Gear Accuracy

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Measurement of Gear Accuracy

Kapil Gupta, ... Rudolph Laubscher, in Advanced Gear Manufacturing and Finishing,
2017

7.1 Gear Accuracy

Gear accuracy refers to how closely its main geometric features resemble the the-
oretical design. Gears are complex geometric shapes and are therefore specified by
a range of appropriate dimensions. Gear accuracy may then be considered as the
deviation of an intelligent combination of selected dimensions from the theoretical
design. These dimensions are then also evaluated within certain tolerance levels. To
simplify this process, it is therefore important to qualify the range of these tolerance
levels in a more general sense by way of some standard or code of practice usually
by way of a systematic numbering scheme. The gear accuracy or quality may then
be described by a single number that indicates how closely it complies with an
appropriate acceptance standard.

For applications that require high accuracy, it is usually mandatory to inspect and
qualify the gear before actual use. Operation requirements of gears may include,
specified maximum torque transfer capability, minimum running noise, and accu-
rate rotation/positioning that are only possible with an appropriate degree of gear
accuracy. Close monitoring of gear accuracy during its manufacture is therefore not
only important for operational requirements but also for detecting and monitoring
problems during manufacturing as related to the machine tools and their operation.

Significant gear metrology parameters that are used to quantify gear accuracy may
be divided into two major classes [1]:

1. Dimensional or macrogeometry parameters; and

2. Microgeometry parameters.

Inaccuracy or errors in the micro- and macrogeometry of a gear causes deviation

from the ideal motion transmission conditions. In other words, the level and amount
of deviations/errors in these parameters govern the functional performance of gears.

7.1.1 Macrogeometry Parameters

It could be argued that the most significant macrogeometry parameter of a gear
is the tooth thickness. The tooth thickness is generally defined as the length of arc
of the pitch circle between opposite faces of the same tooth, i.e., the thickness of a
gear tooth along the pitch circle [1,2]. The error or deviation in tooth thickness is the
difference between its theoretical and actual values. It largely governs the functional
characteristics of the gears which in turn affect their operating performance. Most
notably, tooth thickness errors are the main cause for excess or reduced backlash
between the mating gears. Excess backlash may cause noise (on reversal) but also be
responsible for a reduction in effective tooth strength. Tooth thickness can be mon-
itored by physical measurement using a gear tooth Vernier calliper; a micrometer
used along with balls, pins, or rolls; and plate micrometers. It can also be measured
by functional inspection.

Other macrogeometry parameters closely related to the tooth thickness are chordal
tooth thickness, span, and diameter over balls [3].

Chordal tooth thickness is the tangential gear tooth thickness and defined as 0.5(π×-
module). It is easier to measure directly than the gear tooth thickness. The deviation
in chordal tooth thickness is the difference between its theoretical and actual values.

Span is the distance across a certain number of teeth along a line tangent to the
base circle. The length of span is composed of base pitches and tooth thickness, and
hence the value of tooth thickness can be calculated using a formula interrelating
them.

Diameter over two balls is the maximum distance between diametrically opposed
tooth spaces of a gear and measured when two balls, pins, or rolls of the same size
are placed inside these tooth spaces.
7.1.2 Microgeometry Parameters
The two major classes of microgeometry parameters are form parameters and location
parameters. The former involves the shape of the teeth while the latter is associated
with the actual teeth positioning [1].

Significant form parameters are profile and lead, whereas pitch and runout are
significant as far as location parameters are concerned. The number and magnitude
of errors in these microgeometry parameters quantifies the quality of gears and
may significantly affect their functional performance. A schematic of the various
microgeometric errors and their effects are presented in Fig. 7.1. Deformation and
inaccurate clamping of the workpiece and tool, form defects of the cutter, vibration
in the machine tool, errors in the machine tool axis, etc. are notable causes of errors
in microgeometry parameters. In general, the assignment of gear quality grades are
a function of the severity of the form and location errors.

Figure 7.1. Schematic of microgeometry errors and their influence on gear perfor-
mance [1].

7.1.2.1 Profile and Profile Errors

The profile is that section of a cross-sectional view of the tooth that lies between
the tip or outside diameter of the tooth and the root (see Fig. 7.2). The portion
of the profile that is actually in contact with its meshed partner gear is of special
significance and the most important focus of gear metrology. It is referred to as
the functional or active profile. The function profile lies between the profile control
diameter (just above the base circle diameter) and the addendum circle diameter or
the start of tip correction (see Fig. 7.3). The corresponding points are known as “start
active profile (SAP)” and “end active profile (EAP),” respectively.

Figure 7.2. Representation of a gear tooth profile.

Figure 7.3. Representation of the functional profile.

The difference between the measured and the specified functional profile is referred
to as the profile error. In other words, it refers to the deviation of the actual involute
from the theoretical involute, as shown in Fig. 7.4. It has two components namely the
profile form error and profile angle/slope error which are measured perpendicular
to the functional profile.

Figure 7.4. Concept of profile error [4].

Profile form error (ff ) is the difference between the nominal involute form and the
actual involute form, while profile angle error (fh ) is the difference between the
nominal involute angle and the actual involute angle. The total profile error (F ) is
the sum of profile form and profile angle errors (see Fig. 7.1).
The extent of the profile error is largely responsible for the noise characteristics of a
gear [2]. Involute profile errors can also adversely affect the strength and durability
of a gear by inducing localized contact stresses that may adversely affect wear and
fatigue properties [4]. Geometric inaccuracies in the gear blank and cutting tool, and
mounting errors are the primary causes of profile errors.

7.1.2.2 Lead and Lead Errors

Lead is the axial advance of a helix for one complete rotation of the gear. Generally,
this term is used for helical gears. The lead of a helical gear is commonly specified
by the angle of inclination of the helix to the axis of rotation at a specified diameter
(see Fig. 7.5). Similarly, the lead may also refer to the lengthwise alignment of the
tooth flank along the face width from one end to the other. The theoretical lead of a
spur gear is a straight line parallel to its rotating axis.

Figure 7.5. Lead of a helical gear.

Lead error is the difference between the specified and the measured tooth alignment
of the gear [1]. It is measured in a direction normal to the specified alignment (see
Fig. 7.6). The two most significant components of lead error are lead form error
(ff ) and lead angle/slope error (fh ) that are measured at the middle of the tooth
height along the face width of the gear. Lead form error is the difference between
the nominal lead form line and the actual form line, whereas lead angle error is the
difference between the nominal helix angle and the actual helix angle. The total lead
error (F ) is the sum of lead form and lead angle errors (see Fig. 7.1).

Figure 7.6. Tooth alignment error.

Lead measurement is used to determine correct face contact between mating gears.
Errors in lead create uneven loading, nonuniform motion transmission, and local-
ized loadbearing leading to the accelerated wear. The extent of the lead error is
mainly concerned with the torque transfer capability of a gear [2].

7.1.2.3 Pitch Error and Runout

Pitch error and runout are the location errors which define the accuracy of location
or position of teeth on a gear and hence determine the transmission accuracy [1,2].
Pitch is the distance between two corresponding points on two consecutive gear
flanks on the same side along the pitch circle. The positive or negative difference
between the theoretical pitch and the measured pitch in the transverse plane is
the pitch error. Pitch error refers to the inaccuracy in angular location of the gear
teeth along the pitch circle of the gear. Pitch error is mainly of two types, i.e., single
pitch error (fp) and accumulated or total pitch error (Fp) and are measured at the
middle of the tooth height along the pitch circle. Single pitch error is the algebraic
difference between the theoretical and actually measured values of the pitch for a
pair of teeth as depicted in Fig. 7.7. Accumulated or total pitch error is the maximum
value of location inaccuracy between any two teeth of a gear along its pitch circle.
It is also known as index error. Sometimes, the adjacent pitch error, which is the
difference between two adjacent pitches on the pitch circle, may also be evaluated
in special cases. Runout describes the inaccuracy in radial location of the gear teeth
with reference to the pitch circle. It is the maximum difference between the nominal
or theoretical radial position of all teeth to the actual measured position.

Figure 7.7. Concept of pitch error [5].

Both pitch errors and runout may lead to structural integrity problems. Runout
results in accumulated pitch deviation, leading to nonuniform motion, that causes
transmission inaccuracy [6]. Runout has a cascading effect that may affect most other
gear quality parameters including involute and/or tooth form, index and/or pitch
error, lead deviation, and noise and vibration. Kinematic errors in machine tools,
gear blanks, and mounting errors are the primary causes of location errors [7].

> Read full chapter

Study on evaluation system of gear ac-
curacy based on statistical analysis
X.Y. Wang, ... S. Fu, in International Gear Conference 2014: 26th–28th August 2014,
Lyon, 2014

1.4 Present evaluation system of gear accuracy

The most widely used gear accuracy standards is the ISO standards and the cor-
responding standards of each country, such as DIN and AGMA standards. There
are some research about how to apply GPS(Geometrical product specifications) to
gear(3), but the using range of GPS to gear is very limited by now(11). This is
partly because the GPS standards is undergoing developing, and is not mature
enough to use on the complex part like gears. So, ISO standard and its equivalent
or approximation, such as DIN, AGMA, JIS, and GB standards are the generally
acknowledged gear evaluation system in fact.

There are other disadvantages of these evaluation systems of gear accuracy besides
those mentioned above. When it comes to evaluate the errors of profile or helix
of a gear’s flanks, according to current ISO standards, only one profile curve and
one helix curve will be measured at the pre-determinant position of a flank, and at
most four flanks of a gear will be measured. When it comes to evaluate the errors
of pitch, only one point or a small area of each flank will be measured. So, it is
obvious that the results are subjective to the randomized manufacturing errors of
the gears. The working performance of a gear pair, which can be represented mainly
by the transmission error, is influenced by the whole flanks. Then it is not enough to
evaluate the performance by measuring only several curves and points. This is part
of the reason of the fact that there is no explicit relation between the transmission
error and the geometrical specified characteristics, like pitch errors, runouts, form
deviations, etc, using present gear accuracy evaluation methods (12,13).

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Manufacturing method of double heli-

cal gears using multi-axis control and
multi-tasking machine tool
K. Kawasaki, ... H. Gunbara, in International Gear Conference 2014: 26th–28th
August 2014, Lyon, 2014
6 TOOL WEAR AND LIFE TIME
The tool wear of end mill has an influence on the gear accuracy and surface
roughness in gear machining. Therefore, the relationship between the tool wear and
life time of end mill was investigated. Figure 7 shows the tool wear of the end mill
after about 0, 10, and 20 hours passed in real gear machining. The length of tool wear
of the cutting edge was about 34 μm. Since the radial relief angle of end mill is 11
degree, the diminution Δr of radius of end mill is 34 μm * tan 11 deg. = 6.6 μm after
about 10 hours passed. The diminution Δr of radius of end mill is 39 μm * tan 11 deg.
= 7.6 μm after about 20 hours passed. The value of Δr creates the bump between
start and finish in tooth cutting and it causes the large pitch variation. However, this
length of tool wear does not have an influence on required gear accuracy.

Fig. 7. Tool wear and life time

We suppose that it is important to manage the tool life from these results and swarf
cutting is suitable machining considering tool life.

> Read full chapter

Gears
Meherwan P. Boyce, in Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook (Fourth Edition), 2012

Publisher Summary
Gearing is one of the most important components between prime movers and
driven units. If gearing is not selected properly, it can cause many problems. Gearing
transmits great power at high rotational speeds. The major factors affecting gear
performance include pressure angle, helix angle, tooth hardness, scuffing predic-
tion, gear accuracy, bearing types, service factor, gear housing, and lubrication. The
decision regarding the pressure angle is one which the designer has to make early
in the design stage. Changes in the pressure angle affect both the contact ratio
and the length of line of action. Advantages of double-helical gears are that they
are very simple to design and manufacture because of the absence of thrust faces
and thrust bearings, very little thrust is produced by gearing, and they are generally
more efficient than single-helical gears, which are subject to thrust-bearing losses.
Medium-range hardness gears are not too sensitive to operational errors and wear
slightly before failing. Also, very hard gears are more susceptible to scuffing due to
high-load intensity and sliding velocities.

> Read full chapter

Wind turbine gearbox design with dri-

vetrain dynamic analysis
S. McFadden, B. Basu, in Offshore Wind Farms, 2016

7.4.1 Gear manufacture and inspection

ISO/IEC 61400-4 has specific requirements related to gear manufacture. The method
and processing of all gear elements should be specified as a matter of course.
Grinding notches should be avoided in the gear cutting process; however, if gear
notches do occur during the manufacture process, then FEA methods or the YSG
factor from ISO 6336-3 should be used to determine the reduction in tooth bending
stress. Rejection criteria are clearly outlined in ISO/IEC 61400-4.

Otherwise, gear accuracy should be specified in accordance with ISO 1328-1. The
standard ISO 1328-1 sets out 11 grades of gear accuracy. The tolerance values
increase with each increase in grade level. ISO/IEC 61400-4 gives maximum accuracy
grades as level 6 for external gears and level 7 for internal gears (with some specific
allowances to grade 8 for nitrided internal gears). Improved tolerances will ensure
smoother performance but the cost factors associated with increased accuracy
should be considered. It should be noted that the accuracy grades apply to assembled
gears – if gears loose there accuracy during assembly, then grinding after assembly
should be considered.

The surface finish required on gear components is specified as Ra = 0.8 μm for

external gears and Ra = 1.6 μm for internal gears. Improving the surface finish
reduces the risk of micropitting on the gear. It should be noted that shot-peening
of gear flanks is not permitted as a final operation; this is because the surface finish
may be compromised.

ISO/IEC 61400-4 makes specific recommendations for surface temper after grind-
ing. In particular, a 100% sampling plan is recommended. This requirement is
provided to ensure that all gears have the appropriate surface qualities, such is the
importance of surface finish. Poor gear tooth surface finish can cause micropitting.
Through experience, the following surface roughness, Ra, values are recommended:
Ra < 0.7 μm for high-speed and intermediate pinion and gears; Ra < 0.6 μm for
low-speed pinion and gear; and Ra < 0.5 μm for low-speed sun and planet. It
is important that the gear surface roughness measurement compensates for the
involute form of the gear tooth. A skid style stylus pick-up is often used for gears. The
stylus and the skid are situated side-by-side for improved tracking of the involute
form. The skid radius on a gear tooth pick-up is around 0.8 mm and is typically
smaller than that found on a general-purpose pick-up.

Surface crack detection is also advised whereby magnetic particle, fluorescent mag-
netic particle penetrant or dye penetrant inspection methods may be used as agreed
by the supplier and customer (ISO 6336-5 should be referred to in this instance).

> Read full chapter

Major Process Equipment Mainte-

nance and Repair
In Practical Machinery Management for Process Plants, 1997

Appendix 6-B Typical Gear Unit Arrangements

Figure B-3. Extremely high horsepower service rating (16,000 HP) single reduction
gear unit (cover removed) with double helical gearing. This speed increaser features
tilting pad journal bearings on the high speed shaft, babbitted journal bearings with
pressure dams for added stability on the low speed shaft, a tilting pad thrust bearing
on the low speed shaft, and specialized gear and pinion design to facilitate heat
removal and thereby prevent excessive heat buildup.
Figure B-1. Single reduction low speed gear unit (cutaway view) featuring herring-
bone gearing and splash lubrication system which utilizes oil wipers on the sides of
the gear to channel the oil into troughs that carry it to the bearings. Rolling element
bearings support both shafts in this unit and absorb thrust on the low speed shaft.
Figure B-2. Single reduction high speed gear unit (cutaway view) with double helical
gearing and a simple pressurized lubrication system. The gear housing acts as the
lubricant reservoir, and a shaft-driven oil pump pressurizes the oil. The high and low
speed shafts are supported by babbitted journal bearings, and any thrust loads are
handled by babbitt-faced thrust bearings on the low speed shaft.
Figure B-4. Two extremely high horsepower single reduction gear units (identical to
the one in Figure B-3) undergoing full load, full speed back-to-back locked-torque
testing. This test is fully instrumented for vibration and temperature monitoring. It
provides the most reliable indications of gear accuracy and operating temperatures
as compared to other test procedures and in general gives the best overall prediction
of gear performance in the field. This test can be performed using a driver with a
horsepower rating equivalent to the combined horsepower losses of the gear units.
Figure B-5. Double reducton low speed gear unit (cut-away view) featuring her-
ringbone gearing and double-extended input and output shafts. This unit has the
capacity to handle high overhung loads on the low speed (output) shaft.
Figure B-6. Double reduction two speed gear unit (cover removed) utilizing herring-
bone gearing and employing a shifter bar mechanism for changing speeds between
the two ratios of gearing contained in the housing. This reducer powers a conveyor
drive handling coal and salt.
Figure B-7. Double reduction high speed gear unit (cut-away view) with double he-
lical gearing and a simple pressurized lubrication system powered by a shaft-driven
oil pump. This unit exhibits gearing arranged in a “nested” design, where the high
speed gear set is split and the low speed gear set is nested between the two halves.
The main advantage of this particular arrangement is that it equalizes the loading
on all bearings. It also utilizes the available space more efficiently than some other
double reduction designs.
Figure B-8. High speed, high horsepower double reduction gear unit (cover re-
moved) containing double helical gearing and utilizing a torque shaft and two
flex-rigid couplings to transmit power from the high speed gear set to the low
speed gear set. The use of this arrangement enables much more horsepower to
be transmitted at much higher ratios and speeds than is possible with a simpler
arrangement. It also makes possible torsional fine-tuning of the gear unit and the
entire machinery train.

Figure B-9. Extremely high speed (input pinion speed of over 22,000 RPM) double
reduction gear unit (cover removed) utilizing single helical gearing in a “foldback”
design to conserve space. Intensive engineering design analysis and the incorpora-
tion of several specialized features enable this speed reducer to perform efficiently
as well as satisfactorily at high speeds.
Figure B-10. Double reduction horizontal right-angle gear unit (cutaway view) uti-
lizing spiral bevel gearing for the high speed reduction and single helical gearing
for the low speed reduction. This particular unit has rolling element bearings on all
shafts.

Figure B-11. Triple reduction articulated gear unit (cover removed) containing her-
ringbone gearing and utilizing a pressurized lubrication system (not shown). Input
torque is split between drive trains inside the housing for more efficient use of
 space and better design of gearing. This type of speed reducer is usually used for
high reduction, low speed, very high torque applications such as sugar mill drives.

Figure B-12. Reverse reduction marine drive gear unit (cut-away view) equipped with
double helical gearing, integral clutches, and anti-friction (rolling element) bearings.
This gear unit sports two forward speeds in addition to one reverse speed.

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