MODULE 7: INFECTIOUS DISEASES

7.1 Causes of Infectious Disease

Inquiry question: How are diseases transmitted?

What is a disease?
❖ Any process or condition that negatively affects the normal functioning of a living
thing or parts of a living thing
❖ There are two types:
➢ Infectious diseases
■ due to disease causing organisms or agents called pathogens →
transmitted from one organism to another or through the environment
■ It can be caught
➢ Non-infectious disease
■ Diseases that are not caused by pathogens and thus, cannot be
transmitted
❖ A pathogen is an organism or any other agent that can cause a disease in an organism
➢ Pathogens that are microscopic can be classified as cellular and non-cellular
Pathogen Description Example

Prion - Made up of a protein called - Bovine Spongiform

prion protein (PrP) → found
mostly in the brain/nerve cells
in animals
- They are abnormally folded
proteins → causes abnormal
folding patterns in normal
proteins they come in contact
with
- Do not contain any genetic
materials (DNA & RNA)
- Long incubation period (5-20
years) and are fatal once signs
occur
- Smallest of all pathogens
(approx. o.o2μm)
Encephalopathy (BSE) or mad
cow disease: rapidly
progressive and fatal
neurological disorder of adult
cattle mainly caused by prion
contaminated cattle feed
- Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
(CJD): a rare human version of
mad cow disease spread by
eating beef products from an
infected cow or contaminated
surgical equipment, usually
resulting in death within a
year
Viruses - Have both living (genetic - Influenza (flu)
material DNA/RNA can pass on - AIDS/HIV
genetic information) and - Measles
non-living (not made of cells)
- They can only reproduce and
metabolise in a host cell
- Viruses contain genetic
information (DNA or RNA)
protected by a protein coating
called capsid
- Typical size is 0.02-0.3μm
- The steps:
1. Virus attaches to host cell and
injects nucleic acid into host
cell
2. Cell makes copies of virus DNA
3. Cell uses mRNA to make virus
proteins
4. New viruses are assembled
5. Cell bursts and releases new
viruses into host organism
6. Virus will attach to other cells

Bacteria - Are single-celled prokaryotic - Salmonella (food poisoning)

organisms → caused by undercooked
- Genetic information is present meat products causing
in two forms: DNA in circular vomiting diarrhoea, etc →
chromosome and as plasmid usually self-healing or
- Bacteria is located everywhere antibiotics can be given
(water, soil, organisms, etc) - Chlamydia (STD) treated by
- Bad bacteria → cause disease antibiotics
do so by producing toxins or
chemicals → are harmful to the
host’s body or damaging host
tissue directly
- Varies in size from 0.2-10μm

Protozoa - Single-celled eukaryotic, - Malaria caused by a

heterotrophic organisms plasmodium parasite carried
- Most have motility features (e.g by mosquitoes is most
 flagella, cilia, pseudopod) →
allows them to move
independently
- Most are free living and do not
cause disease but some are
pathogenic → are transmitted
via insect bites or contaminated
water
- Varies in size from 2-50μm
Fungi - Are eukaryotic, heterotrophs
with cell walls composed of
chitin
- Some are unicellular and
multicellular
- Obtain energy by secreting
digestive enzymes that break
down organic materials
- Spores are transferred via close
contact with a diseased person,
animal or object, releasing
harmful enzymes
- Varies in size from 5 to 50μm
(some are visible to the naked
eye)
Macro- - Multicellular eukaryotic
parasites organisms visible to the naked
eye
- Ectoparasite: lives on an
organism (e.g fleas ticks,
mosquitoes) inject toxins while
feeding → can also act as
vectors
- Endoparasite: lives in an
organism (e.g worms) →
disrupts digestion and
absorption digestive constant
prevalent in Africa
- African sleeping sickness is
transmitted by tsetse flies
found in Africa. If the protist
enters the brain → cause
hallucinations and can be
fatal if left untreated
- Thrush is caused by yeast
creating creamy/white
deposits on the tongue/inner
cheeks → usually
self-treatable or antifungal
medication can be used
- Ringworm (Tinea) causes scaly,
red patches on the skin in the
shape of rings
- Tapeworm lives in the
intestine and feeds on host’s
digested food → causing
weight loss and abdominal
pain
- Ticks inject a neurotoxin
during feeding → causes
progressive paralysis
Modes of Transmission
❖ Transmission of infectious diseases → the carry of transfer of a pathogen from an
infected host to a non-infected organism
❖ There are different modes of transmission:
➢ Direct contact
■ Transfer of a pathogen by physical contact with an organism with a
disease
■ E.g touching, kissing, sexual intercourse or coughing/sneezing on
someone
➢ Indirect contact
● Transfer of a pathogen to a new host with no direct
human-to-human contact e.g touching objects contaminated with
pathogens, airborne.
■ Vehicle transmission: spread of pathogens by air, food or water
■ Vector transmission: when a living organism carries a pathogen in its
body and passes it onto a new host
❖ 5 ways of transmission of infectious diseases:
➢ Direct contact
➢ Exchange of fluids
➢ Contamination
➢ Airborne
➢ Vector
❖ Transmission of a disease during an epidemic
➢ Endemic
➢ Epidemic
■ An outbreak/sudden increase of a disease that affects many in a
population
■ Begins to spread rapidly
➢ Pandemic
■ A large epidemic which occurs over a large geographical area (across
continents or the world)
Pathogen Adaptations
❖ For a pathogen to successfully establish an infection/cause disease to a host, it must:
➢ Enter the host
➢ Multiply in the host cell
➢ Resist or not stimulate host defence mechanisms
➢ Damage the host
❖ Adaptations to facilitate adhesion and invasion of host by pathogens
➢ Attachment structures
■ Many pathogens have adhesions, proteins or protein complexes → help
them bind to the surface of the potential host cell
■ Adhesion structures include:
● Fimbriae (thinner, short bristles)
● Pili (longer, thicker bristles)

➢ Endocytosis (transport of particles into a cell using vesicles)

■ Viruses enter host cell by binding to membrane receptors triggering
endocytosis and takes in the virus
■ Larger pathogens (e.g bacteria) can utilize phagocytosis as an invasion
strategy by preventing the breakdown of the pathogen
❖ Adaptations to facilitate transmission between hosts
➢ Complex life cycles
■ Some pathogens have more than one host and have an indirect/complex
life cycle
■ The host that the parasite reproduces sexually → called the
primary/final host
■ The host that the pathogen undergoes asexual reproduction → called
secondary/intermediate host
■ Example: Malaria → caused by plasmodium protozoa
● Female anopheles is the primary host
 ● Human is secondary host
➢ Resistant Structures
■ Bacteria forms endospores, a dormant resistant spore → help them
exist outside a host cell → can be reactivated in favourable conditions
● Example: Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax
■ Some viruses have viral envelopes → helps the virus avoid detection by
the host immune system → also protects the virus when travelling
between hosts
● Example: Chickenpox and Influenza virus

Koch’s Postulates
❖ Prior to understanding microbes caused disease and decay → was believed that life
originated from nonliving things → called the theory of spontaneous generation
❖ Robert koch was a German scientist → made many contributions to microbiology
➢ He developed the agar plate technique for growing microorganisms → used it
to culture the isolated anthrax bacillus
➢ From his research → each disease is caused by a specific microorganism →
leads to the formation of koch’s postulates (conditions used to determine the
pathogen that causes a disease):
■ The microorganism must be present in the disease organism and absent
in healthy organism
■ The microorganism must be isolated from the diseased organism and
grown in pure culture
■ When a healthy organism is incubated with the pure culture → must
cause disease (develop the same symptoms) as the original infected
organism
■ The microorganism from new infected organism must be incubated and
be identified as being identical to original organism
Pasteur’s experiments on microbial contamination
❖ Louis Pasteur was a French biologist and contributed to the understanding of
infectious diseases
❖ Pasteur discovered that microorganisms were the cause of food spoilage, refuting the
theory of spontaneous generation and proposing the germ theory of disease that all
microorganisms come from pre-existing microorganisms
❖ The famous swan-necked flask experiment was performed by heating up broth in two
types of flasks- a swan neck and open neck flask- to kill existing microbes. After
several days, the open neck flask became cloudy due to microbial growth while the
swan neck flask remained clear. This did not support the theory of spontaneous
generation and instead, supported the germ theory.

Diseases in Agriculture
❖ Australia relies heavily on its agricultural exports because of its unique geographical
isolation and the disease-free status of much of its products.
❖ Both endemic (diseases constantly present in a region) and exotic (introduced)
pathogens pose a risk to australian agriculture
 ❖ Factors contributing to the risk of infectious disease:
➢ Increased mobility of human populations
➢ Rise of intensive feedlots and less extensive pastoral farming
➢ Changing patterns of land use
■ e.g deforestation of habitat
➢ Climate change
➢ Loss of genetic diversity

Plant Diseases
❖ The most common plant pathogens are:
➢ Fungi
➢ Bacteria
➢ viruses/viroids
➢ parasites/nematodes
❖ Examples:
➢ Blight is plant disease → the leaves wilt, brown and eventually die → caused
by fungal spores carried by insects, winds, water and animals
➢ Aphids are small soft bodied insects → can cause damage by feeding on the
sap of plants but also act as a vector in transmitting viruses
❖ Example: Panama disease of bananas (TR4)
➢ Caused by the highly contagious fungus fusarium oxysporum → causes
yellowing/wilting of leaves, splitting of stems and damages conducting
tissues so plant is starved of food and water
➢ Social and economical effect:
■ Reduced yield → affects farmers ability to trade produce leading to
loss of income → cause financial hardships and stress for
families/local communities
■ Loss of trading opportunities nationally and internationally

Animal Diseases
❖ Example: Flystrike in sheep
➢ Caused by several species of blowflies special Lucilla cuprina in Australia
➢ Blowfly lays eggs on fouled wool or body tissue of open wounds
➢ When the eggs hatch the maggots will feed on the flesh → cause a wet-green
fleece
➢ Social and economical effect:
■ Reduced yield → affects farmers ability to trade wool leading to loss
of income
■ Loss of trading opportunities nationally and internationally
■ Costs the australian sheep industry $280/year due to chemical and
labor costs to treat and manage infection
7.2 Responses to Pathogens
Inquiry question: How does a plant or animal respond to infection?

Plant’s Responses to Pathogens

❖ Plants have a combination of both physical and chemical defence mechanisms to
prevent the entry or inhibit the spread of pathogens
❖ Physical barriers prevent entry
➢ Cell walls contain cellulose making them rigid
➢ Waxy cuticle
➢ Bark (layer of thick dead tissue)
➢ Stomata can be closed when signalled

❖ Chemical barriers fight pathogens that have passed physical barriers

➢ Chemicals in the tissues of plants can detect and reduce the spread of
fungal/bacteria growth
➢ Plants can also produce enzymes to breakdown toxins produced by pathogens
➢ Chemical receptors on plant cells can detect pathogens and active next stage
of defence e.g closing of stomata to prevent pathogen entry
Animal’s Responses to Pathogens
❖ Animals have a multi-layered system of defences to prevent the infection of a
pathogen
❖ The innate immune system is inherited and non-specific while adaptive immune
system is acquired and specific

7.3 Responses to Pathogens

Inquiry question: How does the human immune system respond to exposure to a
pathogen?

The innate immune system

❖ First line of defence
➢ Consists of surface barriers to prevent the entry of pathogens
➢ The body’s internal environment needs to remain sterile
➢ The first line of defence involves the physical and chemical barriers formed by
tissues to prevent pathogens from entering the body. It involves:
■ Physical
● Skin: forms a protective layer; pores secrete antimicrobial fluids
inhibiting surface microbial growth → constantly sheds
● Mucous membranes: internal cavities produces a layer of mucous,
trapping pathogens and foreign substances
● Cilia: Hair-like structures beat in a coordinated way with
mucous membranes to remove particles from respiratory tract
■ Chemical
● Lysosome breaks down bacterial cell walls → present in sebum,
sweat, saliva and tears but these secretions also wash away
pathogens
● Acid in stomach (pH 1-2) kills pathogens
● Urine is acidic prevents growth of bacteria
 ❖ Second line of defence
➢ activated when first line of defence is breached (pathogen is breached) →
wiinvolves non-specific chemical and cellular attacks on the pathogen
➢ Inflammation causes redness, swelling and heat around infected site
■ When cells are invaded by pathogens or damaged (e.g cuts, wounds),
histamine and prostaglandins causes vasodilation
■ Vasodilation:
● increases blood flow to infection site → also increases
permeability of blood vessels allowing white blood cells to
travel to infected site and attack invading pathogens
● Increased temperature of infected site may deactivate pathogen
stopping the infection
NOTE: Histamine is a chemical that sends signals to the brain which causes vasodilation

■ Phagocytosis → the process by which phagocytes surround a foreign

particle, engulf it and release enzymes to destroy it
● Examples: Specialised white blood cells (WBC) are neutrophils,
macrophages and natural killer cells
■ Cell Death → seals off pathogens
● WBC (macrophage) surround a pathogen and undergo cell death
(apoptosis) → blocking pathogen movement and any nutrient
supply
■ Fever increases body temperature to kill or limit growth of pathogens
● Caused by ‘fever-causing’ chemicals called pyrogens cytokines
NOTE: Cytokines are a broad range of signalling proteins important in the immune system
➢ Types of blood cells:
■ Granulocytes (first to attack)
● Neutrophil (rapid response): engulfs pathogens like bacteria by a
process called phagocytosis
 ● Eosinophil (kills parasites): destroy large pathogens by secreting
chemicals
● Basophil (Inflammation): initiate inflammatory response by releasing
histamine
■ Monocytes
● Macrophage (longer lasting): undergoes phagocytosis however are
slower but longer lasting e.g monocyte
● Dendritic Cell (relays info)

The adaptive immune system

❖ Third line of defence
➢ Highly specific disease mechanism consisting of specialised cells → act if a
pathogen persists in its invasion
➢ Can respond rapidly upon re-exposure to a specific pathogen, preventing
symptoms from developing
➢ Types of white blood cells:
■ Lymphocytes (specific targeted response)
● B cells (B-lymphocytes)
◆ Produced in the bone marrow
◆ Responsible for the production of antibodies (a protein
that combines with antigens to deactivate them) =
“antibody-mediated”
◆ Antibodies attack pathogens and their toxins → are not
inside body cells but in blood, lymph or tissue fluid
● T cells
◆ Produce in bone marrow but mature and multiply in the
thymus gland
◆ Responsible for directly killing or coordinating other
cells to kill body cells infected by pathogens
◆ Cell-mediated

Key Definitions
Word Definition

Self Particles (such as proteins and other

molecules) → part of or made by your body

Non-self (foreign) Particles that are not made by your body →

recognized as potentially harmful

Antigens An antigen is a substance that the body

recognizes as foreign → will elicit an
immune response

Cytokines Molecules used for cell signalling to help

cell communication in immune responses

The Lymphatic System

❖ Part of the circulatory system
➢ Circulates lymph fluid → contains leukocytes (WBC) and plasma (fluid part of
blood) however, does not contain red blood cells
➢ Consists of lymph fluid, lymph nodes (glands), lymph vessels, thymus, spleen,
tonsils and adenoids

B-cells T-cells

- Plasma cells (immediate protection):
produces specific antibodies for
specific antigens → can block
growth of pathogens
- Memory B cells (persistent
protection) circulate through the
body initiating stronger, more and
responses up secondary antigen
detection
- Helper T cells signal and assist other
WBCs
- Cytotoxic (‘killer’) T cells - release
cytotoxins → kill target cells by
triggering apoptosis
- Regulatory (‘suppressor’) T cells-
control cell-mediated immunity by
suppressing the activity of other T
cells once the immune reaction has
achieved its purpose
- Memory T cells- provide
immunological memory by remaining
in circulation after infection
allowing them to move around
quicker and more effective response
upon reinfection
Antibodies
❖ Y-shaped proteins (also called immunoglobulins) → produced by B cells in response to
an antigen in the body
➢ Antibodies have antigen binding sites specifically matches for the antigen
they are fighting, similar to the lock and key enzyme substrate model (like a
puzzle piece)
➢ Antibodies then seek out the antigen and bind to a part of it, forming the
antigen-antibody complex
➢ This binding restricts and deactivates the antigen, limiting its ability to
cause harm and allows lymphocytes to destroy it more easily
❖ Antibodies benefit the immune response in different ways:
➢ Neutralisation: antibodies block antigens, preventing toxins from destroying
cells
➢ Opsonization: Bound antibodies ‘tag’ pathogens making it easier for phagocytes
to locate and destroy
➢ Complement activation: bound antibodies activate complement proteins can
cause lysis (bursting), increased phagocytosis and inflammation
❖ Antigen Presenting Cells (APC)
➢ After macrophages (monocyte) has destroyed the foreign particle, parts of the
antigen are displayed on the surface of the macrophage (process is called
antigen presentation)
➢ Dendritic cells act as antigen- presenting cells (APC) acting as ‘bridges’
between the innate and adaptive immune system
➢ Corresponding helper T-cells recognise antigen presentation on phagocyte,
activating the cloning of cytotoxic T-cells and B-cells
7.4 Prevention, Treatment and Control
Inquiry question: How can the spread of infectious diseases be controlled?

Endemic, Epidemic and Pandemic

❖ Endemic - constant presence of a disease in a population at a constant rate
❖ Epidemic - a sudden increase of disease within a large population e.g region or
country
❖ Pandemic - epidemic that has affected many countries/continents across the globe at
the same time

Incidence and Prevalence of a Disease

Keywords
❖ Incidence - the number of new cases occurring during a particular time
❖ Prevalence - the proportion of the population that have the disease at a particular
point in time
➢ Incidence refers to new cases while prevalence refers to all cases
❖ Mobility - ability to move
❖ Epidemiology
➢ the study of the distributions (frequency, pattern) and determinants (causes,
risk factors) of health-related states or events (including disease)
➢ help the application of this study to control of diseases and other health
problems
NOTE: In simple terms, it is the study of how often diseases occur in different groups of
people and why.
❖ The following must be collected to understand how an infectious disease moved
through a population:
➢ Incidence and prevalence of the disease → helps determine amount of
pathogen that spreads
➢ Mobility of the population → determine how easy it is for the pathogen to
spread
➢ Percentage of population that is immunised against the infectious disease →
determines what proportion of the population are vulnerable and can be
possible carriers

Predicting and Controlling the Spread of Disease

❖ Historical Strategies
➢ Little hygiene during the middle ages and many carried parasites
■ E.g lice and worms
➢ Many people believed that diseases were caused by “bad smells” (miasma
theory) → would carry or wear promanders to protect against infectious
 diseases
➢ Also used leeches to bleed an infected patient
❖ Cultural Strategies
➢ Some cultural beliefs can hamper attempts to prevent and contain a disease.
■ Example: ebola outbreak in Africa was able to spread due to poverty and
famine but also due to traditional rituals of paying respects to the
dead by close contact with corpse
➢ Different cultures have different methods of controlling disease such as:
■ Traditional chinese medicine using ginseng for its anti-inflammatory
effect and boosting the immune system
■ In the philippines, traditional foods would contain garlic and onion
which are believed to lower blood pressure, preventing and curing
disease
❖ Current Strategies
➢ Prediction of the spread of a disease is easier today due to the use of models
to describe how the disease may spread within a population. This requires the
collection of data:
■ Incidence and prevalence of disease, population density, mobility,
proportion immunised, method of transmission, climate change.
➢ Agricultural practices:
■ Using models allows scientists to create simulations of outbreak events
and to help develop public health policies and response plans to
possible epidemics or pandemics

Aboriginal Protocols in the Development of Medicines

❖ Aboriginals are the custodians of a rich and detailed knowledge base of medicinal
native Australian herbs, fruits, vegetables
❖ Plant material was usually crushed and used as a poultice (paste of herbs, plants,
etec) or infused with water to drink.
❖ Animal fat was incorporated to increase absorption rates into the tissues.
❖ Bush medicine: Refers to the use of herbs and other plants to treat illnesses. There are
many Aboriginal remedies for different illnesses:
➢ Tea tree oil → crushed leaves applied in a paste to wounds or tea infusion for
sore throat → used to treat fungal infections and acne as it is a strong
antiseptic
➢ Eucalyptus oil → infusions used to treat muscle aches, fevers and chills →
used in mouthwash (antiseptic) and cough lollies → contains menthol that
cools and soothes throat
➢ Emu bush → used to treat sores
➢ Witchetty grub → insects were crushed and made into a paste to treat and
soothe burns
 ➢ Kangaroo apple → fruit was using as a poultice on swollen joints → contains
a steroid → produces cortisone → important in reducing swelling and
inflammation
➢ Smoke bush in WA (Western Australia)
■ The application of bush medicine is a valuable source of knowledge
that has been applied to contemporary medicine
■ However, the intellectual property (the property of your mind and
privately owned knowledge) rights for indigenous people are not well
supported in Australia → they are not receiving recognition and
protection of their culture
■ Smokebush (conospermum) is grown in WA → used in traditional
indigenous Australian bush medicine because of its healing properties
■ In the 1960s, the US National Cancer Institute was allowed to collect
and study the plant by the WA government. Instead, they discovered it
contained a molecule, conocurovone → can combat the HIV virus in low
concentrations
■ The US and Australia filed a patent (license) for exclusive rights to the
compound → approved by the WA government. However, the
contributions of the Indigenous people and their culture have been
disregarded and exploited for financial gain by the government

Limiting the Spread of Infectious Diseases

Factors involved in monitoring and control

❖ Local factors
➢ related to a neighbourhood, village, town or city.
➢ Major factors that influence the spread of disease include:
■ sanitation, especially how waste and sewage are disposed of →
especially important after typhoons and hurricanes, where the sewerage
system is disrupted.
■ Poor communication networks and roads may limit access to medical
treatment, hospitals or even medical information.
■ Animal husbandry practices, such as keeping chickens and pigs, may
facilitate the transmission of avian and swine flu from animals to
humans
■ Keeping horses in south-eastern Queensland in the same area as wild
fruit and insectivorous bats has led to the emergence of Hendra and
Australian bat lyssavirus.
 ■ Local cultural and spiritual beliefs may influence attitudes to medical
advice, burial rituals and suspicion towards Western medical practices.
● For example, in Madagascar a traditional ceremony known as
famadihana involves exhuming dead relatives and dancing with
them through the streets.
❖ Regional Factors
➢ The United Nations divides the world into five regions: Africa, the Americas,
Asia, Europe and Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, Melanesia, Micronesia and
Polynesia)
➢ The geography of a region influences disease transmission → characterised by
mountains, deserts, rainforests or grasslands
➢ These geographical factors determine whether a population in that region is
highly mobile or relatively isolated.
■ People living in mountainous regions or on islands have a natural
isolation factor → reduces their chances of being exposed to infected
individuals.
■ Bacteria and viruses reside in sea water and seafood. For example,
hepatitis A virus may be concentrated in molluscs, such as oysters and
clams.
➢ The source of these microbes is sewage disposal → a huge challenge to
infectious disease control in regions such as South-East Asia, which have high
coastal populations who rely on seafood as a source of protein
➢ Increased trade of fresh food around regional areas creates a possible source
of pathogen transmission.
■ For example, faecal contamination of frozen mixed berries imported
from China in 2016 contributed to a number of Australians testing
positive for hepatitis A.
➢ Local seasonal variations in temperature and precipitation patterns may
influence the availability of vectors. Monsoon-related infectious disease
outbreaks such as cholera, typhoid, malaria and leptospirosis have been
observed in equatorial regions.
❖ Global Factors
➢ The increased movement of people around the globe due to travel and work
and migration of refugee populations also introduce difficulties in limiting
the spread of infectious disease.
 ➢ Many refugees have experienced trauma, food insecurity, overcrowding and lack
of access to basic health care such as
■ vaccinations.
➢ Pre-migration medical examinations are carried out to exclude such infectious
diseases
■ tuberculosis, measles, malaria and polio.
➢ Misuse of antibiotics and other antimicrobial medications has led to a rise in
resistant bacteria → is a global threat to infectious disease control.
■ Many strains of tuberculosis are now resistant to the antibiotics
traditionally used to treat this disease.
➢ An important factor that has arisen in the control of infectious disease is the
ease of communication afforded by the Internet.
■ It is possible to transmit accurate and up-to-date data on disease
outbreaks as they occur.

Factors involved in disease transmission

❖ Pathogens Factors
➢ Some pathogens are virulent and can cause disease even when present in low
numbers, while others only do so in large numbers.
➢ Some pathogens form natural reservoirs in food, water and the environment →
Others are not environmentally resilient and must be transferred directly from
host to host.
➢ Some pathogens are easily neutralised by water and disinfectants, whereas
others are more resilient.
➢ The strategies used by pathogens to cause disease are called virulence factors
❖ Host factors
➢ Just because a host is exposed to a pathogen does not automatically mean
they will succumb to the disease.
➢ The human immune system has a number of barriers that for the most part are
effective at dealing with challenges by pathogens
➢ There are a number of reasons why these barriers may not be effective and the
pathogen continues to invade the host.
➢ Any concurrent illness in the host may reduce the effectiveness of the host’s
defence systems.
■ For instance, cancer or HIV/AIDS patients and those with diabetes may
be less resistant to another pathogen
 ■ Malnutrition can put a strain on the ability of a host to avoid infection.
People in a developing nation with ongoing food shortages due to war,
drought or poverty may be unable to avoid infection.
➢ The use of certain pharmaceuticals such as:
■ corticosteroids or anticancer medications, may lower the body’s barriers
against pathogens.
❖ Environmental and Geographical Factors
➢ Certain environments may predispose to the spread of infectious disease
➢ Wherever a pathogen is able to build up a large reservoir in the environment,
there is a greater risk of outbreak.
■ For instance, natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes and
volcanic eruptions may lead to poor sanitation and an increase in
cholera-causing bacteria in local waterways
➢ Environmental conditions may favour the preservation of the pathogen in the
environment → especially in countries affected by malaria.
■ For instance, mosquitoes require warm weather and a water body to
reproduce and transmit the malaria parasite.
■ Large-scale destruction of rainforests may expose reservoirs of hitherto
unknown pathogens and put at risk those who use the land for housing
and agriculture.
❖ Other societal factors
➢ In Australia, preventable diseases such as chickenpox and measles are making
a comeback.
➢ Lack of education regarding the factors involved in an epidemic can contribute
to poor decision-making on the part of the public.
➢ Poverty and lack of access to vaccines and education is a factor in more
remote communities.
➢ An unprecedented number of people are fleeing conflict in Africaand the
Middle East, with many travelling thousands of kilometres from their homes.
→ These people are at risk of malnutrition, exposure to the elements and
exhaustion, all of which contribute to
■ a lowering of their resistance to invading pathogens.
■ While in transit, refugees stay in camps, where the hygiene of the food
and water is questionable.
➢ Overcrowding increases the likelihood of host-to-host transmission, with the
very young and very old most vulnerable.
➢ In cases where refugees are fleeing over a large distance, they may pass
through transit zones where there is a greater exposure to pathogens due to
 the environmental conditions.
➢ When Aboriginal Australians were first exposed to European diseases such as
smallpox many succumbed due to a lack of previous exposure.
➢ The rise of international travel by air and sea means an increase in the
likelihood of transmission of disease outbreaks.
■ A person carrying a pathogen as an air passenger on a long-haul flight
is contained in a small space with a large number of people in close
proximity, all sharing an air supply.

Preventing the Spread of Diseases

❖ Hygiene practices- initial step to prevent the spread of diseases
➢ Hand washing and showering
➢ Safe dispose of waste
➢ Covering mouth/nose when sneezing/coughing (or facemasks)
➢ Safe cooking practices
➢ Useful in preventing local spread of disease
❖ Quarantine- limits the spread of pathogen
➢ A state, period/place of isolation → individuals that have arrived from
elsewhere or been exposed to an infectious disease are placed
➢ Animal quarantine- contained in quarantine stations to ensure they are disease
free from being released
➢ Plant quarantine- same as plants however, most are refused entry into
australia
➢ Useful in preventing regional and international spread of disease
❖ Vaccination- prepares host for exposure to pathogen
➢ Introduction of a vaccine into the body to prime the immune system to deal
with a pathogen it has not been exposed to before.
➢ It provides immunity by exposing and then producing memory cells for
antigen. This triggers secondary response upon re-exposure
➢ Active acquired immunity- when immune response actively produces antibodies
and are long lasting
■ e.g vaccine, natural exposure to pathogen
➢ Passive acquired immunity- receiving premade antibodies and are short lasting
■ e.g breastmilk, antibody injection
❖ Public health campaigns
➢ Programs raise levels of awareness and knowledge about the causes and
transmission of infectious disease
➢ This enables people to make more informed choices based on scientific
knowledge
❖ Use of pesticides
➢ Chemicals used to kill the pathogens of plants and animals and vectors
 transmitting them
➢ The insecticide DDT is used to kill insect vectors e.g lice that causes typhoid
fever, anopheles mosquito → carries plasmodium that causes malaria
❖ Genetic engineering
➢ Alteration of genome by adding or removing genes
➢ Producing disease resistant strains of plants and animals
■ E.g cotton resistant to pests

Pharmaceuticals for Controlling Infectious Disease

❖ Antimicrobial agents are designed to control infectious disease caused by microbes
➢ Antivirals
■ Used to control viral infections
■ Do not kill but inhibit development in cells and slow down its
progress, allowing the body’s natural defences to take over
■ Reduces symptoms and duration of disease
■ Help stop the spread of a viral disease → useful in the control of
epidemics/pandemics e.g HIV, influenza, herpes and hepatitis
■ Attack different stages of the virus life cycle
■ Have greater efficacy (ability to produce the desired outcome) when
taken early in the illness
■ E.g oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and zanamivir (Relenza)
NOTE: Anything that ends with a vir is an antiviral
 ➢ Antibiotics
■ Used to control bacterial infections
■ Kill or slow down the growth of bacteria → not effective against a
virus
■ Most effective when:
● Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are chosen to target specific
pathogens
● Used to kill rather than inhibit growth of bacteria
● The whole course is taken to reduce bacterial resistance
IN CLASS QUESTION
1. Define pathogen. (1 mark)
Pathogen is an organism or an agent that causes disease within an organism.
2. Describe a prion and its mechanism in pathogenesis. (2 marks)
Prion is an abnormally folded protein that contains no genetic material such as DNA and RNA
and is located in the brain. It is infectious as it can cause a change in normal prion protein
when it comes in contact with it.
3. Identify a current disease caused by this pathogen and how it can be transmitted. (2
marks)
Mad cow disease (BSE or boure) occurs in cattles or cows and can be transmitted by eating
food sources with cow products infected with the prion pathogen.
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1. Describe how viruses replicate. (5 marks)
- Viruses attaches to host cell and injects nucleic acid
- Cell makes copies of virus DNA
- Cell uses mRNA to make virus proteins
- New viruses are assembled
- Cell bursts and releases new viruses into host organisms
2. Explain how bacteria causes harm to organisms. (2 marks)
Bacteria pathogens enter the host organism and release toxins into the host cells or tissue.
3. Describe how protists/protozoa can cause a disease using an example. (2 marks)
Malaria is caused by a plasmodium parasite which is carried by mosquitoes. The symptoms
include chills, fevers, headaches, dehydration etc.
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1. Identify the four steps necessary for a pathogen to cause disease.
- Enter the host
- Multiply in cell
- Resist or not stimulate host defence mechanisms
- Damage the host
2. Describe one adaptation which facilitates the adhesion and invasion of a particular
pathogen.
Viruses can adhere to the cell membrane of a cell and respond to the receptors to allow
endocytosis to occur.
3. Describe one adaptation which facilitates the transmission of a particular pathogen.
Bacteria can create endospores which are dormant spores that can survive outside a host cell
until favorable conditions are met e.g warm environment.
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1. State the theory of:
a. Spontaneous Generation
This theory states that living things originate from non-living things.
b. Germ Theory
This theory states the microorganisms originate from pre-existing microorganisms.
2. Describe how Louis Pasteur refuted the theory of spontaneous generation.
He performed the swan necked flask experiment. He heated up or boiled broth in an open
necked and swan necked flask to kill pre-existing microorganisms. After leaving it out for a
few days, the swan necked flask broth was clear while the open neck flask was cloudy due to
microbes in the air entering the broth. This disproves spontaneous generation.
3. Explain how Koch's postulates can be used to identify the causative organism of an
infectious disease.
Whether a microbe causes a disease.
- The microorganism must be present in all diseased/infected hosts.
- Isolate the microorganism and grow in pure culture.
- Cultured microorganism is injected into a healthy host and displays the same
symptoms/disease as the original host.
- Isolate the microorganism from the host with cultured microbes, grow in pure culture
and compare to original culture.
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1. Describe the 3 lines of defence in the immune system (3rd one can be brief)
The first line of defence prevents the entry of pathogens via chemical and physical barriers
Examples:
- Skin are good microbes, slightly acidic, physical barrier, sheds to remove pathogens
- Mucous membrane produce mucus to trap pathogens
- Cilia are hairlike structures that trap and move mucus out of host
- Chemicals: the enzyme lysozyme breaks down cell walls of bacteria (found in tears,
sweat, saliva and sebum), acidic in pH in stomach, and flushes out pathogens
- The second line of defence
The second line of defence protects against pathogens of 1st line if breached
- Heat: increases temperature will kill pathogen/prevent pathogen growth
- Prostaglandin and histamine: vessels dilate to increase blood flow, increase
permeability to allow WBC to reach targeted areas, increases fluid to flush away the
pathogens
- Phagocytosis: macrophages (WBC) engulfs pathogen/particle, releases enzyme to
breakdown pathogens/particle and is released into the body
- Fever: increases in body temperature to prevent/kill pathogen growth
- Apoptosis: WBC engulf and die with pathogens
The third line of defence is specific and adaptive to particle/pathogens
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1. Describe the role of plasma B-cells and memory B-cells.
- Plasma B cells: specific antibodies that bind to the specific antigens to block
reproduction of pathogens in fluids (e.g blood).
- Memory B cells: Remain in the body to fight pathogens upon reinfection, faster
 response.
2. Compare the role of helper T-cells, cytotoxic T-cells and suppressor T-cells.
- Helper T-cells: assist and signal other WBCs to attack pathogen e.g macrophage
- Cytotoxic T-cells: releases cytotoxins to directly destroy pathogen
- Suppressor T-cells: shop activity of T-cells once immune response has been achieved
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1. Distinguish between antivirals and antibiotics.

Antivirals Antibiotics

- Target viral infections by - Target bacterial infection to destroy

suppressing its ability to reproduce pathogens infecting host

2. Identify two viruses most commonly targeted with antiviral drugs and explain why.
HIV and Influenza can be targeted with antivirals to stop the replication and reduce the
spread and symptoms of the virus.
3. Explain how bacteria are developing resistance to antibiotics (hint:evolution natural
selection).
- Within a population, mutation and genetic variation occur
- When an antibiotic is introduced to the population, majority will be destroyed
however, those which have mutated and developed resistance to antibiotics will thrive
and replicate
- This produces a species of bacteria resistant to antibiotics
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1. Distinguish between incidence and prevalence.
Incidence is the number of new cases in a population at a specific time whereas prevalence
is the total number of cases of the spread of disease in a population over a specified time.
2. List the 3 key factors to understand how an infectious disease spreads within a
population and why.
- Prevalence & Incidence: to determine the amount of pathogens present in a
population.
- Mobility of pathogen: allows us to understand how easily the pathogen spreads.
- Percentage that are immunised: allows scientists to know who are possible carriers.
3. Briefly describe the dengue fever epidemic (include pathogen, how it is transmitted,
symptoms and location)
Dengue fever is caused by a dengue virus that is transmitted from a person to another via
female mosquitoes. There are signs of flu-like symptoms, fever, pain, nausea, headache,
vomiting, dengue haemorrhagic attack. It occurs mostly in tropical regions as the virus lives
off that optimal temperature.
4. Explain why vector-borne diseases (such as dengue and malaria) are considered an
endemic and an epidemic.
Vector-borne diseases such as dengue and malaria can spread between tropical regions within
a country or across countries. It is considered an epidemic when there is a sudden increase in
the number of cases. For instance, once a country becomes exposed to tropical seasons which
do not happen often for them, the number of vector-borne diseases can increase tremendously
due to the sudden change in the weather. As for when the disease constantly spreads with a
constant increase in the number of cases, it is considered to be an endemic disease which
happens in tropical countries.
Miss’s answer:
Vector-borne diseases such as malaria are considered as endemic as countries which are
tropical throughout the year will have constant cases of diseases. It can also be considered
as an epidemic as climate changes throughout the year, increasing the number of cases of
vector-borne disease across multiple countries near the equator.