Electrical

machines 2

Laboratory
paper 2

PREPARED BY:

KENT BRIAN P. TAUTHO

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. MICHAEL ERNIE F. Rodriguez
1. Define voltage regulation.
Voltage regulation refers to the ability of a device to maintain a steady output
voltage despite changes in input voltage or load conditions. It ensures that electronic
devices receive a consistent and stable supply of voltage, preventing damage or
malfunction. Voltage regulators use feedback mechanisms to monitor and adjust the
output voltage within a specified range or tolerance. It is expressed as a percentage or
in volts, indicating the allowable deviation from the desired voltage.

2. In each alternator, upon what does the regulation depend?

The regulation of an alternator, which involves maintaining a constant output
voltage, depends on several factors. These include the excitation system, load
variations, speed control, design and construction of the alternator, and the presence of
an Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR). The excitation system, controlled by the voltage
regulator, determines the strength of the magnetic field and thus the output voltage.
Load variations and speed control mechanisms affect voltage regulation, and the design
and construction of the alternator impact its stability and accuracy. The AVR monitors
and adjusts the excitation current to maintain a stable output voltage. Overall, these
factors collectively contribute to the effective voltage regulation of an alternator.

3. Define synchronous reactance.

Synchronous reactance refers to the inherent electrical reactance exhibited by a
synchronous machine operating at synchronous speed. It represents the opposition to
alternating current flow within the machine and is influenced by its physical design. The
value of synchronous reactance, measured in ohms, affects the machine's impedance,
power factor, and performance characteristics. It is important for analyzing synchronous
machines and understanding their stability and power transfer capabilities in electrical
grids.

4. Define synchronous impedance.

Synchronous impedance refers to the total impedance exhibited by a
synchronous machine when operated at synchronous speed. It combines the resistive
and reactive components of the machine's impedance, including synchronous reactance
and winding resistance. The value of synchronous impedance affects the machine's
voltage drop, power factor, and performance characteristics. It is a crucial parameter for
analyzing synchronous machines and their impact on power system stability and power
flow. Synchronous impedance is expressed in ohms and plays a significant role in
power system studies and ensuring efficient operation.
5. Explain carefully how the resistance test is performed on an alternator.
The resistance test on an alternator involves measuring the resistance values of
the stator and rotor windings. It helps assess the condition of the windings and detect
potential faults. The process includes setting up a multimeter in resistance mode,
measuring the resistance of the stator windings by connecting the multimeter leads to
different terminals, and measuring the resistance of the rotor winding. The measured
values are compared to specifications or acceptable ranges provided by the
manufacturer. The resistance test focuses on the resistive component of the windings
and additional tests may be needed to assess insulation integrity and identify other
faults.

6. What is meant by the effective resistance of the armature winding? Why is it larger
than the dc resistance?
The effective resistance of the armature winding is the total resistance
experienced by alternating current (AC) flowing through the winding. It includes the DC
resistance as well as additional resistive components caused by the skin effect and
proximity effect. The skin effect causes AC to concentrate near the surface of the
conductor, increasing resistance, while the proximity effect occurs when neighboring
conductors' magnetic fields interact, leading to the additional resistance. The effective
resistance is larger than the DC resistance and needs to be considered in AC systems
to accurately assess power losses and performance. Accounting for effective resistance
ensures proper conductor sizing and efficient operation of AC machines.

7. What relation exists between the resistance between terminals and the resistance per
phase in a wye-connected winding? in a delta-connected winding?
In a wye-connected winding, the resistance between terminals is equal to the
resistance per phase divided by the square root of three (√3). In a delta-connected
winding, the resistance between terminals is equal to the resistance per phase.

8. Describe carefully how the open-circuit test is performed.

The open-circuit test, or no-load test, is performed on a transformer to determine
core losses and magnetizing current. The primary winding is connected to an AC power
supply while the secondary winding remains open, without any load. Measurements of
applied voltage and magnetizing current are taken using voltmeters and ammeters. By
multiplying the applied voltage by the magnetizing current, core losses can be
calculated. The test provides valuable information about transformer efficiency and
performance under no-load conditions.

9. What useful information is obtained from the open-circuit test?

The open-circuit test provides valuable information about a transformer under no-
load conditions. It allows for the measurement and estimation of core losses,
magnetizing current, and no-load current. This information helps in assessing the
transformer's efficiency, voltage regulation, and diagnostic aspects. The test aids in
understanding the transformer's performance characteristics and assists in optimizing
its operation within a power system.

10. Describe carefully how the short-circuit test is performed.

The short-circuit test, also known as the impedance or load-loss test, is
performed on a transformer to determine its copper losses, winding resistance, and
overall impedance. The test involves connecting a low-voltage winding to a power
supply while short-circuiting the high-voltage winding. Measurements of applied voltage
and short-circuit current are taken using voltmeters and ammeters. By calculating the
copper losses and dividing the applied voltage by the short-circuit current, information
about the transformer's efficiency, voltage regulation, and performance under load
conditions can be obtained. The short-circuit test helps in evaluating the transformer's
characteristics and optimizing its operation.

11. What useful information is obtained from the short-circuit test?

The short-circuit test provides valuable information about a transformer under
load conditions. It helps in determining the copper losses, winding resistance,
impedance, efficiency, voltage regulation, and load capability of the transformer. The
test is used to assess the performance, diagnose potential issues, and optimize the
operation of the transformer within a power system.

12. Explain how the synchronous impedance may be determined.

The synchronous impedance of a synchronous machine can be determined
through an indirect method involving a short-circuit test and an open-circuit test. In the
short-circuit test, the machine is subjected to a three-phase short circuit, and the
impedance is calculated by dividing the measured voltage by the short-circuit current. In
the open-circuit test, the machine operates with no load, and the field current and no-
load current are measured. By subtracting the calculated no-load impedance from the
short-circuit impedance, the synchronous impedance can be determined. This
parameter is crucial for assessing machine performance, analyzing operating
conditions, and designing protection and control systems.

13. List the various losses in an alternator.

In an alternator, there are various types of losses that occur:
1. Copper Losses: These losses result from the resistance of the stator and rotor
windings, and they occur due to the flow of current through the conductors.
2. Core Losses: Core losses consist of hysteresis losses and eddy current losses.
Hysteresis losses occur due to the magnetic field reversal in the iron core, while eddy
current losses are caused by circulating currents induced in the core.
3. Mechanical Losses: These losses occur due to friction between moving parts, such
as bearings and brush contacts. They are associated with the mechanical rotation of the
alternator.
4. Windage Losses: Windage losses occur as a result of air drag on the rotating
components of the alternator, such as the rotor and fan.
5. Stray Load Losses: Stray load losses are losses that occur in the magnetic circuit of
the alternator but are not directly related to power generation. They can be caused by
factors like leakage flux and harmonic effects.
Copper losses and core losses are the primary contributors to the overall losses in an
alternator. By minimizing these losses through efficient design and materials, the overall
efficiency and performance of the alternator can be enhanced.

14. Explain how does the friction and windage loss in an alternator may be determined.
To determine the friction and windage losses in an alternator, a specific test
called the "friction and windage test" is conducted. The test involves measuring the
electrical power input to the alternator during both no-load and loaded conditions while
accurately measuring the rotational speed of the machine. By subtracting losses due to
core losses, copper losses, and other factors from the total measured losses, the friction
and windage losses can be determined. These losses represent the energy dissipated
as heat due to friction between moving parts and air drag on the rotating components of
the alternator. The accuracy of the test depends on precise measurements and
appropriate test conditions.
15. Explain how the core loss in an alternator may be determined.
The core loss in an alternator, which includes hysteresis and eddy current losses,
can be determined through various methods. The direct measurement method involves
conducting tests at different load levels to estimate copper losses, and then subtracting
the copper losses from the total losses to obtain the core losses. Alternatively, the core
losses can be determined by separating the hysteresis and eddy current losses through
individual tests. The hysteresis losses can be obtained by plotting the core loss versus
frequency, while the eddy current losses can be determined by plotting the core loss
versus voltage. Another approach is to perform a core loss test, also known as the
open-circuit or no-load test, where the alternator operates at rated voltage and
frequency with no load connected. The input power and current are measured, and the
core losses are obtained by subtracting the separately determined copper losses from
the total losses. It is important to consider factors like temperature, harmonic effects,
and stray losses for accurate core loss determination, and tests should be conducted at
representative operating conditions.

16. How is the copper loss in the field winding of an alternator determined?
The copper loss in the field winding of an alternator can be determined by
measuring the resistance of the field winding and the current flowing through it. The
resistance is measured using an ohmmeter or a Wheatstone bridge, while the current is
measured with an ammeter. The copper loss is then calculated by squaring the field
current and multiplying it by the field winding resistance. This represents the power
dissipated as heat in the field winding due to the resistance of the conductor. Minimizing
copper losses is important for improving the efficiency of the alternator, and it can be
achieved through proper cooling and the use of conductors with lower resistivity.

17. How is the copper loss in the armature winding of an alternator determined?
The copper loss in the armature winding of an alternator is determined by
measuring the resistance of the winding and the current flowing through it. The
resistance is measured using an ohmmeter or Wheatstone bridge, and the current is
measured using an ammeter. By squaring the armature current and multiplying it by the
armature winding resistance, the copper loss can be calculated. This represents the
power dissipated as heat in the armature winding due to the resistance of the conductor.
Minimizing copper losses is important for improving the alternator's efficiency and can
be achieved through conductor selection, winding design optimization, and proper
cooling.
18. What would be the advantage of using a single large alternator in a power plant
rather than several smaller units operating in parallel?
Using a single large alternator in a power plant offers advantages such as higher
efficiency at rated capacity, lower capital and maintenance costs, enhanced system
stability, improved voltage regulation, and flexibility for future capacity expansion. It
reduces fuel consumption, simplifies maintenance efforts, eliminates complex
synchronization and load-sharing controls, and ensures a consistent power supply.
However, the choice between a single large alternator and multiple smaller units
depends on specific requirements and considerations of the power plant.

19. What are the important advantages of using several smaller alternators operating in
parallel, rather than one large unit?
Using several smaller alternators operating in parallel provides advantages such
as redundancy, reliability, flexibility, scalability, efficiency at partial loads, easier
maintenance and serviceability, and improved control and load management. Multiple
units offer backup in case of failure, allow for easy capacity expansion, provide better
efficiency at varying loads, simplify maintenance procedures, and offer more precise
control over load sharing and voltage regulation. The decision to use multiple smaller
alternators or a single large unit depends on specific requirements and considerations
of the application.

20. List the four important conditions that must be fulfilled before an alternator can be
connected in parallel with the bus already supplying a load.
Before an alternator can be connected in parallel with a bus supplying a load,
four important conditions must be fulfilled: matching frequency, matching voltage, phase
sequence matching, and voltage and frequency matching. The alternator must have the
same frequency and voltage as the bus, with matching phase sequence to ensure
synchronous operation and prevent damage to loads. Adjustments to the alternator's
speed and field current may be required to achieve the necessary voltage and
frequency alignment. Complying with these conditions ensures safe and stable parallel
operation.
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