Additional Review Materials

Dipole moments
- Measure of the polarity of the molecule.
- Occur when there is a separation of charge. They can occur between two ions in an ionic bond or between atoms in a
covalent bond; dipole moments arise from difference in electronegativity.
- The larger the difference in electronegativity, the larger the dipole moment.
Molecular Geometry

What is molecular geometry? Why do we need to know about the geometry of molecules?
Molecular geometry pertains to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. Geometry affects the physical and
chemical properties of molecules and their reactivity towards other molecules.

How can we know the geometry of a molecule?

Molecular geometry can be determined by experiment such as x-ray diffraction. However, the geometry of simple molecules can be
predicted even without experimentation. While the results of the prediction is only qualitative and not as accurate as experiment, they
still help in explaining the properties of chemical substances.

What is the basis of the prediction?

The prediction rests on the assumption that all electron pairs in the valence shell around a central atom repel one another. They want
to be as far apart from one another as possible. These valence shell electron pairs are the ones involved in bonding. They assume a
geometry or orientation that will minimize the repulsions. This is the stable orientation and the one with lowest energy. This approach
in predicting molecular geometry is called the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR).

How do we apply the VSEPR theory to predict molecular geometry?

The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:
1. Electron pairs stay as far apart from each other as possible to minimize repulsions.
2. Molecular shape is determined by the number of bond pairs and lone pairs around the central atom.
3. Treat multiple bonds as if they were single bonds (in making the prediction).
4. Lone pairs occupy more volume than bond pairs. Lone pair-lone pair repulsions are greater than lone pair-bond pair repulsions
which in turn are greater than bond pair-bond pair repulsions.

What are the common orientations of electrons pairs (bond pairs and lone pairs) that minimize repulsions?
Number of electron pairs Orientation of electron pairs
2 Linear
3 Trigonal planar
4 Tetrahedral
5 Trigonal bipyramidal
6 Octahedral
Organic Chemistry
Cellulose – the most abundant organic chemical on Earth. It is the main substance in the walls of plant cells, helping to remain stiff
and upright. Humans cannot digest cellulose, but it is important in the diet as fiber.
Study your module in organic chemistry.