TOPICS

12.1 The need for energy in

living organisms
12.2 Aerobic respiration
12.3 Mitochondrial structure
and function
12.4 Anaerobic respiration
12.5 Respiratory substrates
Ms. Nusrath Sariffo'deen
+94 77 54 22 531

ENERGY AND
RESPIRATION
Chapter 12
12.1 The need for energy in living organisms

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ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

• ATP is the universal energy currency of cells.
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• ATP is a phosphorylated nucleotide.

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 • ATP is suited for the role as the universal energy currency due to its features
given below.

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• When ATP is hydrolysed (broken down), ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) are
produced. During this process, energy is released that can be used for
processes within a cell. This process is catalysed by an enzyme, ATPase.
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• This process is reversible and is how ATP is synthesized.

ADP + Pi + 30.5 kJmol-1 —> ATP + H2O
• ATP can be made in two different ways (which will be discussed further in the
next topic):
1. Substrate-linked phosphorylation (transfer of phosphate)
2. Chemiosmosis in mitochondrial and chloroplast membranes
12.2 Aerobic respiration
• Respiration is the process in which organic molecules are broken down in a
series of stages to release chemical potential energy, which is used to
synthesize ATP.
• The main respiratory substrate is glucose.
• Glucose breakdown can be divided into four stages:
1. Glycolysis - Cytoplasm
2. Link reaction - Mitochondrial matrix

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3. Krebs cycle - Mitochondrial matrix
4. Oxidative phosphorylation - Inner membrane of mitochondria

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Glycolysis
• Glycolysis is the splitting (lysis) of glucose.
• Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell.

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• The end product of glycolysis is pyruvate.

• Additionally, there is a net gain of 2ATPs per glucose.
• When oxygen is available, pyruvate enters the mitochondrial matrix for the
next step of aerobic respiration, link reaction.
Link reaction
• The link reaction links glycolysis with the Krebs cycle.
• The link reaction takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
• Pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation (removal of CO2) and dehydrogenation
(removal of H). The remainder of the molecule combines with CoA (coenzyme
A) to produce acetyl CoA.
• The hydrogen removed from pyruvate is accepted by NAD producing more
reduced NAD.

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Pyruvate + CoA + NAD —> Acetyl CoA + CO2 + Reduced NAD

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Krebs cycle (Citric acid cycle)
• Krebs cycle takes place
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in the mitochondrial matrix.
• Acetyl coenzyme A
(2C) combines with
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oxaloacetate (4C) to form

citrate (6C).
• Citrate undergoes
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decarboxylation (removal of
CO2) and dehydrogenation
(removal of H) in a series of
steps.
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• Two CO2 molecules are

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released as a waste gas,

resulting in the formation of
a 4C compound.
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• The 4C compound
undergoes dehydrogenation in
a series of steps to
regenerate oxaloacetate.
• The series of steps
involve the reduction of the
coenzymes NAD and FAD.
• During each Krebs cycle, two CO2 molecules, three reduced NAD molecules,
one reduced FAD molecule and one ATP molecule is produced.
• Except CO2, the rest of the molecules are used in the next step of aerobic
respiration, oxidative phosphorylation.
Oxidative phosphorylation
• Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

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• The reduced NAD and reduced FAD molecules produced in the Krebs cycle,
along with reduced NAD from glycolysis which has diffused through the
mitochondrial envelope, are present in the mitochondrial matrix.
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• These molecules move to the inner membrane and remove the hydrogen that
they are carrying. Each H atom is split into H+ (proton) and e- (electron).
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• The electrons are transported along the electron transport chain, which is a
series of membrane proteins (electron carriers). The proteins are very close to
each other so that electrons can be passed from one to the next.
• As the electrons move from one carrier to the next, they release energy.
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• This energy is used to pump H+ into the intermembrane space. This produces a
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high concentration of H+ in the intermembrane space than the matrix resulting

in a proton concentration gradient.
• H+ diffuses down the concentration gradient into the matrix, via a protein
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channel called ATP synthase. This is an example of facilitated diffusion.

• As H+ passes through the channel, the energy released in used by ATP synthase,
which is also an enzyme, to produce ATP.
• Finally, O2 is involved in the process, where it acts as the final electron
acceptor at the end of the electron transport chain. Four e- combine with four
H+ and one O2 to form water.
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- —> H2O
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Summary of aerobic respiration

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12.3 Mitochondrial structure and function

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•
•
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Mitochondria are rod-shaped or filamentous organelles, 0.5–1.0µm in diameter.
They are not rigid and can change their shape.
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• Each mitochondrion is surrounded by an envelope of two phospholipid
membranes. The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane is very
folded. These folds are called cristae.
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Relationship between structure and function

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• The structure of mitochondria makes them well adapted to their function.

• They have a large surface area due to the presence of cristae which enables
the membrane to hold many electron transport chain proteins and ATP
synthase enzymes which results in more ATP production.
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• More active cell types can have larger mitochondria with longer and more
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densely packed cristae to enable the synthesis of even more ATP.

• The outer membrane is relatively permeable to small molecules. This allows
the movement of substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, ATP, ADP and Pi.
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• The inner membrane is less permeable. This prevents protons (H+) moving
through it too easily to allow the build-up of a concentration gradient.
• In an electron micrograph, you can see stalked ATP synthase particles, about
9nm in diameter, scattered all over the inner membrane.
• The intermembrane space has a lower pH than the mitochondrial matrix, due
to the protons (H+) pumped to it during oxidative phosphorylation.
• The mitochondrial matrix contains the enzymes needed for the link reaction
and Krebs cycle. It also contains 70S ribosomes and circular mitochondrial DNA
which are involved in the synthesis of the needed proteins and enzymes.
• The number of mitochondria in each cell can vary depending on cell activity.
Ex – Liver cell contains up to 2000 mitochondria (20% of its cell volume).
12.4 Anaerobic respiration
• If there is no – or very little – oxygen inside a mitochondrion, there is no
electron acceptor at the end of the electron transport chain during oxidative
phosphorylation.
• Therefore, no ATP is formed by oxidative phosphorylation.
• There is no free electron carrier to accept H from reduced NAD and reduced
FAD, so these remain reduced and do not convert to NAD and FAD.
• When there is no NAD or FAD to enable dehydrogenation in the Krebs cycle, it

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stops running.
• However, a cell can produce a small amount of ATP from glycolysis, even if
there is no oxygen.
•

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In order for this to work, the reduced NAD produced during glycolysis must be
oxidised to NAD.
• There are two pathways which cells have achieved this,
1. Ethanol fermentation

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2. Lactate fermentation
Both pathways take place in the cytoplasm of the cell.
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1. Ethanol fermentation –
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• Takes place in yeast, some plant tissues and some microorganisms.

• Ethanal is produced from the decarboxylation of pyruvate.
• Ethanal is reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.
• H from reduced NAD is passed to ethanal, oxidising itself to NAD.
• This NAD is now available to accept H from glucose during glycosis and get
reduced to reduced NAD.
• This allows glycolysis to keep running, when no oxygen is available.
• Ethanol cannot be further metabolised and is a waste product.
2. Lactate fermentation –

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• Takes place in mammalian muscles and other microorganisms.
•

•
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Pyruvate acts as the H acceptor from reduced NAD and gets converted to
lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.
H from reduced NAD is passed to pyruvate, oxidising itself to NAD.
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• This NAD is now available to accept H from glucose during glycosis and get
reduced to reduced NAD.
• This allows glycolysis to keep running, when no oxygen is available.
• Lactate can be oxidised to pyruvate using extra oxygen. This is known as the
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‘oxygen debt’. The pyruvate can then be fed into the Krebs cycle.
• Further, lactate can also be converted to glycogen and stored in the liver.
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Energy Yield: Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration

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Aerobic respiration Anaerobic resoiration

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Glycolysis 2 2
Link reaction 0 -
Krebs cycle 2 -
Oxidative phosphorylation 28 -
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Fermentation - 0
Total ATP 32 2
Note: A detailed account of the total yield of ATP is not expected.

• In anaerobic respiration, glucose is partially oxidised. Only some of its chemical

potential energy is released and transferred to ATP.
• In anaerobic respiration, glycolysis is the only ATP producing reaction.
• The stages inside the mitochondria produce much more ATP. However, none of
the reactions in the mitochondria take place in anaerobic respiration.
• Therefore, there is a much greater energy yield from aerobic respiration than
anaerobic respiration.
How rice is adapted to grow in waterlogged conditions
• Rice is a staple crop in many parts of the world.
• For maximum yield, rice is often grown in paddies, which are fields where the
ground is intentionally flooded.
• Rice can tolerate growing in water, whereas the weeds that compete with it
might not be able to. The reduction in competition increases yield.

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Adaptation How it helps

Stem grows taller Top parts of the leaves stay above the water, so that
quickly when ground is oxygen and carbon dioxide can be exchanged through the

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flooded stomata on the leaves.

Stem and roots contain Oxygen can diffuse rapidly through the aerenchyma to
loosely packed cells other parts of the plant, including the parts under water.

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called aerenchyma

Ethanol fermentation
in roots
This ensures roots can respire aerobically.

Root cells are able to synthesise some ATP in anaerobic

conditions if oxygen supply is insufficient.
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Produce more ethanol Breakdown ethanol because ethanol is a toxic compound.
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dehydrogenase Rice roots are more tolerant to high levels of ethanol.

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12.5 Respiratory substrates

• Glucose is the main respiratory substrate for aerobic respiration in most cells.
• However, when the supply of glucose in a cell has been used up a cell
continues respiration using other substrates.
• Most cells are able to use lipids, amino acids and other carbohydates as
respiratory substrates.
• Amino acids are respired aerobically only when all other substrates have been

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used up because they have more important, specialised functions.
• Different types of substrates release different amounts of energy:
Respiratory substrate Energy value / kJg-1

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Carbohydrate 15.8
Lipid 39.4
Protein 17.0

• Lipids have a higher energy density than carbohydrate or proteins because they
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contain a higher proportion of H atoms in their molecules. The more H atoms
present in the respiratory substrate, the more reduced NAD and reduced FAD
produced which leads to more H+ released in oxidative phosphorylation.
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Respiratory quotient (RQ)
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Respiratory quotient is the ratio of the number of carbon dioxide molecules

produced to the number of oxygen molecules taken in during respiration.
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➢ Carbohydrate (Glucose) –

6
=
6
= 1.0
 ➢ Lipid (Oleic acid from olive oil) –

18
=
25.5

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= 0.7

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• Typical RQs for the aerobic respiration of different substrates:
Respiratory substrate Respiratory quotient
Carbohydrate 1.0

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Protein

➢ Anaerobic respiration of glucose (Alcoholic fermentation) –

0.7
0.9
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2
=
0

= ∞
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Q2. Calculate the RQ for the aerobic respiration of stearic acid (C18H36O2).
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