Working Scientifically

Reliability, Accuracy, Validity

● Reliability
o First-hand investigations: XPT must be repeated and show consistent results
o Secondary sources: Must be unbiased, appropriately recorded, current,
reputable
● Accuracy
o Primary: XPT design is valid, results are close to true value of quantity being
measured
o Secondary: Information consistent across multiple reliable sources
● Validity
o Primary: Investigates what you intended to, controls variables, uses suitable
equipment
o Secondary: Info gathered with appropriate methods, relates to research topic
Dependent, Independent, Controlled variables
● Dependent: Variable that is being measured, changes in response to independent.
(e.g. temperature of water changes in response to time heated)
● Independent: Controlled by experimenter to cause phenomena.
● Controlled: Kept the same across all samples/subjects to make sure dependent
variable is actually changing in response to independent variable.
Risk Assessment
● Hazard
● Risk
● Mitigation
 1: Causes of Infectious Disease – How are diseases transmitted?
Infectious diseases and disease transmission
Classifying different pathogens: (disease causing agents)
● Microscopic, cellular (living)
o Protozoa: Unicellular eukaryotes, parasites. Usually reproduce through binary
fission, motile (moves with flagellum/cilia). ​Obligate—only continues life cycle in
host.
o Fungi: Eukaryotic. Can be unicellular (yeast, e.g. thrush) or multicellular (mould,
e.g. tinea). Usually attack body surfaces. Consist of branching filaments called
hyphae which form a structure called mycelium. ​Opportunistic—waits for
immune system weakness before becoming pathogenic.
o Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotes. Can cause disease by competing with good
bacteria or through exotoxins (secreted) or endotoxins (released upon death).
Genetic material = 1 circular chromosome.
● Microscopic, non-cellular (non-living)
o Viruses: Cannot reproduce independently. Have nucleic acid contained in a
protein coat/capsid. Can be DNA-based (adenoviruses, e.g. common cold) or
RNA-based (retroviruses, e.g. HIV). Invades a host cell, where its nucleic acid is
translated into proteins, forming new copies (virions). The cell is filled with these
virions and bursts, releasing them. ​Obligate and intracellular—only reproduces in
host.

o Prions: An abnormally folded protein. Can convert normal proteins into abnormal
form. More stable and resistant to denaturation than normal proteins. There are
no known cures. Aggregate together to form amyloid fibrils that cause disease.
● Macroscopic organisms (parasites—grows on host and benefits at their expense)
o Ecto-parasites: Usually arthropods (insects, spiders). Can directly inject toxins
into the body or indirectly cause disease by acting as a vector (organism that
transmits pathogen).
o Endo-parasites: Usually helminths—worm-like organisms. Live on host’s
nutrients, often in digestive system.
Disease examples
Pathogen Disease Features
Bacteria—salmonella Salmonellosis (food Vomiting, dehydration,
enterica poisoning) abdominal cramps
Fungi—trychophyton Tinea Itchiness, scaliness,
yellowing/hardening nails
Protozoa—plasmodium spp. Malaria Fever, fatigue, headaches,
vomiting
Helminth Tapeworm Lack of appetite,
(endo-parasite)—taenia restlessness, weight loss,
solium/saginata abdominal pain
Arthropod Scabies Itching, red skin, crusting of
(ecto-parasite)—sarcoptes skin
scabei

Transmission of disease in an epidemic

● Epidemic: affects great no. of people/animals, spreads to new areas
● Pandemic: epidemic on a global scale
Equine influenza virus
● In 2007, several cases of sick horses were reported in Sydney, and also in breeding
stallions in Japan.
● EIV symptoms: fever, watery nasal discharge, cough, lack of appetite, muscle pain.
● Transmission: Highly contagious. Spread directly through horses (nasal secretions, body
fluids), and indirectly through humans (contaminated shoes, clothes, grooming
equipment, food/water buckets). Spread much faster in areas of high horse stocking
density.
● Management: Lockdown was put on movement of horses, horse properties quarantined.
● Future control: Restrict horse importations, strict biosecurity measures, educate those in
the horse industry, biosecurity training.
Microbial testing of water/food
● Can be done by inoculating nutrient agar plates with food or water samples and incubating at 30
degrees for a few days.
● Sterile technique (using alcohol to sterilise workplace and Bunsen burner to sterilise
inoculating loop, not opening agar plate more than 45 degrees) is important to prevent
contamination and control variables.
● Interpreting agar plates (FEMSOC): Form, elevation, margin, surface, opacity, colour.
● Bacterial colonies: White/cream, circular/irregular, small, defined margin, look wet and
shiny.
● Fungal colonies: Appear fuzzy, filamentous margin, powder-like.
o Yeasts: White, glossy.
o Mould: White/grey/green, fuzzy.
Modes of transmission
Transmission requires a chain of infection, consisting of a susceptible host, a pathogen, and
a ​mode of transmission.
A ​passive c​ arrier is an uninfected host that can transmit the disease to others, while an
active​ carrier is infected. Active carriers who don’t show signs or symptoms are
asymptomatic​ carriers.

Animal diseases that can be transmitted to humans are called ​zoonotic diseases.
● Direct contact: ​Physical contact. Between child and parent = vertical transmission, other
(in same species) = horizontal. Includes touching, biting, blood-to-blood, contact with
wounds, sexual contact.
● Indirect contact: ​Uses reservoir outside of host—a fomite = infection carrying
object/substance (e.g. infected water, surface, air, food, unsterilized surgical instrument,
spit particles from a sneeze).
● Vector transmission: ​A specific type of indirect transmission. Usually occurs through
arthropods (e.g. mosquitoes, fleas, ticks) but sometimes fungi, plants and mammals such
as bats. Often transferred when insects suck blood/are ingested. Vector diseases (e.g.
malaria, dengue fever) usually occur in warm, humid conditions.

Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur

Koch’s postulates
● Developed bacteriological techniques and agar plate technique; identified bacterium
responsible for anthrax, TB, and cholera; showed specific microbes cause specific
diseases.
● Developed a system for identifying a pathogen—Koch’s postulates.
1. Microbe must be present in all cases of the disease.
2. Microbe is isolated from host and grown in culture medium (e.g. agar).
3. Microbe is grown and inserted into healthy host, must cause same disease.
 4. Microbe is reisolated and grown again in a culture medium, must be proven to
be same microbe isolated from first host.
Pasteur’s microbial contamination experiments
● Proved that microbes caused fermentation (beer/wine), spoilage (food) and rotting.
● Pasteur’s 1862 classic XPT:
o Filled a swan-necked and a straight-necked flask with broth. Swan-necked
remained clear, open flask became cloudy and smelly.
o Disproved spontaneous-generation theory (that disease occur spontaneously),
proved decay and disease were caused by air-borne ​microbes​—germ theory.
● Discovered attenuated (weakened) pathogens could cause immunity, showed
relationship between anthrax spores and anthrax infection.
● Developed vaccines for chicken cholera, anthrax, rabies, and identified specific parasites
responsible for silkworm disease.

Causes and effects of diseases on agriculture

Types of disease in agriculture: endemic (consistently present), exotic (introduced).
Factors that can contribute to infectious disease development include host factors
(susceptibility, immune system), pathogen factors (availability, adaptations, virulence
factors), and environmental factors (hygiene and density).
Factors increasing risk of disease today include increasing mobility of human populations,
industrial agriculture, deforestation, irrigation, climate change, pesticide resistance, loss of
genetic diversity, and inexperienced farmers.
Plant diseases
● Plant pathogens: Fungi, bacteria, viruses.
● E.g. rust: Fungus invades stem tissue of plants and destroys leaf tissue, reducing
photosynthetic capacity. It produces spores which spread to other parts of the plant
and other plants until the whole crop is covered. Rust destroyed 15 million tonnes of
wheat world-wide annually.
● Impacts: Cost millions of dollars, reduce productivity, increase production, impact
ability to trade, harm the environment, and decrease plant variety.
● Plant disease symptoms: Death of plants, necrosis (tissue destruction), abnormal
growth, discolouration, wilting.
Animal diseases
● Animal pathogens: fungi, bacteria, viruses, arthropods, helminths.
● E.g. Classical Swine Fever: Viral infection, last broke out in 1961. Had serious impacts
on domestic and export production of pork.
● Impacts: Animal deaths, economic loss to farmer, loss of trading opportunities,
human illness (zoonooses), low growth rates, loss of fertility, loss of economic value
of individual animals.
 Adaptations of different pathogens that facilitate their adhesion, invasion and
transmission
For an organism to cause disease it must enter the host, multiply in host tissues,
overcome/bypass host defence mechanisms, and damage the host. Adaptations assist this
process.

Pathogen Virulence factors (adaptations to facilitate adhesion/invasion) Transmission route

Prions ● ‘Piggyback’ other proteins to facilitate movement ● Mainly unknown

through the gut. ● Vertical (mother to
● Secrete substances that allow invasion of lymphoid child)—can transmit
(lymphatic system—removes fluids that leak from blood across placenta/become
vessels) tissues. aerolised.
● Prions then invade nervous tissues and travel to the ● Indirectly through infected
brain. meat

Viruses Adhesion ● Direct contact (can be

● Viral surface proteins adhere to surface of host cell. blood-borne—use RBCs to
facilitate growth)
Invasion
● Viruses enter cell through endocytosis (viruses are ● Indirect contact with
enveloped and enclosed in membrane) or by delivering fomites
● Airborne
viral genome through pore in membrane.
transmission—can
stimulate
sneezing/coughing,
remain suspended in air

Bacteria Adhesion ● Direct contact

● Use pili and fimbria (hair like structures on surface) ● Indirect contact and
● Adhesins on surface resist washing action of secretions infected
(urine, mucus) substances/fomites
● Form a biofilm (community of bacteria attached to a host ● Airborne—stimulate
surface). sneezing/coughing, resist
drying out in air
Invasion
● Vector-borne
● Enzymes break down cell
● Capsule of biofilm resist phagocytosis (engulfment by transmission—produces
proteins to attach to
WBCs)
● Chemicals destroy immune defences vectors, vector is
unaffected
● Toxins are secreted to damage cells

Protozoan ● Microtubule penetrates host cell and facilitates entry, ● Faeco-oral (e.g. infected
membrane is formed to protect from lysosomes food/water)—induces
diarrhoea and
transmission
● Direct contact
Fungi Adhesion ● Direct contact
● Assisted by cell wall/capsule molecules ● Airborne transmission
● Soil-borne—form
Invasion
endospores to resist
● Thermotolerance—heat shock proteins cope with body
desiccation (drying),
temperatures
stable in a range of
● Cell wall and capsules protect fungi from host attacks
● Secretion of hydrolytic enzymes damages host cells and conditions
provides nutrients

Macro-para Hookworms ● Direct contact

sites ● Secrete proteins that reduce host cell responses

Ticks
● Secrete molecules to prevent vasoconstriction, clotting
or inflammatory response
 2: Responses to Pathogens – How does a plant or animal respond to
infection?
Response of a named plant to a named pathogen
Root rot/dieback disease
● Cause: Phytopthora cinnamomi fungus
● Symptoms: Wilting, decreased fruit size, necrosis, plant death.
● Pathogen
o Thrives in moist conditions and lives in soil, plant tissues, and water
o Feed off root and stem tissue of plants, leaving lesions in plant and reducing
movement of water and nutrients
o Can become dormant in harsh weather and germinate in suitable conditions
o Transmits indirectly—water-borne and soil-borne
● Plant response (e.g. Banskia)
o Polygalacturonase inhibitor proteins inhibit the activity of pathogens in
penetrating cell wall
o Chemical compounds ward off fungus and reduce growth
o Enzymes are produced to break down toxins released by fungus
o Chemical receptors activate active defence—hydrogen peroxide is released
to kill fungus, cell wall is reinforced to seal off fungus.
Analyse responses to the presence of pathogens by assessing physical and chemical
changes in animal cells and tissues
Physical barriers
● Skin: Consists of outer epidermis, dermis, hypodermis. Good blood supply = access
for WBCs, RBCs, platelets. Epidermis is covered in keratin (waterproof protein = extra
barrier). Upper epidermis = barrier of dead skin cells.
● Mucous membrane: Line body cavities. Features—cilia (to remove particles), secrete
protective substances (mucus traps and flushes away foreign substances)
● Tight junctions: Line blood vessels to prevent diffusion of pathogens.
● Peristalsis: Alimentary canal (mouth to anus) contracts, moving food and preventing
bacteria from reproducing.
● Vomiting, diarrhoea, increased urination: expel harmful substances and pathogens.

Chemical barriers
● Urine: Antimicrobial peptides secreted along urinary tract prevent bacteria binding
to cells and break down bacterial cells.
● Sweat: Secretes lysozomes that lyse (break down) bacterial cell walls.
● Saliva: Has a flushing action and antimicrobial molecules.
● Tears: Produced by lacrimal glands, contains antimicrobial substances.
● Gastric secretions: Hydrochloric acid’s high acidity discourages growth and survival
of microbes.
3: Immunity – How does the human immune system respond to exposure to
a pathogen?
Innate and adaptive/acquired immune systems and responses to pathogens

Non-specific defence (innate immunity)

First line of defence (physical barriers)

● Skin: Dry, waterproof surface. Limits pathogen growth and prevents entry.
Secretions from sebaceous glands inhibit pathogen growth.
● Mucous membranes: Line alimentary canal (mouth to anus), respiratory tract, and
urinogenital tract. Secrete substances to trap pathogens and inhibit their growth.
● Cilia: Small hairs in nose and upper respiratory tract. Mucous coating filters out
microbes. Hairs move pathogens to throat to be sneezed/coughed out.
● Chemical barriers: Anti-microbial secretions from skin, stomach wall, mucous
membranes, vagina. Stomach and vagina secretions are acidic -> reduce microbe
growth.
● Other secretions: Lysozymes (enzymes that break bacterial walls) in tears and saliva.
Acidity of urine inhibits pathogen growth. Secretions of fatty acids from sebaceous
glands in skin reduces microbial growth.

Second line of defence

● Cells involved
o Granulocytes—neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
o Monocytes—macrophages, dendritic cells
● Inflammation response (first response)
o Area of infection becomes hot and swollen as histamine (hormone) is
released into blood, making blood vessels dilate and increase permeability ->
fluid containing phagocytes (a type of leukocyte/WBC) enters tissues.
o Phagocytes engulf and destroy pathogen through phagocytosis. Types of
phagocytes—macrophages (chronic infection) and neutrophils (acute
infection).
o Destroyed pathogens, phagocytes and body cells are known as pus. Pus is
carried to lymph nodes (swell in process) to be filtered.
● Granuloma
o If inflammation cannot kill a pathogen, macrophages assemble around
pathogen to seal it from food supply and kill it. This is a granuloma.
 ● Fever
o Pyrogens (chemicals) are released by phagocytes into the blood, where they
travel to the brain, causing body temperature to raise to about 40 degrees to
decrease pathogen growths/survivability.
Specific defence (adaptive immunity)

Third line of defence

● Antibodies: Produced by lymphocytes (a form of WBC found in lymphatic system)
when antigens (foreign objects) are detected in body. Each is specific to a specific
antigen. They combine with antigens to kill/inactivate them or clump them together
so macrophages can find them easier.
● B-cells: Lymphocyte made in bone marrow. Naïve until exposed to antigen, then they
differentiate. ​Achieve antibody mediated immunity.
o Plasma B-cell: Produce antibodies.
o Memory B-cell: Remain in body to detect later infection by same antigen.
Required antibody can be produced quickly in large amounts.
● T-cells: Lymphocyte made in bone marrow and thymus gland. ​Achieve cell mediated
immunity.
o Killer T-cell: Attack and destroy macrophages that have engulfed antigens.
o Helper T-cell: Secrete chemicals to stimulate B and T cell cloning.
o Memory T-cell: Remain in body and reactivate quickly with future infections
from same antigen.
o Suppressor T-cell: Inactivate B and T-cells when antigen is destroyed.
 4: Prevention, Treatment and Control – How can the spread of infectious
disease be controlled?
Interrelated factors involved in limiting local, regional and global spread of a named
disease
Local
● Sanitation—waste and sewage disposal
● Overcrowding
● Communication networks and roads
● Education
● Animal husbandry practices
● Local cultural/spiritual beliefs (e.g. Madagascar—famadihana, involves dancing with
dead relatives -> plague outbreak)
Regional
● Geography (e.g. mountains, deserts, rainforests)
● Rainforest destruction
● Mobility/isolation
● Bacteria/viruses in seafood in coastal regions
● Trade of fresh food
● Seasonal variations in temperature

Global
● Mass international travel
● Migrants—food insecurity, overcrowding, lack of access to healthcare
● Pre-migrant medical examinations
● Misuse of antibiotics
● Ease of communication via internet
Polio vaccination campaign (1980s)—factors
● Local: Faeco-oral transmission, water sources and waste systems, sanitation and
hygiene, rumour that vaccines were sterilisations to reduce Muslim populations, danger
to polio-eradication workers
● Regional: Political and military instability
● Global: Disease occurred in most countries, international travel, worldwide eradication
was questioned
Procedures employed to limit the spread of disease
Hygiene practices
● Policies/guidelines: Safe Water ● Cooking food thoroughly
System, 1997 Food Regulation, ● Cough/sneeze etiquette
Universal Precautions ● Cover hair/skin lesions when
● Sewage/garbage disposal preparing food
● Filter/chlorinate drinking water, ● Clean/sterilise medical equipment
narrow-mouth plastic containers ● Gloves (change every patient) and
● Washing hands masks while treating patients
Quarantine
● = period of compulsory isolation on animals/items.
● Helped our nation to be one of the few free from sever pests and diseases.
● Seeks to prevent entry of harmful disease and pests.
● Department of Agriculture and Water Resources (DAWR) screens and inspects
thousands, and uses pre-border, border and post-border quarantine.
● They use research, international resources/intelligence, monitoring, etc.
● Quarantine involves fumigation and destruction of infected goods.
● Works closely with other government agencies—ACBPS, FSANZ, DHA
● Measures: Legislation, border control, dog teams, X-ray inspection, surveillance,
quarantine (plants and animals, mosquito trapping programs, public awareness
campaigns (Quarantine Matters w/ Steve Irwin), Northern Australia Quarantine strategy
(early warning system—sentinel animals are checked for diseases and used to detect
entry of diseases)
Vaccination (passive and active immunity)
● First vaccine: Developed by Edward Jenner in 1976 for smallpox -> eradicated the
disease.
● Vaccine for polio in 1955 -> reduced cases by 80%
● Active acquired immunity: immune
response occurs, memory cells
produced.
o Naturally induced: Body
undergoes immune
response and suffers
disease.
o Artificially induced: Through
vaccines, which contain
modified toxins—toxoids;
attenuated (weakened, e.g.
rabies), dead, or similar but
less harmful pathogens (e.g.
cowpox for smallpox).
o If antigen reinfects body,
secondary response occurs,
producing many memory cells
and antibodies -> destroy
antigens before disease
develops.
o Booster shots over years ->
lifelong immunity, counteracts
decrease of memory cells.
o -> Herd immunity.
● Passive acquired immunity
 o Artificial: Introduction of antibodies from someone who has experienced the
disease (immunoglobulins) into the body to prevent disease development ->
short-term immunity (couple months) as no memory cells are produced.
o Natural: E.g. mother’s antibodies -> child through placenta or milk.
● Advantages: Active immunity, limit disease spread, eradicate disease, decrease
healthcare costs.
● Disadvantages: Possible mild symptoms, human error, allergies.
Public health campaigns
● Sewage treatment, garbage disposal, ● Laws/regulations (1997 Food
pollution monitoring Regulations, diseases classified as
● Advertising campaigns (e.g. Slip Slop ‘notifiable’ e.g. AIDS)
Slap, Grim Reaper ads for AIDS) ● Immunisation
● Screening programs (BreastScreen, ● Quarantine
bone density tests for osteoporosis)
Pesticides
● Chemicals that destroy pests—e.g. disease vectors, damage crops
● DDT—used to kill mosquitoes and prevent spread of malaria, now banned in many
places due to negative ecological and health effects (e.g. reduced fertility, breast cancer)
● Organophosphates, pyrethrums—safer, popular, used to control mosquitoes.
● Other uses—e.g. spraying potato crops to destroy aphids with the potato leaf roll virus.
Genetic engineering
● Uses biotech to alter genotype of an organism -> creates disease-resistant transgenic
organisms -> prevent and control spread of disease.
● E.g. Bt cotton—contains Bt bacterium gene that produces toxins to kill certain insects.
● E.g. Inserting human insulin gene into E. Coli bacteria -> produce large amounts of
insulin to treat diabetes.
Effectiveness of pharmaceuticals in treating and controlling infectious disease
Antibiotics
● Chemicals made by microbes to kill/inhibit microbes by targeting prokaryotic
metabolism, destroying cell walls (e.g. penicillin), inhibiting DNA production (e.g.
tetracyclines), destroying membranes/enzymes/ribosomes etc.
● Selectively toxic—can target fungi, bacteria, protozoans.
● DO NOT work on viruses (as they have no metabolism), but can be prescribed to prevent
secondary infections.
● -> reduce mortality and disease rates.
● Can be broad spectrum (act against range of microbes e.g. tetracyclines) or narrow
spectrum.
● Effectiveness has diminished—bacteria evolving/conferring resistance (e.g. Golden
Staph), people not taking whole course, over-prescribed antibiotics.
Antivirals
● Inhibit development of viral infections (DO NOT cure them)
● Target virus-specific features—e.g. target the capsid, prevent virus entry, prevent virus
releasing DNA/RNA into cell.
● E.g. anti-herpetic agents (Helpin), anti-influenza agents (Tamiflu)
Environmental management and quarantine methods used in epidemics/pandemics
Ebola Virus 2014-16
● Severe infectious disease, causes rapid death (50% death rate), spread through direct
contact, a zoonose.
● Management incl. broad spectrum antibiotics, replacement of lost fluids.
● Admin control—organisation of response, allocation of tasks
● Environmental control—facilities for barrier nursing, hand hygiene, waste management
(leak proof bags, covered bins), PPE (masks, gloves, waterproof boots, respirator, suit),
surfaces sterilised every day.
● Quarantine—isolate patients in single room/at least 3m between patient beds. Same
clinical staff and equipment assigned to single patients. Visits restricted.
● Work w/ and educate community on transmission and prevention.
Incidence and prevalence of infectious disease in populations
Mobility of individuals, and portion that are immune/immunised
● Incidence: New cases during a certain time.
● Prevalence: Proportion of population with a disease at a certain time.
● Historical mobility
o Silk Road—trade route from China to Europe -> spread the Black Death.
o Christopher Columbus—introduced 30 infectious disease into the Americas e.g.
smallpox, malaria.
● Modern mobility
o Mobility in WWI spread the Spanish flu -> killed more people than died in the
war.
o HIV—originated in Democratic Republic of Congo. Increased, improved, cheaper
travel options -> pandemic by 1980s.
o Urbanisation -> overcrowding, pressure on healthcare, increasing homeless
population, poor living conditions -> spread of disease e.g. TB, ebola.
 ● About 86% of the global population is immunised today.
Malaria/Dengue Fever in South East Africa
● Seasonal disease, first roughly 20 weeks of 2019:
o E.g. Malaysia: 50,000+ cases, 0.002% prevalence, 2x higher than last year.
o E.g. Singapore: Almost 4000 cases, 0.0007% prevalence, 4x higher than last year.
● Climate change -> increase spread.
● Dengue causes 10 million cases and 10,000 deaths per day.
Historical, culturally diverse, and current strategies to predict and control spread of
disease
Historical John Snow, 1854 London cholera outbreak—used maps to record deaths and pinpoint the
pathogen source
Egypt, 69-30 BCE—Cleopatra used mosquito nets.
Middle Ages—bodily fluids (‘humours’) balanced through purging, bleeding, etc. Pleasant
scent from pomander (container w/ spiced wax) used to repel Black Death. Plague doctors
wore full length gowns and masks.
Culturally Philippines—traditional foods, e.g. garlic and onion, contain quercetin to lower blood
diverse pressure.
Traditional Chinese Medicine—acupuncture, herbal medicine, specific diet, massage, etc.
Bitter and cold herb formula treatment, herbs incl. ginseng, honeysuckle -> antibiotic
properties.
Current Australia’s National Framework for Communicable Disease Control—prevention, detection
and response.
Surveillance system—detecting disease, notifying organisations e.g. National Notifiable
Diseases Surveillance System -> investigation, control.
Quarantine (e.g. severe acute respiratory syndrome outbreak in 2003, people isolated in
houses/homes)

Contemporary application of Aboriginal protocols and importance of

recognising/protecting Aboriginal cultural/intellectual property
Bush medicine
● Plants substances used include tannins, oils, alkaloids, etc -> antimicrobial properties.
● Animal fat often incorporated into medicines to increase fat solubility and absorption
rates.
● Plants may be crushed and applied to skin (e.g. Witchetty grubs for burns), drunk,
inhaled, mashed up and ingested (e.g. clay to deactivate gastrointestinal toxins).
● Tea tree oil: T​ raditionally brewed/consumed -> antiseptic properties. Now used as a
household cleaner, to treat fungal infections and skin issues.
● Kakadu plum:​ Richest vitamin C source in the world. Traditionally used as antiseptic and
healing agent. Today known to contain phytochemicals that work as
 antimicrobials/inflammatories, and now used in cosmetics, vitamins, pharmaceuticals
and food.
● Emu Bush:​ Traditionally used to treat wounds, ailments, infections, etc. Now known to
have antibiotic properties equal in strength to antibiotics -> trialled for use as a
sterilisation medium for prosthetic implants.

Cultural/intellectual property
● Indigenous cultural heritage needs to be protected from commercialisation and
exploitation.
● Australian laws do not adequately recognise/protect this.
● Many pharmaceutical companies have exclusive rights to native Australian plants ->
Indigenous people cannot use them.
● 1933—Julayinbul Statement on Indigenous Intellectual Property Rights -> insisted that
ATSI property be acknowledged.
● Ongoing concerns -> Australian Government Intellectual Property legislation, 2015;
Nagoya protocol—official agreement to protect ATSI biological resources.
Smokebush in Western Australia
● Grow in SW Western Australia, NSW, TAS.
● Often have big, woolly white flowers, member of Protaceae family.
● Currently investigated for potential use against cancer and HIV/AIDS due to chemical
concurovone.
● 1990s—WA gave Amrad (VIC biotech company) the rights to smokebush to develop an
anti-aids drug. There were projected royalties of $100 million per year by 2002, but
Indigenous people weren’t recognised and would receive no profit, even though
Nyoongah people had used smokebush for centuries.