropolitan Melbourne VIC. The government put in place border and local government restriction zones
in attempt to limit the spread of the virus.

Incidence & prevalence of Infectious Disease in populations

Case study – dengue fever
Dengue fever is caused by the dengue virus. This virus is transmitted between people by female
mosquitoes, so dengue fever is considered a vector borne disease. It is most commonly spread by the
aedes aegypti species of mosquito. Dengue fever has high endemic levels throughout South-East Asia.
Dengue fever typically causes serious flu like symptoms. In most cases, the virus is self-preventative, with
the immune response clearing the virus after approximately one week of symptoms. However, in some
dengue virus infections, a more severe form of disease occurs, which is deadly. There is no specific
treatment to cure dengue virus infections. Instead, disease control focuses on limiting measures, such as
using insect repellent, insect nets and wearing protective clothing that minimises skin exposure.

Climate & Dengue Fever

- Diseases thrive in certain conditions, based on the map, dengue fever thrives in warm and humid
conditions such as in tropical climates. Countries with climates like these are closest to the equator,
thus they have the highest incidence rates
- As climate change causes the tropical zone to spread this creates larger areas with tropical climates
which ultimately means favoured conditions for dengue fever. This would result in outbreaks with
new regions such as Australia as it would have conditions and a climate that suits the transmission
of the dengue virus.

Historical, culturally diverse and current strategies to predict and control disease
Historical
Past civilisations were without the scientific knowledge of our current day society and thus struggled to
understand the causes and links between the spread of disease. Despite this, some of their employed
prevention measures although limited, still prove successful.
- Quarantine, or self-isolation
- Using immune individuals to treat infected patients
Overall, these methods are still applied today to the prevention of the spread of diseases and prove
significantly effective.

Cultural
Many cultures have unique conventions surrounding the prediction and prevention of disease and some
cultural practices unfortunately have led to the spread of disease. An example of this is the cultural
practices associated with the spread of Ebola in the 2014-2016 West Africa pandemic.
 - It is of west African culture to physically embrace when greeting and gather in close proximity for
births and burials. This unfortunately rapidly spread the Ebola virus through villages and
communities
- Moreover, many citizens did not seek medical service as it was a possible that they would die
without the comfort of adhering to their cultural practices.
Many cultures associate particular foods with disease preventing properties.
- An example is in the Philippines where it is believed that the properties of garlic and onions lowers
blood pressure.
Overall, these cultural practices, although not backed by scientific evidence, and may hinder the
prevention of transmission, provide people with emotional support and reassurance and can ease the
severity of symptoms of disease. Cultural practices however, in various circumstances are not validated by
scientific evidence and are not effective in preventing the spread and predicting the spread of disease.

Current
Modern medicine and mathematic and technological advancements have allowed the development of
disease prediction models, advance vaccination programmes and surveillance to predict the spread and
prevent the spread of disease.
- Model the spread of disease by computer programmes
- Tally and monitor the movement of people across borders
- Contact trace infectious individuals
- Vaccine programmes
- Advertise campaigns on television and social media
However, cultural home remedies and historic methods are still effectively applied to current
circumstances.

Bush Medicine
Bush medicine is a term describing the skills and practices used to maintain health, based on indigenous
beliefs and experiences. This refers to not only use of native flora and fauna traditionally prepared, but
includes preventative and diagnostic techniques, and treatment of mental illnesses. Bush medicine
includes the use of plant materials, such as bark, leaves, seeds, and some animal products, in order to
create herbal medicines.
Intellectual property refers to ideas, interventions, images and other creations of the mind that can be
used commercially. Knowledge of bush medicine is a type of intellectual property, and can also be used
commercially (e.g., by pharmaceutical companies). Currently, Australian laws do not adequately protect
indigenous bush medicine intellectual property and many indigenous people believe that there is not
adequate recognition or protection of their culture.
Examples: Tea tree oil, Eucalyptus oil, Witchetty grub, Emu Bush, Kangaroos apple, Kakadu plum

Bush Medicine Uses

Tea Tree Oil Tea tree leaves or bark are traditionally crushed and applied as a
paste to treat wounds, or brewed and consumed to soothe sore
throats
Antiseptic properties have been proven to inhibit the growth of many
bacteria and fungi
Used as a household cleaner to treat fungal infections of the feet and
nails as well as to relieve skin complaints (Bruns, stings, acne)
Emu Bush Traditionally
- Used to cleanse surface wounds, gargled to treat ailments, or
burnt to produce a wet steamy smoke for inhalation
- The emu bush was placed on hot embers to produce smoke.
and sterile tools during circumcision rituals
 - The vapours are believed to inhibit bacterial and fungal
pathogens and stimulate lactation in breastfeeding mothers
Modern scientists have discovered the properties of the plant are
equal in strength to antibiotics and antibacterial agents
Smoke Bush Used for healing
The flower essence is used to integrate the physical and mental
clearing of the mind, providing greater concentration ability
especially after stress or trauma
Scientists have investigated the properties of the plant and its
potential to use against cancer and HIV/AIDS
Many of these plants contain potentially deadly compounds =
Aboriginal people use specialised preparation techniques to minimise
harmful effects

Provide an example of a biological resource used in indigenous Australian bush medicine that has
been exploited by commercialism.
Smoke bush is a bush medicine traditionally used for healing such as to clear the mind and improve
concentration, this plant has been significantly exploited by commercialism due to its properties.
The Australian government gave a global license to patent the plant to the Victorian pharmaceutical
company, if the product was successful both the company and government would earn billions in
profit. As a result of this patent, the aboriginal people, who originally discovered the healing
properties of the plant, would receive no acknowledgement or profit and would need permission to
use/access the plant from the pharmaceutical company.
Indigenous people did not receive any acknowledgement, financial or otherwise, of their role in
discovering the healing properties of the smoke bush. The WA legislation disregards any potential
intellectual property rights that indigenous peoples have on their lands and thus the native smoke
bush.