2016 Process

Metallic Mineral Mining:
The Process & the Price

Metallic Mineral Mining:
The Process & the Price
Prepared by the Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission
with funding from the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative
Copyright © 2016 Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission
Graphic design by Catherine Lange
Suggested citation:
“Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission, 2016. Metallic Mineral Mining: The Process & the Price.”
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. From Raw Earth to Refined Metals: 3. Mining and Its Effects on Water . . . . 28
The Stages of the Metallic Mining
• Hydrologic Changes: Acid Mine
1. An Introduction to Process and their Effects on
Drainage, Metals, Chemical Pollution,
Metallic Mineral Mining and Surrounding Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . 12
and Water Quantity
Tribal Land Interests in the • Exploration: The Challenge of
Upper Great Lakes Region . . . . . . . . . 3 • Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)
Exploring Under the Surface
• Metals Contamination
• Understanding the Definition of Ore • Development: Ecological Impacts of
• Chemical, Sulfur, and
• Native and European Metallic Constructing a Mine
Thermal Pollution
Mining in the Upper Great Lakes • Erosion and Sedimentation
Region • Water Quantity
• Hydrologic Changes
• Understanding the Rights of Tribes • The Challenge of Containing
• Contaminant Leaching Mine Waste
and Aboriginal People in the Upper
Great Lakes to Use the Land • Air Quality Impacts • Tailings
• Mining’s Potential to Alter the • Carbon Footprint • Waste Rock
Life Sustaining Resources of the • Transportation Effects • Restoring Hydrology
Anishinaabeg • Milling: Reducing Boulders to Sand
• Challenges of Mine Waste in a • Beneficiation: Transforming the 4. Cumulative Impacts of
Complex Hydrologic Setting Milled Ore to Usable Metals Metallic Mining—Time,
Geography, and Community . . . . . . 41
• Evaluating a Mine’s Potential Social, • Concentrating
Economic, and Environmental • Metallurgical Beneficiation • Environmental Effects of
Impacts More than One Mine
• Beneficiation Byproducts and
• Ensuring a Mine Can Clean Up the Environmental Impacts • Socioeconomic Issues and Impacts
Damage
• Reclamation: Deconstructing
Mine Workings and Reclaiming
the Mine Site
v
vi Metallic Mining: The Process & the Price
5. Mining’s Effects on 6. Legal Landscape: An Overview Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Anishinaabe Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 of Mining Law and Regulation . . . . . 58
• Ojibwe Spiritual Beliefs and • US Federal Laws and Regulations References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
the Moral Dimensions of Land Related to Metallic Mining
Stewardship Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
• A Brief Overview of Mining
• Mining and Its Effect on the Laws and Policies of Minnesota,
Land: The Keweenaw Bay Indian Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ontario
Community and the Eagle Mine • Wisconsin
• Mining’s Disruptive Effects on • Michigan
Resources and Practices Critical to • Minnesota
Anishinaabe Culture
• Ontario
• Manoomin (Wild Rice)
• The Role of Tribes and Aboriginal
• Giigoonyag (Fish) Communities
• Disruption to Sense of Place • Select Commonalities and
Differences in the Mining Laws and
Policies of Minnesota, Wisconsin,
Michigan, and Ontario
• Environmental review
• Water quality
• Wetlands
Introduction
T he development of a major mine

entails a substantial and long-term
alteration of the landscape and the natural
environment. Mining, particularly metallic
mining, also presents certain unavoidable
ecological risks. According to the US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
the metal mining industry is the largest
source of chemicals to the environment
in the United States, and history is replete
with examples of mine-related pollution.
The EPA’s Abandoned Mine Lands
program currently lists 130 mine sites as
having known or threatened releases of
hazardous pollutants or contaminants.
Mining disasters are not limited to
distant history; since 2014, catastrophic
collapses of metallic mine tailings ponds
have occurred in British Columbia and
in Brazil, sending contaminated effluent
Point Abbaye, Michigan on Lake Superior’s south shore. into waterways and, in the case of Brazil,
costing many human lives.
Not all mines will cause the severe
harm that some past mines have, and
some of the ecological threats can be
1
2 Metallic Mineral Mining: The Process & the Price
mitigated. Nevertheless, the decision to and illustrating those risks through real- Mineral Mining: The Process and the Price
allow a metallic mineral mine reflects an life examples. It provides a brief overview is informed by that perspective. While
acceptance of some degree of ecological of the laws and regulations related to this document uses a variety of terms in
harm, the extent of which can never mine permitting and environmental reference to Indian people (including tribe,
be absolutely known or predicted with review, including US federal law and the tribal, Indian, Anishinaabe), it is intended
precision. The true price that will be paid laws of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, only to reflect the beliefs and views that
for a mine’s anticipated benefits becomes and the Canadian province of Ontario. It GLIFWC has come to understand in
clear only if or when the theoretical risks also describes how tribal treaty-reserved the course of serving its member tribes.
manifest in environmental degradation. rights and an Anishinaabe worldview can In addition, this document refers to
For Indian and Aboriginal people and intersect those laws. Most importantly, Ojibwe tribes in several ways. Ojibwe/
communities in the Upper Great Lakes this document explains why the risks Ojibwa tribes have come to be known
region, the price of metallic mining can associated with mining pose special
as Chippewa in English; in Canada, the
be particularly devastating. Tribes rely on threats to Indian people who rely on the
Ojibwe/Ojibwa are known as First Nations
natural resources like fish, wildlife, and natural world to sustain their communities
rather than tribes. Anishinaabe or its
wild plants for subsistence and to support and whose culture and lifeways depend
them spiritually, culturally, medicinally, on access to clean and healthy natural plural, Anishinaabeg, are the Ojibwe words
and economically. When mining affects resources. for Indian(s), or original person (people),
the health and availability of resources Finally, it must be noted that this which are their names for themselves.
that native people depend on for these document has been produced by the Despite the limits described herein,
purposes, their ways of life and their Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife for other tribes that may be similarly
ability to sustain healthy communities is Commission (GLIFWC), a natural situated or share a skepticism about
also affected. resource agency representing 11 Ojibwe the potential price they may pay for
Metallic Mineral Mining: The Process tribes in Michigan, Minnesota, and mineral development in areas they use to
and the Price provides an overview of Wisconsin as they implement their off- exercise their lifeways and sustain their
metallic mining by describing its stages reservation, treaty-reserved hunting, communities, we hope this document may
and their associated environmental risks fishing and gathering rights. Metallic be helpful.
An Introduction to Metallic Mineral Mining
1.
and Tribal Land Interests in the
Upper Great Lakes Region
M ining is the process by which target

materials are extracted from the earth.
valuable than iron, the definition of ore
is different. At the closed Flambeau mine
near Ladysmith, Wisconsin, for example,
Metallic mining refers to the extraction the ore averaged about 9.5% copper,
of both ferrous metals (typically iron) a concentration that was more than
and nonferrous metals (including gold, sufficient to profitably extract. Sometimes
silver, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc). Many an ore body contains more than one target
of these metals are common elements
mineral, and the combination alters the
in the earth’s crust but usually exist only
economic equation. While the massive
as components of other minerals and in
portion of the ore body of the Back Forty
minute quantities. Iron, for example, is Comparison of a disseminated copper ore (left) and a
the most plentiful of these elements but piece of native copper (right). Disseminated ore bodies site near Stephenson, Michigan contains
have a small amount of metallic mineral by volume. only 0.44% copper, the ore body also
accounts for only about 5% of the world’s
crust by weight. Copper accounts for only contains an 8% concentration of zinc,
0.0058%, and lead and zinc account for
Understanding increasing the overall economic viability
even less. Because of the rare geological the Definition of Ore of the deposit.
occurrence of these metals, they must be Ore is defined by economics: a geologic When prices and demand are high,
found in relatively high concentrations in formation is considered an ore body if it lower-grade deposits become more
order for mining to be economical. contains minerals in sufficient quantity economically feasible to extract. The
to profitably mine. The definition of proposed NorthMet mine in Minnesota,
When prices and demand for metal is ore changes depending on the target for example, has a disseminated ore body
high, lower-grade deposits become more mineral. High-grade iron ore has an containing 0.28% copper, 0.08% nickel,
economically feasible to extract. iron concentration of 60%, while lower- and trace amounts of other precious
grade taconite ore mined in the upper metals. Despite the relatively low grade of
Great Lakes region has a concentration this deposit, the mine operator, PolyMet,
of 25% to 30%. For copper, a metal more has applied for permits to mine at this site.
3
Metallic mineral mining refers to the the surface and along the shore of Lake Understanding the Rights
extraction of both ferrous and nonferrous Superior. Native people heated the copper
metals. Sulfide mining is a term often used and shaped it into jewelry and tools such of Tribes and Aboriginal
to describe the mining of nonferrous as knives and spear points; the copper People in the Upper Great
metals, including copper, lead, zinc, and required no further processing because it Lakes to Use the Land
others, because these metals frequently was pure and not bound to other elements.
are bonded to sulfur, forming sulfide As with silver and gold found in other Prior to contact with European settlers
compounds. But it is misleading to place areas of the western hemisphere, the and foreign governments, tribes exercised
only these types of metal mining under copper used in the Great Lakes region by their sovereignty both internally, by
the sulfide description because various Indian peoples was primarily ceremonial establishing their own governing systems,
forms of sulfide also are found in ferrous and aesthetic. Great Lakes copper was also and externally, by forming alliances with
(iron) mining. In the upper Great Lakes traded throughout North America. other tribal nations. Anishinaabe tribes in
region, for example, iron deposits often the upper Great Lakes entered into their
exist within and adjacent to geologic The ability of tribes to exercise their first treaty with the Spirit of the Universe.
formations that contain sulfur and treaty-reserved rights, both on and off their This Great Law of Nature holds that the
sulfides. Ferrous mining can result in reservation land, can be profoundly impacted land is a gift from the Creator and the
disturbance of the adjacent rock and thus by mining activities. Anishinaabeg are to live in harmony
mobilize sulfur. Minnesota’s Iron Range with and take care of that land through
is a prominent example of this effect: as Intensive commercial exploitation of ceremonies, teachings, language, and the
the target iron ore is mined, the tailings native copper and high-grade iron ores way they live their lives, or their lifeway.
basins and pit lakes left behind produce began with the arrival of European miners The United States and Canadian
sulfur compounds that impact surface and in the second half of the nineteenth governments, upon their arrival in North
groundwater throughout the Iron Range. century. By the middle of the twentieth America, recognized the sovereignty of the
century, the high-grade ores of the Great Anishinaabe tribes and dealt with them on
Native and European Lakes region had been depleted. Today, the a government-to-government basis. In the
Metallic Mining in the only potential sources of copper and other early and mid-nineteenth century, various
metals in the area are lower quality ores. treaties were signed between the US and
Upper Great Lakes Region Mining remains an important issue to Canadian governments and Anishinaabe
Metallic mining in the Great Lakes region tribes in the region, some of whom retain tribes in northern Wisconsin, northeastern
is not a new phenomenon. As far back as legal rights to use the land. The ability of Minnesota, and northern Michigan as well
4,000 B.C., indigenous people throughout tribes to exercise their treaty-reserved as in the Canadian province of Ontario.
the area used copper for jewelry and rights, both on and off their reservation Courts have ruled that in the treaties,
other articles. Much of this copper was land, can be profoundly impacted by the Ojibwe sold or ceded a considerable
easily accessed from formations found at mining activities. amount of land to the federal government
An Introduction to Metallic Mineral Mining and Tribal Land Interests in the Upper Great Lakes Region 5
Treaty Ceded Territories in the

Lake Superior Watershed
Treaty 9, 1905
Treaty 3, 1873 Robinson - Superior
Treaty, 1850
Treaty With the

Chippewa,1854
Treaty With the Robinson Huron

Chippewa Treaty, 1850
1855 (
! (
!
Treaty With the Chippewa Treaty With the Ottawa

1842 1836
Ceded Territory/Treaty Area Boundary

Treaty With the Chippewa
1837 Tribal / First Nation Land
State / Provincial Boundary
(
!
Lake Superior Watershed
Ceded Territory, Treaty, and Tribal land boundaries are

0 25 50 100 Miles representations and may not be the actual legally binding
boundaries.
Areas ceded by tribes in the western Great Lakes region.

reserves (or reservations) for individual management of those resources.

Land use decisions that put mining interests First Nations. In carrying out these management
before native interests may violate legal
For tribes and First Nations in both responsibilities, tribes work to assure the
guarantees and undermine the tribes’ abilities
the US and Canada, their status as continued quantity and quality of natural
to sustain their communities in ways that are
sovereigns, recognized in treaties and resources. Tribes also coordinate the
consistent with their teachings and worldview.
upheld by courts, provides the basis exercise of sovereignty and management
for their right to maintain themselves with other governments exercising
but did not give up all rights of usage. as distinct cultural and self-governing concurrent authority in the ceded
These lands often are referred to as ceded entities. Their sovereignty and authority territories. Land use decisions that put
territory. (See map on page 5.) Within over their reservations and exercise of mining interests before native interests
the ceded territories, the signatory tribes treaty-reserved rights carries particular may violate these legal guarantees
reserved the right to continue to hunt, fish, responsibilities, including the proper and undermine the tribes’ abilities to
and gather on the land. Modern state and
federal court decisions have affirmed these
rights as valid and continuing. The Ojibwe
rights to hunt, fish, and gather on ceded
territory lands are called treaty rights,
usufructuary rights, or reserved rights.
Tribes also have reservations within the
ceded territory. Tribes have more extensive
rights to control activities on their
reservation land than in ceded territory,
but the establishment of reservations did
not limit or curtail their reserved rights to
hunt, fish, and gather off the reservation on
lands within the ceded territory.
Similarly, Canadian Ojibwe First
Nations in the Lake Superior region signed
treaties with the government of Canada
in which they ceded land but retained
the right to hunt and fish in the territory
ceded. The treaties that created the ceded
territory in the Ontario portion of the
Lake Superior basin also provided for Extensive landscape alteration at the Hull-Rust mine in Minnesota.
sustain their communities in ways that
are consistent with their teachings and
worldview. (Chapter 5 provides a more
detailed look at Anishinaabe lifeways.)
Mining’s Potential to Alter

the Life Sustaining Resources
of the Anishinaabeg
The ability to practice their lifeways on
reservation land and in ceded territories
is fundamental to Anishinaabeg survival
as distinct cultural and political entities.
Healthy natural resources sustain the
lifeways of Indian people who depend
on them for spiritual, cultural, medicinal,
subsistence, and economic purposes.
Mining puts the land and these natural
resources at risk.
All mining activity will affect air, water,
soil, and living organisms. Some mining
Undersized sedimentation basin along a mine haul road. The sediment will need to be removed for the basin to
impacts are less severe than others, and work as intended.
some can be prevented or mitigated.
But any mining project necessarily Given these inevitable impacts, state Mine operators often attempt to reduce
involves a degree of environmental and federal regulators in ceded territories the environmental impact of their projects
disturbance that can never be exactly must determine what levels of pollution through mitigation measures including air
predicted. And while any type of mining are acceptable or allowable under various and water capture and treatment systems,
alters the natural landscape and produces permits. Tribes generally do not set sedimentation basins, and wetland
mining waste, metallic mining poses regulatory standards in ceded territories; mitigation activities. When mitigation
environmental risks that are especially thus, they may be concerned that other measures are insufficient or fail, however,
acute due to the tremendous scale of governments will not adequately consider the resulting destruction of natural
some metallic mines and the geochemical their worldview or reliance on natural resources can profoundly affect the native
characteristics of the target minerals, ore resources when setting applicable people who rely on them. For Anishinaabe
body, and surrounding rock. standards. people, harvesting natural resources is
Anishinaabe people are very cautious when

making decisions that may affect the health
or availability of natural resources;
their worldview holds that decisions must
ensure the protection of the resources
for the next seven generations. Negative
consequences that occur within 250 years
would fail this cultural standard.
more than just a means to provide food.

Hunting and gathering are cultural
and spiritual activities that renew both
the person and the harvested resource.
Anishinaabe people are very cautious
when making decisions that may affect the
health or availability of these resources;
their worldview holds that decisions must
ensure the protection of the resources
for the next seven generations. Negative
consequences that occur within 250 years
would fail this cultural standard. Access portal for the Eagle mine is drilled into the base of Eagle Rock, a sacred site to tribal people.
(photo courtesy of Chauncey Moran)
For tribal communities, reservation
lands and land in ceded territories provide lands, or the contamination of water, air, traditional Anishinaabe ways of life and
the environment needed to practice or soil. In addition, the economic value tribes’ existence as a culturally distinct
their culture, traditions, and sustain of resources harvested by tribal members people. This perspective was expressed by
their ways of life. On these lands, mining may be lost. Susan J. LaFernier of the Keweenaw Bay
can affect fundamental aspects of tribal The impact of mining on tribes goes Indian Community to help explain the
life and culture in a number of ways. far beyond the ability of tribal members deep concern or opposition many tribal
Tribal members may lose opportunities to find appropriate fish and wildlife to members have toward mining:
to use and harvest resources due to serve as meals or ceremonial feasts. Tribal
the destruction of fish, wildlife, and culture itself suffers when natural resource ...[metallic mining] gains are far
plant habitats, the disruption of wildlife usage patterns are altered, disrupted, outweighed by the potential for
migration patterns, the closure of public or destroyed. Mining can threaten permanent and severe damage to the
environment in and around the Tribe’s sufficient baseline data and incomplete
territory along with the human health understanding of local hydrological
risks associated from certain mining processes.
related contamination for our generation Understanding how and why past
and generations to come. The preserva mining operations failed to protect water
tion of our land, our culture, and our quality is particularly important in the
way of life require that we act now as Lake Superior basin because of its complex
hydrology. Numerous lakes, wetlands,
guardians for the next seven generations
and rivers are interconnected by complex
and mining will be the single greatest
groundwater systems. These groundwater
threat to our water and lands in our
Rivers, lakes, and wetlands interconnected by shallow systems in turn connect through different
lifetime along with all of the other groundwater systems are common in the Great Lakes layers of glacial materials in the shallow
challenges. As Ojibwa (Nature’s) people, region. (photo courtesy of Chauncey Moran) aquifer, as well as in fractures and faults in
we are a part of Lake Superior and the the bedrock.
land, and our survival depends on both. Challenges of Mine The abundance of interconnected
We all need to share the responsibility Waste in a Complex water systems in the Lake Superior basin
and privilege to care for our Earth and significantly increases the risks associated
not make any more environmental
Hydrologic Setting with metallic mining. Multiple interacting
‘mistakes.’ Predicting a mine’s environmental water systems lead to uncertainty in
impacts involves an extensive process of predicting how pollutants will behave
Mining can pose significantly
site-specific research and complex data within them and the adequacy of pollution
different risks to tribes than to other gathering and analysis. For regulators control measures. An abundance of water
natural resources users because of tribes’ to reach a decision about whether to also makes it more likely that pollutants
dependence on healthy natural resources. allow a mining project, the potential will contaminate the water and less likely
But despite being uniquely affected by environmental consequences of a that pollution controls will be completely
mine permitting decisions, tribes are not proposed project must be accurately effective. Finally, the Lake Superior
often the decision makers. In determining described and fully understood. Impacts region is one of climate extremes. A
where and to what extent mining is such as the project’s effects on water mine’s tailings basins, caps and liners, and
quality can be difficult (although not stockpiles must be designed to withstand
allowed in any geographical area, state
impossible) to predict; historically, a a number of challenges, including
and federal decision makers bear a special majority of mine projects have failed temperature changes, heavy rain and
responsibility to ensure tribal lifeways are to accurately predict the water quality snow, freezing and thawing soils, as well as
respected and protected. issues that ultimately occurred. Many of future climate change effects that are not
these failures were caused by a lack of yet fully understood.
To prevent pollution of ecosystems

near mining sites, mining wastes must
often be permanently isolated from the
environment. This isolation is extremely
difficult and efforts to do so have failed
at many mines. Two reasons can be cited Wild rice Wild rice
winnowing. harvest.
for these failures. Current technology
for managing mine waste is constantly Evaluating a Mine’s natural resources but about the resources
evolving and no method has been in themselves and their appropriate
use long enough to completely prove
Potential Social, Economic, management. Any permitting process
itself. Research on how to prevent or and Environmental Impacts must afford tribes the opportunity to fully
mitigate acid mine drainage and pollutant Generally, before mining begins, decision participate; only in this way can potential
leaching is ongoing; new metallic makers must conduct a comprehensive impacts be properly understood and
mining operations in the western Lake analysis of environmental and other evaluated from a tribal perspective.
Superior region would only be the effects of the proposal. Sound public The process of predicting, describing,
policy can only be made by recognizing and evaluating potential impacts in the
testing grounds for these technologies.
the nature of the environmental threats US generally requires the development
Second, the effectiveness of any mine’s
and by understanding that science and
pollution control technology depends technology cannot always predict or repair When a project affects treaty or trust
on a number of factors, including the all of mining’s impacts. resources, whether on or off reservation,
unique characteristics of its operation, Additionally, there are treaties, tribes’ concerns must be considered during the
the characteristics of the ore, and the legislation, and judicial decisions that environmental review process.
environmental characteristics of the site. guarantee tribal rights. Any mine
Every mine is unique, and every mine’s permitting process must give full weight to of an Environmental Assessment (EA) or
pollution control plan must be specifically how the mine would affect Indian tribes. the more comprehensive Environmental
designed for those characteristics. For those impacts to be fully understood, Impact Statement (EIS). In Canada, this
decision makers should explore the type of review is required in some but
(Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 discuss many
traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) not all cases. The environmental review
of the potential impacts of metallic
held by tribal members. Traditional process in the US involves an analysis
mineral mining.) ecological knowledge stems from centuries of the direct, indirect, and cumulative
of living in close connection to the land. environmental consequences of the
It provides critical information not just proposed action as well as a discussion
about tribes and their relationship to
of any alternatives to the action. The EA Ensuring a Mine Can instruments include surety bonds and
and EIS processes also examine a mine’s insurance. Mining companies might also
potential socioeconomic impacts on the
Clean Up the Damage propose a self-guarantee for financial
human environment. (Chapter 4 describes When a decision is made to move assurance. If a mining company goes
issues related to mining’s socioeconomic forward with mining activities, a mine bankrupt, however, a self-guarantee holds
impacts; see Chapter 6 for a fuller operator must provide some form of little promise because the money can be
description of the environmental review financial assurance to ensure the mine distributed to other creditors instead of
and permitting processes.) site is reclaimed properly when the paying for clean-up activities.
When a project affects treaty or trust mine stops operating. The amount of Because closure and reclamation costs
resources, whether on or off reservation, are based on a prediction of the mine’s
tribes’ concerns must be considered during Because closure and reclamation costs are impacts, an accurate cost estimate requires
the environmental review process. The based on a prediction of the mine’s impacts, a detailed closure and reclamation plan.
review process may also trigger various an accurate cost estimate requires a detailed High-quality predictions of impacts are
pieces of federal legislation, depending closure and reclamation plan. High-quality critical: if impacts are missed, or their
on the project’s expected impacts. Some predictions of impacts are critical: if impacts
severity is underestimated, the amount of
are missed, or their severity is underestimated,
of the federal acts include the National financial assurance will be insufficient to
the amount of financial assurance will be
Historic Preservation Act, the American cover the costs. Underestimating a mine’s
insufficient to cover the costs.
Indian Religious Freedom Act, and the impact on water quality, for example, may
Native American Graves Protection and financial assurance differs for each project mean the financial assurance is insufficient
Repatriation Act of 1990. and is based on estimated closure and to pay for a water treatment facility after
Predicting a mine’s impacts on the reclamation costs; the primary goal is to the mine closes. All of these uncertainties
surrounding environment is a complex ensure taxpayers are not left to pay for combine to make financial assurance a
undertaking. If data is incomplete or them. Unfortunately, financial assurance vital topic in planning for mining.
insufficient, the environmental review amounts often are based on predicted
process and the resulting EA or EIS impacts, meaning they can fail to cover
can underestimate or mischaracterize the costs of fixing or remediating those
environmental impacts. Accurately problems that were not predicted.
estimating the environmental price Several forms of financial assurance
of mining is essential to meeting can be used for mining projects. The most
environmental review requirements and secure is cash or an equivalent financial
making informed decisions. instrument that will provide funds even if
the mining company declares bankruptcy.
Less desirable financial assurance
From Raw Earth to Refined Metals:
2.
The Stages of the Metallic Mining Process and
Their Effects on Surrounding Ecosystems
F rom inception through closure, a

mine goes through several stages of
Exploratory drilling penetrates different
geologic layers and may cause water from
different aquifers to mix, thereby changing
development, each with its own impacts
the water’s chemistry. It can also cause water
on the environment and local ecosystems.
elevations within an aquifer to change,
The various stages affect ecosystems,
causing wells to go dry.
habitats, and the quality and quantity of
natural resources that live there.
In the exploration phase a mining
company conducts field explorations, core
Exploration: drilling, metallurgical bulk sampling and
The Challenge of Exploring Taconite pellets.
testing, and other studies. In addition to
Under the Surface The mine operator also has to consider determining the economic viability of the
the costs of returning the mine site to a deposit, one of the goals of the exploration
A mine operator typically explores a
potential site to determine whether it pre-mine condition after the deposit is phase is to establish the geometry of the
wants to move forward with a mining exhausted and mining ends. ore body and whether it is amenable to
operation. A key question during The map on the next page shows processing. The information also helps
exploration is whether the deposit areas of historic and current mineral determine the economic potential of the
contains minerals in a high enough exploration throughout the Lake Superior ore body and whether it is suitable for
concentration to make it economically basin. The map also depicts areas that have underground or open pit mining.
viable to extract them. A mine operator been identified as having potential for The standards by which an ore body
weighs many criteria, not only how much mineral development. While it is unlikely is judged suitable for mining can vary
target mineral the deposit contains but that many of these deposits will become over time. When high-grade iron ore was
also the mineral’s quality (grade) and operating mines, the fact that exploration plentiful, taconite (a low-grade iron ore)
the cost of removing it in a manner that is occurring indicates that those areas have was not mined because it was considered a
safeguards the surrounding ecosystem. the potential to be developed. waste rock. But as the supply of high-grade
12
From Raw Earth to Refined Metals: The Stages of the Metallic Mining Process and their Effects on Surrounding Ecosystems 13
Mines, Mineral Exploration and Mineral

Leasing in the Lake Superior Watershed #
* #
*
#
*
µ
Premier Gold Exploration
Mining Committee
Date:November 18, 2015
0 10 20 40 60 80
#
*
#
* Greenstone Gold Exploration
Miles
#
*#
**#
*
*#
» Operating Mine
#
*#
*
*#
*#
# #
*
#
*
#
* #
*
# #
*
* Mineral Exploration #
* Stillwater Exploration
Rivers #
* #
* #
*
Lac des Iles Palladium Mine
#
*
Lakes » #
*
#
*
#
*
Harte Gold Exploration
* # *#
* #
*
**
# # #
Area of Concern
#
* #
* #
*
#
*
#
* »
Lake Superior Watersheds
#
* #
* Nipigon Bay Peninsula #
* #
* Barrick Hemlo Gold Mine
#
*
#
*
»
Jackfish Bay Island and Magino Gold Mines
Harbor
with Mining Activity #
* #
*
Gold and Platinum Group
#
* Elements Exploration
Mishi Gold Mine
Lake Superior Watersheds
#
*#
* » #
*
Thunder Bay
» #
*
Proposed Polymet Copper, Nickel Mine
#
* Wesdome Gold Mines
Anishinaabeg - Gichigami
Mesabi Nugget
Lake Superior
Potential Twin Metals Copper Mine
##
** #
*
MINNTAC Mine #
* Highland Copper
#
*#
* Potential Dunka Copper, Nickel Mine
Exploration
Magnetation
» »» » ##
** #
* #
*
#
* Gold and Uranium Exploration
»» » »
Minorca Steel
#
* *
#
» Northshore Mine Torch Lake
United Taconite #
*
#
*
Hibbing Taconite #
*
#
* Lundin Eagle Copper Mine St. Marys
Keewatin Taconite
White Pine Mine
#
* #
* #
* #
*
#
* » River
St. Louis Bay/River Highland Copper #

* ##
**
Copperwood #
*
Essar Minnesota Steel #
* #
*#
*
#
*
#
* #
* Empire and Tilden Mines
*#
#* #
*
Penokee Taconite Area
#
* #
*
Humboldt Mill
Locations of operating mines and areas of recent mineral exploration in and around the Lake Superior basin.
iron ore decreased, the mining industry

began to view taconite as a potential
resource. This changing attitude is
important in the Lake Superior region
because taconite is found extensively in
the iron ranges of Michigan, Minnesota,
and Wisconsin. Once taconite ore is
removed from the ground, the mining
company concentrates it into pellets
slightly smaller than a marble. The pellets
Dril rig operator at the PolyMet potential mine site in Drilling operation at the Bend deposit in Wisconsin. (also called taconite) are a concentrated
Minnesota displaying a piece of core. iron product, more economical to
transport and process into finished goods.
A mine operator also must consider
the potential threats exploration activities
pose to the surrounding ecosystem.
Exploratory drilling penetrates different
geologic layers and may cause water from
different aquifers to mix, thereby changing
the water’s chemistry. It can also cause
water elevations within an aquifer to
change, causing wells to go dry.
Another potential threat in the
exploration phase is drilling sludge, the
material brought to the surface during
drilling. Drilling sludge, also known as
drill cuttings, can contain sulfide ore,
heavy metals, and other contaminants, and
it can contaminate surface waters when
not disposed of properly.
The exploration phase also causes
land to be disturbed by road and drill pad
building and by heavy equipment use.
A mining haul road constructed after the Eagle mine was permitted in Michigan. These activities can introduce invasive
(At far left)

Waste rock stockpile at
the Humboldt Mill in
Michigan.
(Near left)
Satellite image of the U.S.
Steel MiNNTAC tailings
basin. This facility is
approximately 16 square
miles in size.
species and compact soils, resulting in Developing an open pit or

Tailings are the byproducts of processing
greater surface run-off. underground metallic mine generates
left over after a mine removes and refines
large amounts of waste rock and ore the target minerals. For all mine and
Development: processing byproducts. Waste rock is ore types, the lower the ore grade,
Ecological Impacts made up of the soil, rock, and non-target the more tailings are produced.
materials a mining company must remove
of Constructing a Mine to reach and excavate the ore that lies Tailings are the byproducts of
When a proposed mine has cleared all under the surface. The amount of waste processing left over after a mine removes
permitting hurdles, the mining company rock a mine generates depends on the and refines the target minerals. A
can begin development and start turning location and depth of the ore body. Often typical mining operation generates an
the land into a working mine. Mines a mine can use some of the waste rock extraordinary volume of tailings compared
are either developed underground or, in other parts of the mine operation, but to the amount of usable mineral it extracts,
more commonly, as an open pit, but their rarely can a mine utilize all of it. Thus, because even ore considered high mineral
purpose is the same: to bring to the surface when a mine closes, it typically leaves content has a mineral concentration that is
what was formerly underground. behind large stockpiles of waste rock. quite low. A taconite facility that mines
24 million tons of ore in a year will

typically generate 16 million tons of
tailings for every 8 million tons of pellets.
In a typical copper mine, the ratio of
tailings to usable mineral is far higher:
each ton of ore yields only about eight to
ten pounds of copper, meaning a copper
mine produces about 1,990 pounds of
tailings for every 10 pounds of copper it
produces. For all mine and ore types, the
lower the ore grade, the more tailings are
produced.
Mine development affects local
ecosystems in a myriad of ways:
Erosion and Sedimentation

Developing a mine necessarily involves a
dramatic reshaping of the land, exposing
it to erosion by disturbing its natural
contours and form. Steep slopes often
formed by mining operations may erode
Taconite mine pit and pit lake in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota.
when rain washes the soil downhill. When
the rain carries those soil fragments into
nearby waterways, sedimentation occurs. contamination. (Chapter 3 provides a pulling in water from the surrounding
Sedimentation presents a multitude of more detailed discussion of acid mine area. In a process called dewatering,
ecological risks. In lakes and streams, drainage and its effects on ecosystems.) water is pumped out continuously until
sedimentation can cover and kill mining is finished and the mine closes. A
vegetation and invertebrates; it can cover Hydrologic Changes consequence of continuously removing
fish spawning grounds as well as introduce Because any pit or shaft constructed below this groundwater is that it can lower water
contaminants into the environment. When the water table accumulates groundwater, levels in the surrounding area, causing
sediments from mine development are a mine developer must pump the water what is known as a cone of depression.
acidic or contain heavy metals, they pose out of a mine before it can remove If the groundwater is linked to rivers or
threats similar to those caused by acid ore. Whether the mine is open pit or lakes, removing it from the mine pit will
mine drainage (AMD) and heavy metal underground, it acts as a giant well by not only lower water levels in nearby wells
including hydrology changes, aerial

deposition of reactive dust, and the
fragmentation of animal habitats. The
removal of these wetlands to construct
mine pits would reduce the habitat of a
number of species, including moose who
use them in summer as a refuge from hot
temperatures. Finally, the surrounding
surface waters and groundwater aquifers
likely would be affected due to the
interconnection between aquifers, surface
waters, and the holes that mine pits create
in the landscape.
Contaminant Leaching
To get to the subsurface ore, a mine
operator must dig open or underground
pits. When mining operations end, these
large pits are sometimes backfilled to
add stability and prevent the remaining
rock from being exposed to air and water.
High-quality wetland complex in the ceded territory. When not carried out properly, however,
backfilling can cause negative impacts.
but can also lower surface water levels. proposed NorthMet mine in Minnesota
Backfill often consists of waste rock and
The extent of the cone of depression and provides a good illustration of the ripple tailings made from the ground rock and
the extent of its impact on surface water effect mining development can have in process effluents used in the concentrating
depends greatly on the area’s hydrology wetland areas. The NorthMet mine would process. If the backfill contacts water and
and geology. be located within the Hundred Mile escapes from the mine’s underground
The location of a metallic mine Swamp, an area of high-quality wetlands workings or pits, surface and groundwater
dictates the nature and severity of its with excellent biodiversity. The project can be contaminated.
hydrologic threats. If an ore body is mined would fill approximately 1,000 acres in Some mine projects, however, opt to
near interconnected lakes, streams, and this wetland complex. Thousands more leave behind a lake that is formed when
wetlands, the water itself can transport acres could be indirectly impacted by groundwater re-floods the mine pit.
pollutants throughout the system. The a combination of mine-related effects The operators of the NorthMet mine in
Tailings ponds of the

Empire Iron mine
in Michigan. Lake
Superior is visible
in the background.
(photo courtesy of
Chauncey Moran)
Minnesota propose to leave behind such are exposed to air and water, both have the
a pit lake. The danger of these lakes is potential to generate acid mine drainage
that the water can be contaminated and and release metals into the surrounding
dangerous to wildlife. Compounding the environment. Tailings can contain heavy
risk of a contaminated lake is the danger metals, chemicals, and acid-generating
that the water will overflow at the surface
sulfur compounds, all of which are toxic
or seep into the groundwater, thereby
spreading the contaminated water beyond to the environment in varying degrees,
the mine site. and waste rock may contain radioactive
Sulfur-bearing waste rock and tailings materials. (Chapter 3 provides a more
Acid rock srainage from the Buck and Dover Iron Mines that are disposed of above ground present complete discussion of issues surrounding
in Michigan.
another type of ecological threat. If they waste rock and tailings.)
Air Quality Impacts economically feasible to ship it to facilities

Mine development can also impact air in Canada for further concentration and
quality. When rock is excavated, crushed, smelting.
and transported to the surface, it can When new transportation corridors
release contaminants into the air. Dust and improvements are constructed to
generated by mining contains particulates transport ore, they can have significant
that may affect human and animal impacts on the environment through
health if inhaled and contain pollutants deposition of ore dust that escapes
which can contaminate soil, water, and from trucks and rail cars. At the Eagle
vegetation. Gaseous air pollutants may Mine, for example, the mining company
contain sulfur dioxide which irritates Ore truck headed to the Eagle mine in Michigan. proposed construction of a new road
the lungs and can damage or kill plants, to link the mine to Humboldt Mill, an
especially evergreens. Metallic mining taconite operations ranged between 100
ore beneficiation plant in rural upper
operations in the Lake Superior region and 150-kilowatt hours per ton of pellets
Michigan. The proposed road would
have disturbed geologic layers containing produced, meaning a mine that produces
8 million tons of taconite pellets per year have transected a remote area, filled
asbestos-form fibers which, if released into
uses the amount of electrical energy equal approximately 26 acres of wetlands, and
the air, can pose serious health risks.
to approximately 110,000 households. crossed 22 streams. The potential damage
was not limited to the road’s construction:
Dust generated by mining contains
particulates that may affect human and animal
Transportation Effects ore dust from trucks would have impacted
health if inhaled and contain pollutants which During mine development, ore is removed the area during mine operation and would
can contaminate soil, water, and vegetation. and transported for processing. Blasting have had lasting consequences on water
materials, heavy equipment, and large ore quality along the corridor. In the end, the
trucks used to remove and transport the mining company abandoned that road
Carbon Footprint ore can introduce a number of harmful proposal after the EPA objected based on
Developing and operating a mine requires chemicals into nearby waterways. Because water quality concerns.
enormous amounts of electricity to run a great percentage of the mined ore
machinery, process ore, and maintain will be waste, generally the ore cannot
climate control in the underground be economically transported very far
tunnels. This energy demand leads to off-site. If the ore is particularly high
significant releases of greenhouse gases grade, however, it can be cost-effective to
which contribute to global climate change. transport it off-site for further processing.
For example, the Bureau of Mines reported At the Flambeau mine in Wisconsin, for
that electric power requirements at most example, the high grade of the ore made it
Milling:
Reducing Boulders to Sand
After the ore is removed, milling is
generally the next step toward producing
a usable metallic mineral product. Milling
involves crushing large pieces of ore
removed from the mine. Crushing and
grinding reduce the ore pieces to a size
Fugitive dust can potentially contaminate

soil, surface water, and groundwater because
it can carry toxic elements including
heavy metals. It also can be deposited on
surrounding soils and surface water and
taken up in plant tissues.
suitable for mineral extraction, down to

fine sand or even a fine powder.
A primary ecosystem threat from
milling comes in the form of fugitive dust
Map of area of potential effect for regional haze prepared for the Polymet DEIS.
that escapes during that process. Fugitive
dust can potentially contaminate soil,
of perimeter roads around the Minntac
surface water, and groundwater because
facility have been constructed from coarse
it can carry toxic elements including
tailings. For dust control, tanker trucks
heavy metals. It also can be deposited on
surrounding soils and surface water and constantly spray water throughout the
taken up in plant tissues. This particulate facility. Despite these efforts, the mine has
dust also can affect regional haze, another not been able to fully control its dust. In
type of air pollution. 2008, mine owner U.S. Steel agreed to pay
Techniques for controlling dust are a $120,000 fine for air quality violations
not completely effective. In open pit related to excessive dust emissions at
operations, the sheer size of the exposed Minntac. Other taconite facilities along the
area makes dust suppression difficult. In Iron Range in Minnesota have also been Truck spraying water for dust suppression at the
Minnesota, for example, hundreds of miles cited for failures in dust control. Minntac tailings basin.
Beneficiation: Gravity separation, used in nonferrous Metallurgical Beneficiation

processing, separates the minerals Once concentrates are isolated through
Transforming the Milled according to their different densities by gravity, chemical, or magnetic processes,
Ore to Usable Metals suspending them in a fluid. Their different metallurgical beneficiation processes
In the Lake Superior region as well as settling rates allow the desired mineral to can be applied to extract target metals
most of the world, high grade ores of iron, be collected from the bottom of a tank. that other methods were unable to
copper, gold, silver, and other metals have Froth flotation is the most widely used recover. Hydrometallurgy uses water-
been mined out. Metal-bearing ores are based solutions to extract metals from
method of beneficiating nonferrous ores.
rarely found in high-grade form but are ores, a process known as leaching.
The froth flotation method begins by Pyrometallurgy uses high temperature
mixed with gangue, or waste material, adding chemicals to the milled ore so that
and generally as compounds of several processes to force a chemical reaction
the surface of one or more minerals in to convert the ore to a more extractable
elements. This means that even after the
the slurry will repel water and attract air form. Electrometallurgy involves the use
milling process has reduced the ore to
a powder, a mine operator must further bubbles. The air bubbles rise to the surface of electrical current to extract metals from
of the slurry and the resulting froth, ore. Smelting (a form of pyrometallurgy)
concentrate the target metal to make
containing the minerals, is then skimmed is the most common type of metallurgical
shipping economical.
and collected. Froth flotation is the beneficiation, and involves heating the
Mines use various processes
metal concentrate beyond its melting
collectively known as beneficiation to beneficiation method that was proposed
point to separate out impurities.
accomplish this further separation and by the Crandon Mining Company in
concentration of the target metal. The Wisconsin and at the NorthMet project in Beneficiation Byproducts and
beneficiation method a mine uses depends Minnesota. Environmental Impacts
on the target metal, ore grade, and specific Magnetic separation is used in some The different methods of concentration
chemical characteristics of the ore. Every ferrous mine operations. The magnetic and beneficiation use a large variety
mine develops a unique combination separation process mixes the crushed ore
of physical and chemical processing
with water and grinds it to a fine powder
techniques in order to maximize recovery
with a rotating mill. Magnets separate the
of the target mineral.
magnetic iron from the gangue, and the
Concentrating resulting iron powder is then mixed with
Generally all types of ore must be limestone and baked into marble-sized
concentrated through separation. The taconite pellets.
most common separation methods are The final product of the concentrating
gravity, froth flotation, and magnetic. process is often called a concentrate. Beneficiation equipment: autoclave for hydrometallurgy.
and volume of chemicals. Some of these lowers the pH of water and may increase REAGENT THREAT TO THE ENVIRONMENT
chemicals are relatively benign but others, its sulfate level and the production of Potassium Toxic at very high levels, causes
like sulfuric acid and cyanide, are highly hydrogen sulfide, both of which can be salt imbalance
toxic. They must be transported to and toxic to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Sodium Unknºwn
xanthates
stored at the mine site until used and The environmental impacts of sulfur
Thiocarbonates Unknown
can harm ecosystems if they leak or spill. dioxide releases can be seen at the iron Kerosene, fuel Toxic, impairs flavor of tissue, decreased
Many process chemicals persist in the beneficiation plant that operated in Wawa, oil, wood tar, dissolved oxygen in water
tailings, where they can contact ground or Ontario from 1939 to 1998. The plant’s coal-tar oil,
pine oil
surface water and be carried away from sulfur dioxide emissions caused severe Aliphatic Toxic
the mine site. damage to the boreal forest throughout alcohols
The smelting process releases large a 20-mile kill zone downwind of the Polypropylene Unknown
amounts of sulfur dioxide, affecting and plant. Impacts included tree and shrub glycol methyl
ether
sometimes killing trees by acidifying soil deaths and a marked decline in species Methyl isobutyl Unknown
and damaging leaves and flowers. The diversity. In addition to these impacts, carnbinol
released sulfur dioxide can also react surface waters downwind of the smelter Crysylic acid Toxic, used in disinfectants
with oxygen and water to form sulfuric showed a marked increase in sulfate and Copper sulfate Highly toxic to aquatic life
acid, a component of acid rain. Acid rain acidity when compared to other waters Sodium sulfide May increase hydrogen sulfide
Sulfur dioxide May decrease pH
Sodium cyanide Highly toxic to aquatic life
Zinc sulfate Highly toxic to aquatic life
Starch Breakdown products can deplete
Satellite image oxygen in water
of the zone of Sodium Highly toxic to aquatic life
dead vegetation dichromate
downwind of the Sodium fluoride Used as insecticide, toxic
smelter at Wawa. Sodium Increases pH
hydroxide
Lime May increase pH and hardness
Soda ash Increases pH
Sulfuric acid Decreases pH
Sodium May increase pH
carbonate
Sodium silicate May increase pH
Tannin May decrease pH, reduces metal toxicity
Complex May decrease pH, causes excessive aquatic
phosphates plant growth
This Map is to Help You Find Safe Ogaa (Walleye) in Lakes Harvested by Lac du Flambeau
Mercury is another byproduct of beneficiation MAP FOR USE BY PREGNANT WOMEN, WOMEN OF CHILDBEARING
AGE, AND CHILDREN UNDER 15 YEARS OF AGE.
that is of particular concern in the Lake GILE FL

DO NOT EAT OGAA LARGER THAN 20 INCHES.
EAT OGAA LESS THAN 20 INCHES AND CHOOSE EVEN SMALLER
Superior basin; the negative effects of mercury

OGAA TO FURTHER REDUCE MERCURY EXPOSURE.
N TURTLE L
PRESQUE ISLE L CHAIN
ROUND L
Walleye consumption
S TURTLE L
to human health are well documented.

L GALILEE
IRON PAPOOSE L
HARRIS L
HORSEHEAD L
OXBOW L
TENDERFOOT L
advisory for Mercury
for the Lac du
CLEAR L BIRCH L PALMER L
CIRCLE LILY L LYNX L

CRAB L W BAY L
MILLE LACS
REST L MAMIE L
L OF THE FALLS
TRUDE L BIG L
HIGH L
BIG L WILDCAT L BLACK
OAK L
LAC VIEUX DESERT
Flambeau band.
in the region. Soil samples in this area also
LITTLE
SPIDER L
BIG GIBSON L FOREST L
CROOKED L
LITTLE STAR L ISLAND FISHTRAP L BIG
L BOULDER L BALLARD L PORTAGE L
DEAD PIKE L ALDER L JAG L WHITE SAND L LONG L
IRVING L BIG SAND L
contained elevated levels of soluble sulfate

TWIN L CHAIN
L LAURA
Mille Lacs Res. SHERMAN L
BUCKATABON LAKES
MANITOWISH L TROUT L ALLEQUASH L
(UPPER AND LOWER)
LITTLE TROUT L STAR L VILAS
ASHLAND SPARKLING L KENTUCK L
and arsenic. Scars from this contamination

WILD RICE L
PLUM L
TURTLE-FLAMBEAU FL LITTLE JOHN L PICKEREL L SCATTERING
UPPER GRESHAM L
BIG MUSKELLUNGE L RAZORBACK L LOST L OTTER L RICE L
TURNER L FRANKLIN L
BIG ARBOR VITAE L LITTLE ARBOR VITAE L BIG ST GERMAIN L SNIPE L
were evident in satellite imagery taken

BUTTERNUT L ROUND L EAGLE L ANVIL L
SHISHEBOGAMA L MADELINE L
CARROL L LITTLE ST GERMAIN L
PIKE L PICKEREL L CRANBERRY L
DAIRYLAND RES PRICE CATFISH L BUTTERNUT L
DAM L
in 2010 even though the plant had been

SQUAW L SAND L
BUCKSKIN L CLEAR L ISLAND L LITTLE FORK L
SQUIRREL L CHAIN L
BLUE L
BOOTH L GILMORE L INDIAN L
MEDICINE L
closed for 12 years.

BRANDY L AND JULIA L
SOLBERG L ARROWHEAD L MINOCQUA L
RUSK N NOKOMIS L
MUSSER L
JOHNSON L TWO SISTERS L
KATHERINE L RAINBOW FL
HASBROOK L FOREST
LAC SAULT DORE MUSKELLUNGE L
Mercury is another byproduct of

LONG L BEARSKIN L
KAWAGUESAGA L RHINELANDER FL
DUROY L WILLOW FL
MOEN L
beneficiation that is of particular concern

TOMAHAWK L CHAIN BIG CARR L
WILSON L
L THOMPSON MARATHON
CHIPPEWA SQUASH L CRESCENT L GEORGE L
ONEIDA RICE R FL CHAIN
in the Lake Superior basin; the negative L CHIPPEWA
LINCOLN
MANSON L
JERSEY CITY FL
PELICAN L
BIG EAU PLEINE
effects of mercury to human health are

L WISSOTA RESERVOIR
L MOHAWKSIN L ALICE
Funding for these maps was provided by the
well documented. In most cases mercury is SAWYER For Ogaa Smaller than 20 Inches:
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
GLIFWC: February 2016 Eat up to 8 meals or 64 ounces per month.
.
Eat up to 4 meals or 32 ounces per month.
a low concentration component of the ore Eat up to 2 meals or 16 ounces per month.
Eat up to 1 meal or 8 ounces per month.
and is released when the ore is processed

0 1.5 3 6 9 12 Do not eat ogaa from these lakes.
Miles
Not enough information available.
GILE FL
Number of meals is based on an 8 ounce meal size. If your
N TURTLE L
with heat, such as during taconite pellet

PRESQUE ISLE L CHAIN meal size is larger, you should reduce the number of meals
you eat per month.
ROUND L
S TURTLE L
L GALILEE HARRIS L
HORSEHEAD L TENDERFOOT L Lac du Flambeau Reservation
IRON PAPOOSE L
formation and pyrometallurgy. The

OXBOW L
PALMER L
County Boundary
CLEAR L BIRCH L
Tribal reservation boundaries are representations and may not be the actual
MILLE LACS CIRCLE LILY L LYNX L
CRAB L W BAY L legally binding boundaries.
REST L MAMIE L
mercury enters the air and is deposited on

L OF THE FALLS
WILDCAT L BIG L BLACK LAC VIEUX DESERT
TRUDE L BIG L
HIGH L OAK L
LITTLE
SPIDER L CROOKED L BIG GIBSON L
FOREST L
LITTLE STAR L ISLAND L FISHTRAP L BIG
the landscape by dry and wet deposition.

BOULDER L BALLARD L PORTAGE L
DEAD PIKE L WHITE SAND L LONG L
JAG L IRVING L BIG SAND L
ALDER L TWIN L CHAIN
Mille Lacs Res. L LAURA
SHERMAN L
BUCKATABON LAKES
TROUT L
Fish living in contaminated waterways

MANITOWISH L ALLEQUASH L
(UPPER AND LOWER)
LITTLE TROUT L STAR L VILAS
ASHLAND WILD RICE L SPARKLING L KENTUCK L
LITTLE JOHN L PLUM L SCATTERING
TURTLE-FLAMBEAU FL PICKEREL L
UPPER GRESHAM L LOST L OTTER L RICE L
BIG MUSKELLUNGE L RAZORBACK L
absorb and concentrate mercury in TURNER L FRANKLIN L

BIG ARBOR VITAE L LITTLE ARBOR VITAE L BIG ST GERMAIN L SNIPE L
BUTTERNUT L ROUND L EAGLE L ANVIL L
SHISHEBOGAMA L MADELINE L
CARROL L LITTLE ST GERMAIN L
their bodies. When humans eat the PIKE L PICKEREL L CRANBERRY L

DAIRYLAND RES
PRICE DAM L CATFISH L BUTTERNUT L
SQUAW L SAND L
BUCKSKIN L CLEAR L ISLAND L LITTLE FORK L
SQUIRREL L CHAIN L
contaminated fish, mercury acts as a

BLUE L
BOOTH L GILMORE L INDIAN L
MEDICINE L
BRANDY L AND JULIA L
SOLBERG L MINOCQUA L
RUSK ARROWHEAD L N NOKOMIS L
neurotoxin, interfering with the brain and

MUSSER L
JOHNSON L TWO SISTERS L
KATHERINE L RAINBOW FL
HASBROOK L FOREST
LAC SAULT DORE MUSKELLUNGE L
LONG L BEARSKIN L
KAWAGUESAGA L RHINELANDER FL
nervous system. DUROY L WILLOW FL

MOEN L
L CHIPPEWA TOMAHAWK L CHAIN BIG CARR L
WILSON L
CHIPPEWA L THOMPSON
SQUASH L CRESCENT L GEORGE L

ONEIDA RICE R FL CHAIN
MARATHON
MANSON L
PELICAN L
L WISSOTA LINCOLN
SAWYER JERSEY CITY FL
MAP FOR USE BY WOMEN BEYOND CHILDBEARING AGE L MOHAWKSIN L ALICE

BIG EAU PLEINE
AND BY MEN. RESERVOIR
FOR OGAA LARGER THAN 20 INCHES, EAT FEWER MEALS.

Major sources of mercury in the Lake Superior basin.

communities. Even when subsidence is

not associated with a disaster or accident,
planned subsidence can alter drainage
patterns and disrupt the natural surface
hydrology. The operator of the underground
Copperwood mine in Michigan is planning
to allow surface subsidence of several feet
after mining ends.
For contaminated sediment within

stream banks or lake beds, remediation
can be very complicated.
Closing a mine operation involves

demolishing mine buildings and facilities,
removing pipelines, roads, rail lines, and
power lines, re-vegetating disturbed
areas, and beginning post-mining water
treatment and monitoring. During the
Tributary of Lake Superior that could be impacted by subsidence at the proposed Copperwood mine site. closure phase, additional monitoring of
surface and groundwater, customized to
Reclamation: to its natural condition is a long-term, post-mining conditions, should begin.
expensive, and time-intensive procedure. Monitoring is essential at waste rock
Deconstructing Mine In most cases, the goal is to return the stockpiles and tailings basins to ensure
Workings and Reclaiming mine site as closely as possible to its pre- contaminated water is not seeping into
the Mine Site mining conditions. surrounding surface and groundwater.
When the target mineral is depleted or the One risk that can occur both during Monitoring should continue until the
mining operation is no longer profitable, and after mining is subsidence, the surface monitoring data indicates that mine
production ends and the mine project collapse of underground mine workings. seepage, mixed with naturally occurring
enters the closure and reclamation phase. Catastrophic collapse of underground rain and groundwater, has reached
The process of permanently shutting down mines during mining can be a serious equilibrium and meets applicable water
mining operations and returning the site hazard to workers and surrounding quality standards.
Forested wetland at the Lynne Copper deposit in Wisconsin. Once lost, this type of wetland is difficult to restore.
Post-closure refers to the time that

it takes, after surface reclamation, for a
mine site to be returned to its pre-mine
condition. Post-closure reclamation will
be influenced by the climate, physical
characteristics of the mine site, applicable
law, and the technical and economic
feasibility of the reclamation project.
The amount of time needed to achieve a
pre-mine condition depends on which
resources are contaminated and the extent
of contamination.
If the site needs remediation to
reach its pre-mine condition, the
time required will depend on the
extent of contamination and the
resources committed to cleaning up
that contamination. For contaminated
sediment within stream banks or lake
beds, remediation can be very complicated.
At the closed Flambeau mine in northern Sediment detention ponds at the closed Flambeau mine in Wisconsin.
Wisconsin, for example, drainage from a
parking lot entered a stream, and efforts
to remediate the copper-contaminated
stream have been ongoing for over a
decade beyond mine closure.
3.
Mining and Its Effects on Water
M ining operations impact the

environment in a myriad of ways, with
varying degrees of consequences and
reparability. Metallic mining’s most
dangerous risk, however, is to water. Metals
contamination, chemical pollution, the
possibility of acid mine drainage, and
other threats to surface and groundwater
are risks that must be taken into
consideration in both permitting decisions Satellite image of the town of Bento Rodrigues in Minas Satellite image of the town of Bento Rodrigues after the
Gerais Brazil before the structural failure of the Samarco structural failure of the Samarco tailings dam.
and when operating a mine. Mines and tailings dam.
associated facilities must be carefully
designed and engineered to contain the Hydrologic Changes: originates when minerals containing
wastes produced; the failure to do so has sulfur interact with oxygen and water. The
Acid Mine Drainage, chemical reaction that follows generates
had devastating effects on ecosystems.
In 2015, for example, two tailings dams Metals, Chemical Pollution, the acids and oxides commonly referred
containing iron mining waste collapsed and Water Quantity to as AMD. Mining can significantly
at the Samarco iron ore mine in Brazil. accelerate the acidification process because
The tailings escaping from the dam Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) mining raises the sulfide minerals to
mostly destroyed a nearby town and Among the many environmental risks the surface and crushes them, thereby
contaminated the water supply to more posed by metallic mineral mining, acid exposing more surface area to water
than 200 other area towns. mine drainage (AMD) stands out for its and oxygen. While nonferrous minerals
potential to permanently and irreparably are often bound with sulfur, creating a
damage the surrounding ecosystem. AMD significant potential for the generation of
28
Mining and Its Effects on Water 29
Uncontrolled acid generation from AMD

results in an ecosystem with high levels of
metals, dissolved solids, sulfates and acidity. A
mine draining acid water can devastate rivers,
streams, and aquatic life for many years.
AMD, ferrous ores that contain pyrite can

also generate AMD.
A mine can generate AMD for
hundreds or even thousands of years, until
all of the sulfur in its tailings, waste rock
stockpiles, and exposed mine pits has been
consumed in the acid generation process.
AMD can kill fish and other aquatic life
and severely contaminate surface and
groundwater. Not all mines will have
an AMD problem, but it is critically
important that the possibility of AMD
generation be fully investigated at every
mine. Although it can sometimes occur
under natural conditions, AMD comes
primarily from active and abandoned
mines. Acid rock drainage at the Buck and Dover mine in Michigan. The water flows into the Iron River.
In addition to acidifying ground
and surface water, AMD accelerates the The waste rock stockpiles at the installing caps on the stockpiles to limit
dissolution of metals such as copper, lead, now-closed Dunka Mine in Minnesota infiltration and by using constructed
and mercury into ground or surface water. demonstrate how a mine can continue to wetlands to treat the discharged effluent
Uncontrolled acid generation from AMD generate and release AMD. In addition have had limited success. The pH levels in
results in an ecosystem with high levels to generating acid, the waste rock still the affected creeks have improved, but the
of metals, dissolved solids, sulfates and releases sulfate and metals such as copper, concentrations of some metals, like nickel,
acidity. A mine draining acid water can nickel, and cobalt at levels that exceed have not decreased. The source of acid
devastate rivers, streams, and aquatic life state and federal water quality standards. and metals at the Dunka Pit is the Virginia
for many years. Efforts to mitigate this contamination by Formation, a sedimentary layer on top
form relatively insoluble compounds in

water that will sink and be buried in the
sediments. Others, however, are more
soluble and will become available to
interact with organisms. Although many
metals become more soluble in acidic
water, including copper, cobalt, cadmium,
and nickel, some metals are more soluble
at neutral or higher pH. These include
selenium, fluoride, aluminum, uranium,
and arsenic. In addition, some processing
chemicals like cyanide are most soluble at
neutral to alkaline conditions.
Chemical, Sulfur, and

Thermal Pollution
Metals are not the only chemicals released
at metallic mine sites. Other forms of
chemical pollution can result from spills
of ore, concentrate, process chemicals,
and other materials used at the mine.
Contaminated water seeping out of
tailings basins, waste rock stockpiles, and
Safety warnings in the Iron River downstream of the Buck and Dover mines.
underground mine workings are common
causes of chemical pollution.
of the Biwabik Iron Range in Minnesota. Metals Contamination
New mine proposals along the east end of For example, in 2008, the Michigan
Mining extracts the minerals and metals Department of Environmental Quality
the Mesabi Range, including the proposed found in the ore body. These metals— (MDEQ) became concerned about
NorthMet mine, would intersect this lead, arsenic, antimony, cadmium, cobalt, elevated selenium concentrations in
same mineral formation and could create copper, zinc, mercury, manganese, effluents from the Empire and Tilden
similar AMD issues. molybdenum, and many more—may be taconite mines. Selenium levels in area
essential to life but in large quantities waterways exceeded water quality
cause metal toxicity. Some of these metals standards considered protective of fish and
Potential copper nickel mines along the east end of the Biwabik Iron Range.
Fish are an important subsistence food for tribal

members.
aquatic life, in some cases by more than

tenfold. GLIFWC found that: Empire-Tilden mining district in Michigan. Waste rock piles, mine pits, and tailings from over 50 years of mining.
[f ]ish collected from the Escanaba River, led the MDEQ to issue fish consumption can be transformed into methylmercury,
Goose Lake and surrounding streams, advisories for lakes and streams down a neurotoxin. Methylmercury becomes
including brook trout, northern pike, gradient of the mine effluent. Efforts to increasingly concentrated as it moves up
and white suckers, all exceeded the reduce selenium discharges are underway food chains, resulting in greater exposure
EPA’s suggested threshold values above but data collected by GLIFWC in 2015 to humans and wildlife. Because fish is a
which there may be impacts on fish
indicates that the levels still exceed primary source of mercury in humans,
reproduction. Selenium levels in these
standards. the mercury in fish tissue stemming from
fish were approximately 20 times the
Another mine-related chemical of mining releases of sulfate is a great concern
national average. The results confirmed
concern is sulfate. Sulfur occurs naturally as for tribes.
that selenium is accumulating in fish at
levels that may have adverse impacts on
the pure element and in compounds. When Sulfate can also suppress the growth
these species. sulfur (in the form of sulfate) is present of wild rice. Minnesota has limits on
with mercury, the combination has the the discharge of sulfate into rice waters,
Because excess selenium exposure potential to have extensive environmental although those standards have rarely
can be harmful to humans, these findings impacts. In the presence of sulfate, mercury been enforced. The effects of sulfates on
manoomin (or wild rice) are of great reasons Minnesota limits sulfate levels to could help limit the generation of toxic
concern to the Anishinaabe because 10 parts per million for water used in wild sulfide.
of their deep cultural connection with rice production. The amount of sulfate in The effects of sulfate releases on wild
manoomin. In the 1940s, Minnesota mine water can be tens or hundreds of rice beds can be seen in the Sandy River
Department of Natural Resource scientist times greater than the amounts naturally and connecting lakes in Minnesota. While
Dr. John Moyle conducted extensive field found in nature. Recent research has these waterways historically provided
research on the distribution of wild rice indicated that sulfate released by mines abundant manoomin, almost none
in Minnesota. Moyle’s data showed that is converted to sulfide in the sediment of exists there now. The primary reason for
waters with sulfate levels over 10 parts per a river or lake and it is this sulfide that is the decline is the high concentrations
million (ppm) did not support healthy highly toxic to wild rice. Controls to limit of sulfate seeping out of the Minntac
stands of wild rice. His work is one of the the discharge of sulfate into waterways tailings basin immediately upstream.
Wild rice on the Mondeaux Flowage. This area could Water seeping out of the Minntac tailings basin and moving toward the Sandy Lakes in Minnesota.
be impacted by mining in the Chequamegon-Nicolet
National Forest.
Flooded wetlands
downgradient of the
Minntac tailings basin.
Dead spruce trees
indicate a change in
hydrology.
Flooded Minnesota county road CT308, downstream of

an iron mine tailings basin.
water may experience a change in species

composition; wetlands that are dependent
on groundwater may dry out completely.
State regulators have recognized that to some fish, and elevated temperatures For fish, lowering the water table
sulfate emissions in the hundreds of can reduce fish egg viability. can expose spawning grounds, making
parts per million coupled with increased them unusable. To mitigate the impacts
water levels (see discussion below) are a Water Quantity of a lowered water level, mine operators
probable cause of the near disappearance By its nature, mining consumes and sometimes pump water directly into lakes
of wild rice in the area. diverts surface and groundwater and can and streams. But this approach bypasses
Another water issue in mine seriously affect its quantity, flow speed, the natural system and may not adequately
development arises when the discharged and flow direction in the area around replicate the water’s flow, temperature,
the project. The management of water oxygen, and chemistry.
wastewater is a different temperature than
is an important consideration in both Water pumped out of the mine must be
the receiving water. Warmer water is lethal
evaluating environmental impacts and in stored or used. Some of the water is used
planning mine operations. in ore processing and much of it is used to
Recent research has indicated that sulfate
released by mines is converted to sulfide in the The need to manage water begins transport tailings to the disposal facilities.
sediment of a river or lake and it is this sulfide with the workings used to access the ore From there, the water can re-enter the
that is highly toxic to wild rice. Controls to limit body. If nearby lakes and streams are environment as seepage.
the discharge of sulfate into waterways could connected to the water table, their levels Most modern mines treat wastewater
help limit the generation of toxic sulfide. will drop as well. Wetlands that depend to comply with water quality standards
on groundwater for a portion of their but often dispose of the treated wastewater
through drain fields that flow into existing The Challenge of A very serious risk associated with tailings
bodies of surface water or shallow
groundwater. Introducing this treated
Containing Mine Waste storage is the long-term structural stability
of the storage facilities. Catastrophic failures
water can alter existing hydrology and Mine facilities, especially the tailings
have occurred throughout time at tailings
create excess water in the system. In management areas and waste rock storage
dams, causing environmental contamination
streams, the additional water can lead areas, must be carefully designed, operated,
and the deaths of local residents.
and maintained. Only with a high level
to flooding and increased scouring of
of care, not only during the life of the
streambed and banks. Wetlands that are ponds and basins typically are very
mine but often for many years beyond,
inundated with excess water can change can a mine avoid the negative impacts large in size and become permanent
type, and the ecology of those wetlands can described above. features of the landscape. Because tailings
become permanently altered. Although contain sulfide compounds, heavy
wastewater itself may meet water quality Tailings metals, and unrecovered beneficiation
standards, the chemistry of the wastewater Tailings are the main byproduct of the chemicals, storage facilities that contain
beneficiation process. More specifically, them are a source of contaminants to
tailings are composed of minerals which surrounding waters for centuries or longer.
Because mine tailings can be a source of AMD,
could not be recovered or have no Environmental contamination occurs
the goal for sulfur containing tailings is to
engineer a facility that isolates tailings from commercial value, along with the water when tailings escape from management
either oxygen or water. and chemicals used in beneficiation areas or from backfilled mine workings;
processes. Tailings are a combination of almost any type of facility for storing
solid waste and water, typically in slurry these mine wastes eventually will leak
can leach metals from the surrounding or paste form because the milling process contaminants into water.
geology, causing increases in groundwater creates very small particles. They must How a mining company designs a
concentrations of toxic constituents. be stored in a reservoir made specifically tailings facility depends on the site’s
Finally, water level changes caused for tailings storage, often a pond or basin. specific environment, the conditions,
by pumping water out of mine pits and Because mine tailings can be a source and the type of mineral processing it will
releasing water through tailings basins of AMD, the goal for sulfur containing utilize. The difficulty is that tailings are not
can damage wild rice. Wild rice grows in tailings is to engineer a facility that isolates easily kept isolated from the surrounding
tailings from either oxygen or water. environment. All liners and cap systems
shallow water, and increases in depth may
This isolation prevents the acidification used to isolate tailings and tailings water
flood wild rice beds. In addition, if a large
reactions from occurring, but, as described from the surrounding environment leak,
quantity of water is released all at once, it
below, it can be difficult. due to imperfections in their installation
can uproot and kill the growing plant. The environmental challenges at and general wear over time. In addition,
tailings facilities are many. Tailings no containment system or engineering
A tailings basin at the

Minntac mine complex
with trunks of trees
uprooted.
control will last forever, and the perpetual

maintenance and care of these facilities
has become an important factor in the
assessment of mining impacts. Illustrating
this principle is the Grouse Creek mine
in Idaho, located adjacent to the largest
wilderness complex in the contiguous
United States. The Grouse Creek Mine was
heralded as a state of the art mine when
it opened in 1994. Three years later, the
mine closed. Soon thereafter, a tailings
impoundment began leaking cyanide
into surrounding water. In 2003, the U.S.
Forest Service declared the mine site an
“imminent and substantial endangerment”
to human health; cleanup activities are
ongoing.
A very serious risk associated
with tailings storage is the long-term
structural stability of the storage facilities.
Catastrophic failures have occurred
throughout time at tailings dams, causing Specular hematite ore left behind on a waste rock stockpile in Michigan.
environmental contamination and the
Brazil killed 17 people and contaminated hundreds or thousands of years. Tailings
deaths of local residents. For example,
in 2014, a tailings pond catastrophically the water supply for many more. generated by other types of concentration
collapsed at the Mount Polley gold and Tailings from hydrometallurgical processes, such as froth flotation and
copper mine in British Colombia, Canada. processes are more hazardous than tailings gravity separation, can be stored in pits,
The breach sent over 30 million cubic feet produced during the concentration tailings dams, impoundments, or other
of contaminated effluent into waterways, process discussed in Chapter 2. They types of tailings management areas. Ideally
and the formerly pristine Quesnel Lake. contain high levels of metals and these facilities are lined with impermeable
About one million sockeye salmon spawn chemicals used in the hydrometallurgical materials, such as clay or synthetic liners,
annually in the Quesnel Lake watershed. beneficiation process and so must be but this is not always the case.
As mentioned above, the failure of two separated from the environment in
tailing ponds at the Samarco mine in capped and often double lined facilities for
Waste Rock Mines sometime send wastewater and

Rock that is not targeted by the mining leachate (liquids collected from tailings
operation is called waste rock. Waste areas and waste rock stockpiles) to a water
rock, like tailings, is a physical byproduct treatment plant. After treatment, water and
of the mining process that presents an useful chemicals may be recycled for use
environmental challenge and reclamation in mine operations such as ore processing,
responsibility. A mine generates waste rock but wastes must be stored in the tailings
in the process of stripping the overburden Cross section of a version of the Polymet tailings facilities. Even after a metallic mine closes,
(the rock and soil on the surface) to reach basin with seepage capture and geotechnical stability water treatment plants may need to operate,
the ore body and access the target mineral. features. sometimes for many years, to prevent con
Waste rock may contain some target tamination of surrounding waters. If well-
underwater, thereby reducing the exposure
mineral but it is in amounts insufficient planned and implemented, a water treat
of sulfur and metals to oxygen to decrease ment system can be an effective mitigation
for a mine to economically process.
acidification and oxidation. Sub-aqueous tool at operating and closed mines but
Waste rock does, however, still contain
disposal generally is an effective mitigation must be maintained at significant expense.
metals and minerals. These metals may
include lead, zinc, arsenic, antimony, method; however, not all mines have an
silver, cadmium, cobalt, copper, mercury, open pit that can be used as a disposal Some types of wetlands may take decades
manganese, aluminum, molybdenum, site, and using natural lakes destroys the to restore and may never again become
and nickel. Waste rock also can contain existing ecosystem of the lake. self-sustaining ecosystems or provide
sulfide compounds, and to prevent AMD the ecosystem benefits that they provided
it should not be exposed to air or water. Restoring Hydrology before being altered. The difficulty of the
These substances can escape into the restoration and the time required depend
Water quality and quantity issues can on the type of wetland and the quality
environment through runoff or fugitive
persist after mining ends. The very of the mitigation work.
dust, and groundwater containing metals
existence of surface and underground
can contaminate surface waters.
mine features can permanently alter local Seepage to groundwater from some
Waste rock is sometimes stored in
lined facilities with leachate collection hydrology by changing water levels in facilities, such as temporary waste
systems to collect water that escapes, streams and lakes, filling wetlands, and rock stockpiles of non-reactive waste
thereby reducing impacts to surface and creating backfilled pits and underground rock, might need water treatment and
groundwater. Another common waste rock workings that alter local groundwater water quality monitoring for a short
mitigation measure is the sub-aqueous quality and flow. Water treatment is also time. Other facilities like tailings basins
(under water) disposal of rock if it has a often needed during and after mining to may need groundwater capture and
high sulfur or metal content. This disposal ensure that discharges meet water quality treatment and water quality monitoring
method involves placing waste rock standards. for centuries after a mine has closed. The
Figure 4: !
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Partridge River Wild Rice
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Railroad ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !
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ge
Wetlegs Creek
id
Pipeline rtr
! ! !
Pa
Rivers
Lakes
L ong n ose
Tailings Basin Area
Polymet Mine Project Area Esteban Chiriboga
10-27-2011
Existing Mining Features
Cre
k ek Pa
ee rtr
Cr id ge
an Ri v er
ym
k
W
e
Cre
k
ree
Co
d
dC
ame
lv
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m
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ve
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Fir
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ek
Colby Lake
Areas of Wild Rice Production

r
ive
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idg
Barr rice data - 2009 and 2010

rtr
Pa
Whitewater Reservoir
Map of wild rice locations in the Partridge River downstream of the proposed Polymet mine pits. The project must meet the wild rice sulfate standard at these locations.
iver
ui s R
Wetland restoration is an important

part of mine closure, and wetlands can
play an important role in the restoration
of both water quality and quantity.
But the restoration of wetlands is not
a straightforward task. Some types of
wetlands may take decades to restore and
may never again become self-sustaining
ecosystems or provide the ecosystem
benefits they provided before being
altered. The difficulty of the restoration
and the time required depend on the
type of wetland and the quality of the
mitigation work. Many wetland restoration
projects also require long-term monitoring
and periodic maintenance.
Constructed wetlands are sometimes
used to improve water quality. Treatment
wetlands use biological processes to
remove metals from the water. While
they can be successful in removing some
Wetland restoration projects are complex and don't usually replace all functions of an intact wetland. metals, each wetland must be individually
designed for the specific type of waste
hydrometallurgical tailings basin proposed A particularly challenging aspect of
stream it will treat. Treatment wetlands,
at the NorthMet mine in Minnesota, groundwater protection is the difficulty
similar to other mining water treatment
for example, would contain hazardous of monitoring. Because groundwater systems, require long-term maintenance
materials that in a water-rich environment moves down gradient much more slowly to ensure the proper functioning of
could eventually leak to groundwater. than surface water, it may take centuries the biological processes that remove
The NorthMet basin would be a potential for contamination to be detected at contaminants from the water.
source of contamination in perpetuity. monitoring points. The long-term nature Given the significant impacts that
That facility would be constructed in a of this threat means that groundwater mining has on water quality and quantity
wetland and over a buried stream that monitoring must also be long-term, and the potential long-term nature of
eventually enters the Embarrass River, so particularly in wet areas like the Great some of those impacts, careful manage
long-term containment is essential. Lakes region. ment is essential.
Cumulative Impacts of Metallic Mining—
4.
Time, Geography, and Community
T o develop an accurate and complete

understanding of mining’s impacts,
regulatory agencies need to take a big-
picture view, taking into account not
only the cumulative effects of an area’s
past and current metallic mines but also
mining’s potential economic effects over
generations.
Environmental Effects
of More than One Mine
The Great Lakes region provides a
good example of how historical mining
operations complicate the monitoring and
safety of new mining ventures. Mining
has occurred throughout the Great
Lakes region for more than 150 years;
historical metallic mining operations dot
the landscape throughout the 1836, 1837,
Headframe at the Northshore mine in Silver Bay, which has been operating since 1956. 1842, and 1854 ceded territories. (See
map on page 42.) Because some historical
mines operated with little environmental
protections, water contaminated with acid
and metals often drained away from the
41
Closed metallic mines in the ceded territory.

Cumulative Impacts of Metallic Mining—Time, Geography, and Community 43
Cumulative effects of mine discharges have increased sulfate concentrations in the St. Louis River.
mines and into streams. Some mines were

closed without remediation or monitoring
activities. The cumulative environmental
impact of closed and abandoned mines is
relatively unknown; nevertheless, environ
mental review of a new project should
consider these historical facilities and their
Multiple mining operations in the

same area can cause simultaneous
impacts to the environment.
possible impacts when a new mine project

is proposed for the same area.
Mining effects can also accumulate
and compound where ore bodies of
different grades or different minerals
overlap in one geographic area. Multiple
mining operations in the same area
can cause simultaneous impacts to the
environment. For example, water with
high concentrations of sulfate seeping
out of several different tailings basins
in Minnesota flow through different
tributaries to the St. Louis River. (See map Few wildlife corridors remain on the Iron Range of Minnesota due to mining impacts.
on page 43.) In that case, the cumulative
effect of sulfate on the St. Louis River in Wisconsin were smelted in Michigan, Cumulative effects from numerous
is greater than the effect of any one environmental impacts on treaty resources mine developments can impact species’
mine project. at both locations would have to be habitats. And while land use changes
Regional impacts of multiple mine addressed. In response to this concern, accumulated over time can affect a variety
projects are of particular concern for the the US Environmental Protection Agency of species, they are a particular concern for
Ojibwe tribes whose treaty rights extend worked closely with tribes and tribal endangered or threatened species already
throughout much of the Lake Superior agencies to develop a protocol for assessing in decline. Habitats can be fragmented by
basin. For example, if ore from a mine cumulative impacts on tribal lands. the large surface areas that mines typically
The US Environmental Protection Agency

worked closely with tribes and tribal agencies
to develop a protocol for assessing cumulative
impacts on tribal lands.
disturb. The combination of new mining

activity coupled with existing stressors
such as climate change creates concerns
for the long-term health of populations
of these animals. An analysis of wildlife
migration corridors prepared for the
proposed NorthMet mine provides an apt
demonstration of cumulative impacts. (See
map on page 44.) The report concluded that
only limited migration corridors remain in
the Iron Range of Minnesota, highlighting
the fact that the disruption of any one
corridor would have a significant impact.
Socioeconomic Issues
and Impacts Recreational value of land, such as camping and trail use, must be accounted for in socioeconomic analysis.
While the economic evaluation of a bonds. Historically, however, many

potential mine typically focuses on jobs If a wetland is filled, its function as a no-cost,
mining companies have gone bankrupt
and revenue, a true and accurate picture natural water treatment is destroyed,
and been unable to pay the cost of
must also factor in the financial aspects and it might need to be replaced by a costly
cleanup. An estimation of a mine’s cost
of the environmental degradation. For artificial water treatment system.
to the community must therefore factor
example, many mine projects may require in the possibility that mine closure and
water treatment activities for decades remediation costs will be left to local a healthy environment provides to the
or centuries. Ideally the costs of water residents or taxpayers. public. Wetlands, so often placed at risk
treatment, cleanup, and remediation Just as the negative costs of mining by mining operations, have been called
activities will be paid by the mining have to be considered, so must a com “the kidneys of the world” because they
company through financial assurance munity weigh the tangible benefits that naturally filter and clean the water that
flows through them. If a wetland is filled,

its function as a no-cost, natural water
treatment is destroyed, and it might need
to be replaced by a costly artificial water
treatment system.
Other factors complicate the
understanding of mining socioeconomics,
including the job losses that can result
in other sectors of a rural economy.
Tourism and outdoor recreation activities
like camping and fishing are not always
compatible with a large industrial project
like mining. If tourists choose other
destinations for outdoor recreation, jobs
in those sectors of the economy can suffer.
Also complicating an understanding of
mining socioeconomics are the impacts
of rapid population growth which may Because most new mines are outcomes, as well as a connection between
overextend schools and social services. proposed in rural areas where economic geographic areas with concentrated levels
While some mines may provide an
development is challenging, local of mining and high levels of chronic
overall positive economic outcome in a
communities often view a mine as an poverty.
economic engine that will allow their When researchers at the University
Areas of the US having the highest levels
of long-term poverty tend to be the very town to thrive. Yet the reality is that areas of Wisconsin-Madison compiled
places that were the site of thriving of the US having the highest levels of socioeconomic information on incomes,
extractive industries. long-term poverty tend to be the very unemployment rates, and poverty rates for
places that were the site of thriving 301 mine sites located in rural areas, their
community, economic research indicates extractive industries like mining. And findings showed that:
that mines do not necessarily result in while many look at mining as a long- [C]ontrary to the long-established
long-term economic prosperity for the term economic panacea, the social and assumptions, but consistent with
local area. Understanding what a potential economic impacts are far more complex. more recent critiques, roughly half
mine will and will not do for a community Researchers and economists have found of all published findings indicate
is critical to accurately evaluating its effect a correlation between mining activity in negative economic outcomes in mining
on that community. rural communities and negative economic communities, with the remaining
findings being split roughly evenly seen more recently in the iron mines of
between favorable and neutral/ Many of the high paying mining jobs go to Northern Minnesota, where, starting in
indeterminate ones. nonlocal workers who possess the needed 2015, a market glut of foreign steel caused
qualifications. New mining jobs may be taconite prices to drop. The resulting lower
The researchers found little scientific basis produced, but local workers may not be able
for the popular assumption that mining prices caused the shutdown of half of the
to take advantage of them. region’s big iron-ore operations, at least
always leads to economic improvement.
temporarily, and the loss of 1,500 area jobs
Mining projects do create a number and technical expertise not typically found in the “notoriously cyclical” iron mining
of high paying jobs, yet past and present in a rural workforce. The result is that industry.
mining communities often see high many of the high paying mining jobs go to Community support for mining
levels of poverty. The reasons underlying nonlocal workers who possess the needed typically depends upon an assumption
this paradox are complex, and a true qualifications. New mining jobs may be that mining will bring high paying jobs
understanding of mining’s impacts on a produced, but local workers may not be to local citizens and general economic
community can only be reached through able to take advantage of them. prosperity for the community. But
consideration of the full range of its The boom and bust cycle typical of mining’s legacy of environmental damage
economic costs and benefits. One factor is the mining industry is another factor that may be too easily overlooked when a mine
that modern mines employ fewer workers can negatively impact a rural community. project is proposed in a rural community
than in the past because much of the Metal prices fluctuate drastically on the hungry for jobs and lost prosperity. As
work is now mechanized and automated. global market; typically, when prices socioeconomic studies have shown, this
Research by Dr. Thomas Power, an are high, mines expand and new mines view of mining as an economic savior has
economics professor at the University of are built. When prices decline, however, little basis in long-term economic reality.
Montana, shows that employment trends mines reduce their output or temporarily And for the communities that come to
in mining operations of the Iron Range close. This ebb and flow in ore prices depend on them, mines and mining jobs
in Minnesota reflect an 83% reduction in is particularly relevant in the upper will always have a limited lifetime. Even if
the number of mining jobs between 1979 Great Lakes region, where many of the the price of the ore is stable, the resource is
and 2005, with increased mechanization proposed mines have relatively low ore finite and the projects will come to an end
being one of the main reasons for this grades. Generally, the lower the grade, the when the resource is gone.
decline. Many mining jobs that remain lower the profit margin for a mine. The
require a level of education, specialization, effects of this sensitivity to price has been
5.
Mining’s Effects on Anishinaabe Culture
A mine brings many changes to the

surrounding land and to the people who
live there. These consequences can feel
especially acute to native people whose
culture is inextricably tied to that land. In
order to appreciate what these changes
mean for the Ojibwe tribes in this region,
it is important to understand their
worldview and orientation toward the
natural world.
Ojibwe Spiritual Beliefs

and the Moral Dimensions
of Land Stewardship
To the Anishinaabe, any environmental
destruction has consequences, whether
or not it is associated with mining. When
hunting, fishing, or gathering, Anishinaabe
In Anishinaabe culture, environmental decisions are based upon how they will impact the land for seven see their role as part of both the natural
generations to come. and spiritual order. Anishinaabe spiritual
beliefs mandate the use of certain plants,
animals, and fish in ceremonies attendant
to hunting, fishing, and gathering
48
Mining’s Effects on Anishinaabe Culture 49
(At far left) Frances Van Zile, a Sokaogon Chippewa

tribal member gives a ceremonial staff to a visitor.
(At left) Sokaogon Chippewa tribal member

using a drum during a ceremony.
(Above) Evaporating the ziinzibaakwadwaaboo

(maple sap) at a sugarbush.
Makwa (black bear) is a culturally important species to Waawaashkeshi (deer) or ayaabe (buck) is a main Ma'iingan (wolf ), also a clan animal, accompanied the
the Anishinaabe. A large percentage of Ojibwe people staple of the traditional and modern diet of many tribal Original Man on his journey to name all of creation.
belong to makwa doodem (bear clan) who traditionally members. The waawaashkeshi will allow itself to be Although they parted ways once the journey was
held the role of patrolling village outskirts. Makwa is harvested for subsistence as long as Anishinaabeg pays complete, the deep kinship that was formed exists
also viewed as a keeper of medicinal plant knowledge. the proper respect to ensure the continuation of the to this day.
spirit of the waawaashkeshi.
activities. These ceremonies ensure the • For the Anishinaabe, the difference still be spirits that need to be recognized
perpetuation of the resources and the between humans and non-humans when and honored. All spiritual beings, whether
physical, mental, and spiritual well-being determining who constitutes a spiritual human or non-human, have rights and
of the person. being is less clearly defined. A spiritual warrant respect.
being may manifest as a human, animal,
Three aspects of an Anishinaabe view of • Humans are not the masters of the world
plant, or rock but may also reside in or
nature inextricably link the perpetuation of but rather weak and pitiable creatures,
be associated with certain places such as
humans to the perpetuation of the natural a mountain or body of water. As such, dependent upon all other non-human
world. This belief system holds that the line when an Anishinaabe is interacting with beings for survival. The proper attitude
between human and non-human beings is a part of their environment that may be towards the natural world is one of care-
ambiguous: deemed inanimate by some, there may taking, humility, and gratitude.
Many traditional teachings of the Anishinaabeg occur

in landscapes such as the sandstone sea caves and the
shores of Gichigami (Lake Superior).
Anishinaabe spiritual beliefs mandate the

use of certain plants, animals, and fish in
ceremonies attendant to hunting, fishing,
and gathering activities. These ceremonies
ensure the perpetuation of the resources
and the physical, mental, and spiritual
well-being of the person.
Aerial view of Terrace Bay in Ontario.

• The relationship of humans to the rest of

nature is one of reciprocity. Animals, for
example, will offer themselves to a hunter
Map depicting the
as an act of pity for his or her weakness. Traditional Cultural
If the hunter does not accept this gift Property of the
with feelings of respect and gratitude, the Sokaogon Chippewa.
natural world will withdraw cooperation. The proposed Crandon
mine would have been
Anishinaabe perpetuate this worldview located within this TCP.
and their attendant responsibilities to the
natural world through stories, ceremonies,
and language. These teachings instruct
Anishinaabeg about how to care for, manage,
and make decisions that affect the land.
Given this worldview, the alteration
or destruction of plant and animal
communities without proper respect given
to the non-human beings involved invites
disaster not only for the environments
affected but also for humans. Harm to the Sokaogon Indian Community, described
rights of non-human beings is equivalent
Mining and Its Effect
how environmental impacts of the mine
to environmental harm. In a reciprocal on the Land: The Keweenaw
would have been
world, such a violation is understood to Bay Indian Community
have dire consequences for humans who
disregard this relationship. In addition,
visited not only on the waters, wetlands, and the Eagle Mine
streams, and hills that make up what
human beings have a responsibility to be a we here call the Mushgigagamongsebe
An Anishinaabe view of land focuses
voice for non-human beings who cannot on the importance of sustainability
District, but on the Tribe, other Ojibwe
speak for themselves. and integrity of natural resources and
groups, and the living cultural environment
Illustrating this belief system are the habitats that support them. Place is
for whose care Ojibwe people deem particularly important to the general
thoughts shared by the Sokaogon
Chippewa Community, in a report themselves to be responsible. Anishinaabe thought, which is rooted
prepared during the environmental more towards space than time. The
impact analysis of a proposed mine. The importance of a particular geographic
report, titled The Mushgigagamongsebe: spot can no more be moved to a different
A Traditional Cultural Landscape of the location than a significant event in
American history be moved to a different are required to obtain permission from

The importance of a particular geographic
time. This sense of specific geographic the mining company and wear proper
spot can no more be moved to a different
importance and integrity can be at odds safety attire while at the rock.
location than a significant event in American
with modern mining interests. history be moved to a different time. This sense Since the mining company has
The importance of the land and of specific geographic importance and integrity conditioned access to Migizi Asin,
the rights of non-human beings in can be at odds with modern mining interests. practicing Ojibwe spirituality at the
Anishinaabe culture is at the heart of site has been affected and forced to
the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community’s extend under the rock, and Migizi Asin undergo an inorganic change, at least for
concerns about the Eagle mine, located could be damaged if the mine workings the lifetime of the mine. If Migizi Asin
in the 1842 ceded territory. The opening collapse. The rock is also subject to the does not survive the mining activities,
to the mine shaft is adjacent to the base industrial noise of mining operations, the loss of such a key site would impact
of Migizi Asin (Eagle Rock), a place a significant impact considering the the Anishinaabeg ability to practice
where the community has conducted ceremonial use of the site relies on its their spirituality and culture and lead
fasting, prayer, and other ceremonies for quiet and remote location. Theoretically, to a corresponding loss of Anishinaabe
generations. A portion of the mine will Migizi Asin remains accessible, but visitors identity.
Migizi Asin, or Eagle Rock, at the Eagle mine site in Michigan, after the mining Aerial view of the Eagle mine site.
company restricted access to this sacred site.
Mining’s Disruptive
Effects on Resources
and Practices Critical to
Anishinaabe Culture
Manoomin (Wild Rice)
Manoomin is central to the Ojibwe
migration story and tribes’ subsequent
settlement in the Great Lakes region:
Ojibwe prophecy directed them to journey
until they found the “food that grows upon
the water.” When they reached the shores
of Lake Superior and found manoomin
growing on the waters, the Anishinaabe
understood their 500-year journey was
over. Manoomin remains a unifying
feature of Ojibwe society and culture. Not
only is it an important food source, it is
used in ceremonies as a way to honor the
Ojibwe prophecy and to show continued
respect for this invaluable resource. In
fact, the distribution of Anishinaabe
corresponds closely to the distribution
(Above) Tribal members seeding manoomin on
of manoomin. Wild rice features in the Rice Bay on Lac Vieux Desert Lake.
lives of other tribes as well, including the
Menominee Tribe of central Wisconsin, (Right) Young tribal members
enjoying manoomin.
whose English name is derived from the
Ojibwe word for “wild rice man.”
Stories and histories of various Ojibwe
bands throughout the Great Lakes region
illustrate manoomin’s distinct influence on
and importance to the Ojibwe people. The
manoomin found in the aptly named Rice
Lake, on the Mole Lake Reservation in

Wisconsin, is one of the main reasons the
tribe settled in that area. The tribe waged
wars with neighboring Dakota tribes to
keep possession of the lake, and these wild
rice beds continue to figure prominently
in the tribe’s cultural practices. In
response to the proposed Crandon mine
that would have been located less than
two miles upstream, Frances Van Zile, a
Manoomin remains a unifying feature of

Ojibwe society and culture. Not only is it an
important food source, it is used in ceremonies
as a way to honor the Ojibwe prophecy
and to show continued respect for
this invaluable resource.
member of the Sokaogon (Mole Lake)

Chippewa, explained the sense of loss that
would accompany the destruction of this
manoomin: “There is no substitute for wild Tribal members harvesting manoomin on Rice Bay on Lac Vieux Desert Lake.
rice. My whole way of being as an Indian
would be destroyed. I can’t imagine being
Anishinaabe view of manoomin generally Giigoonyag (Fish)
and information about particular beds Mining can affect fish in many ways.
without it. And there is no substitute for
specifically, regulators should seek out (See Chapter 3 for a detailed discussion
this lake’s rice.”
tribal Traditional Ecological Knowledge
As described in Chapter 3, sulfates of mining’s effects on water.) Impacts
(TEK). Such knowledge is derived from
and water level changes pose threats to the food chain in lakes and rivers are
centuries of living alongside this resource
to the manoomin resource. Given particularly damaging to Anishinaabe
and can shed light on how it may respond
the integral role manoomin plays in because of the nature of subsistence
to environmental changes and how it
Anishinaabe culture, regulators must harvest of fish. Tribal members tend
should be managed.
give serious consideration to these to consume fish in cycles, with peak
impacts when considering a potential consumption occurring in spring. When
mine. To adequately understand the the fish are impacted to the point that
tribal members must limit their fish

intake or avoid it altogether, their ability
to consume fish in ways required by their
culture, such as in feasts, is significantly
affected.
Mercury in fish tissue is the primary
source of fish consumption limits in the
Great Lakes region, and mines are the
largest sources of mercury in the Lake
Superior basin. The mercury from mines
is emitted to the air via smokestacks. A
portion of this mercury returns to the
waters in the ceded territories where
bacteria can convert it to methylmercury.
These bacteria are eaten by bigger
organisms, who are eaten by small fish,
who in turn are eaten by bigger fish like
walleye and northern pike. These fish
are important components of the tribal
diet and are used in multiple ceremonial
feasts throughout the year. When people
eat these fish, they also consume all the
methylmercury that has been accumulated
through the food chain. (Above) Subsistence harvest of ogaa (walleye) during
the traditional spring spearing season.
Another mine related contributor
to this food chain problem is that the (Left ) Mercury in fish tissue can force tribal members
sulfate coming from mining increases to limit the fish they eat or avoid fish altogether.
the rate at which the bacteria converts Mines are the largest source of mercury in the
Lake Superior basin.
mercury to the toxic form that allows it to
enter the food web. The combination of
mercury and sulfate emissions increase the
necessity of fish consumption advisories
and may ultimately affect the health of
individuals who consume those fish.
Mercury is not the only element that

bioaccumulates in this manner. Like
mercury, selenium in fish has created
the need for fish consumption advisories
intended to protect human health.
Disruption to Sense of Place

For an Anishinaabe, a mine project can
drastically alter a region by changing its
aesthetic. Tribal people are particularly
sensitive to the visual and acoustic impacts
of mining because, as described above,
their perspective is focused more on space
than time. Geographic locations are not
interchangeable, so the loss of a cultural
or natural resource in one location cannot
simply be replaced with a similar resource
in another location. Noise and vibration
from blasting and other mining activities
can carry for miles and produce decibel
levels hazardous to human and animal Map illustrating the viewshed of the Eagle mine headframe. This is the area where tribal members exercising treaty
health. Smokestacks, processing plants, rights would be able to see the mine feature.
and mine head frames are large structures
that can extend well above the tree line These are just a few examples of how tribal ways of life is greatly diminished.
and are visible from long distances. Such mining affects the lands and rights of These impacts in turn can translate into
features, when constructed in a remote Anishinaabe people. When various impacts on a tribe’s ability to sustain
area, can significantly change the local activities, including mining, compromise healthy communities that function in
landscape and profoundly affect tribes or destroy natural resources, on harmony with the natural world and are
who have important cultural stories reservation lands or in the ceded territory, consistent with Anishinaabe worldviews.
relating to their landscape. the ability of native people to support their
The Anishinaabeg prioritize protection of water and believe that without clean water there would not be life.
Legal Landscape:
6.
An Overview of Mining Law
and Regulation
M ining in the United States is regulated

under a combination of state, federal, and
In the US, the mine permit process
generally is done through the state, but
various federal permits and agencies
tribal authorities. No single mining agency also play a role. Two federal agencies in
holds control over all mining operations. particular—the Environmental Protection
Similarly, no one body of law provides Agency (EPA) and the US Army Corps
a singular regulatory framework for all of Engineers (Corps)—are involved
aspects of mining. Mining operations in regulating activities that occur in
instead are governed by a patchwork conjunction with mining. The EPA and
system of interconnected and sometimes the Corps can play the role of primary
overlapping laws, rules, and regulations, decision maker for the federal permits
some of which date back to the 1960s and required for a mine project. These agencies
1970s. (While this document discusses the also set environmental standards a
mining laws of Ontario, the national laws mining operation must comply with, often
Canada as a whole are not examined.) through a program delegated to a state.
Which agencies and regulatory The EPA has the ultimate oversight
frameworks will govern a mining authority to administer laws and
operation depends on the circumstances regulations formulated through federal
and geographic area of the individual legislation such as the Clean Air Act,
mine. If a mine is located on or near the Clean Water Act, and the National
reservation lands, tribal air and water Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). The
quality standards can apply. The situation Various federal environmental laws and regulations Corps of Engineers regulates and issues
is similar in the Canadian province of apply to most mining projects. permits for various types of development
Ontario, where various provincial and projects, including mining activities that
federal agencies and laws apply to mining impact wetlands and other “waters of
proposals. the United States.” Particularly under the
58
Legal Landscape: An Overview of Mining Law and Regulation 59
Clean Water Act (described more fully will apply. The Clean Air Act and the Act: Section 404 of the Act requires a mine
below), the Corps’ regulatory authority Clean Water Act are two of the primary operator to obtain a permit before it can
is broadly defined. “Waters of the United legislative frameworks in the US that discharge dredged or fill material into
States” are defined generally as waterways pertain to metallic mining. waters of the United States, something that
capable of supporting interstate commerce The Clean Air Act requires the EPA might occur in the process of constructing
and including their tributaries and to develop ambient air quality standards a mine. The Corps of Engineers typically
adjacent wetlands. Determining whether is the agency to issue these permits, but
the Corps’ authority extends to some Two federal agencies in particular—the the EPA has the ultimate oversight of the
isolated waters requires a detail-driven Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Corps’ section 404 permit decisions. The
analysis. The EPA has oversight authority the US Army Corps of Engineers (Corps)—are only time the Corps is not involved in
when the Corps issues permits under the involved in regulating activities that occur in a section 404 permit is when a state has
Clean Water Act (described below). conjunction with mining. The EPA and the Corps been delegated that authority. In these
Tribal sovereignty and treaty rights can play the role of primary decision maker for cases, however, the EPA still retains the
also have implications for mines proposed the federal permits required for a mine project. ultimate oversight. So far only two states,
in treaty ceded territories. Treaties Michigan and New Jersey, have been
are the law of the land, and state and as well as standards for hazardous air delegated section 404 permit authority and
federal agencies cannot disregard treaty pollutants. Relevant to mining operations, assumed this permitting role.
obligations when implementing laws that the Clean Air Act imposes strict standards A myriad of other federal acts
regulate mineral development. How those on new or modified sources of air can apply to metallic mining in the
rights may affect permitting decisions or pollution and a stringent approval process US, far more than can be described
permit conditions is not always clear and for new sources of pollution. in this document. Examples include
will depend heavily on the specific facts of The objective of the Clean Water Act the Endangered Species Act (if the
a particular proposal. Nevertheless, tribal is to restore and maintain the chemical, operation may impact plants or
interests must be taken into account when physical, and biological integrity of the animals that are listed as threatened
determining how a mine would impact a nation's waters through the control of or endangered); the Toxic Substance
tribe, its treaty rights, and its community. both point and nonpoint sources of Control Act (which requires regulation
pollution. The Clean Water Act gives states of chemicals that present risks to health
US Federal Laws and the authority to set their own standards, or the environment); the Comprehensive
Regulations Related but if a state chooses not to do so or sets Environmental Response Compensation
standards the EPA deems inadequate, the and Liability Act (CERCLA) (requiring
to Metallic Mining EPA will take action and mandate the reporting of hazardous substance releases
The particular circumstances of a water quality standards for that state. and inventory of chemicals handled); the
mine project dictate which federal An example of how a metallic mining Safe Drinking Water Act (which directs
environmental laws and regulations operation might trigger the Clean Water standards for quality of drinking water
analysis of the environmental impacts

of the project as proposed, but it must
also describe the impacts of alternative
project plans.
The EIS process includes public
hearings to allow citizen comments about
the proposed action. Federal regulations
and guidance require agencies to contact
Indian tribes and provide them with
opportunities to participate at various
stages in the preparation of an EA or EIS.
Another important act that may be
considered in the issuance of the mining
permit is the Native American Grave
Protection and Repatriation Act. If the
mine site is on federal or tribal lands
Protestors concerned about the Eagle mine project’s effect on water quality demonstrate at the state courthouse in and Native American graves or artifacts
Marquette, Michigan. are found, then the construction may
supplied to the public, for which states the permitting processes to take a hard be halted. Similarly, if the mine site is
are primary authorities); the Migratory look at the environmental impacts of each designated as a Traditional Cultural
Bird Treaty Act (protecting nearly all bird proposed project, thereby ensuring that Property (one with significant architecture,
species); and the Solid Waste Disposal Act the environmental costs and benefits are history, archeology, engineering, or
(which regulates generation, storage and considered in each decision. culture) under the National Historic
disposal of hazardous waste and manages NEPA first requires the lead agency Preservation Act, and eligible to be listed
solid, non-hazardous waste). to prepare an Environmental Assessment on the National Register of Historic Places,
Another federal law, the National (EA) to get a preliminary feel for whether the federal government must consult
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), is the proposed project will have a significant with tribes in order to avoid, minimize, or
triggered by any major federal action that impact. If the agency finds that the project mitigate adverse impacts.
has the potential to significantly impact may have a significant impact on the
the quality of the human environment, environment, it must then prepare an
including permitting decisions. NEPA Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
requires the federal agencies involved in The EIS must provide not only an in-depth
A Brief Overview of permitting. The fee for a nonferrous

mining application is $10,000, but the
Mining Laws and Policies applicant is responsible for the full
of Minnesota, Wisconsin, amount of the Department’s cost to review
Michigan, and Ontario the application. For a ferrous mining
application, however, Act 1 capped at
Whether or not federal environmental
laws are triggered, individual states have $2 million the amount a mine applicant
their own laws, policies, and regulations must reimburse the DNR for application
that apply to mining operations. related costs.
Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin all The DNR performs an environmental
require permits before mining operations review of the project and advises the
commence, as does the Canadian province applicant on what additional mining-
of Ontario. related permits the applicant should
seek from the agency. The DNR makes
Wisconsin law and policy the ultimate decision whether to issue a
In 2013, the landscape mining permit. Under Act 1, it must make
of metallic mining law a decision on a ferrous mining application
changed significantly within 420 days after the mining
in Wisconsin with application is deemed complete. For
the passage of Act nonferrous mines, the timelines are longer
1, which established and depend on the outcomes of several
a separate statutory In 2013, the Wisconsin legislature established a separate steps built into the application process.
framework for ferrous (iron) mining. Prior legal framework for the regulation of iron mining. One unique feature of Wisconsin
to Act 1, Wisconsin regulated ferrous and
For conflicts that arise between other law as it pertains to nonferrous mining
nonferrous metallic mining in the same
state laws and the new ferrous mining law, (sometimes referred to as sulfide mining)
manner. Act 1 created a new statutory
Act 1 declared that the ferrous mining is the 1998 Mining Moratorium Law, also
framework, setting ferrous mining apart
from all other types of metallic mining statute controls the outcome (a change known as the ‘Prove It First’ law. This law
and creating a separate, expedited process from previous law and from the current requires an applicant for a nonferrous
for ferrous permits and approvals. In nonferrous metallic mining law). mining permit to show examples of
addition, Act 1 changed state law to Whether a ferrous or nonferrous mine mining operations in the US or Canada
incorporate a presumption that significant is proposed, Wisconsin’s Department that have not polluted ground or
adverse impacts to wetlands are necessary of Natural Resources (DNR) is the surface water for at least 10 years during
to accommodate ferrous mining activities. agency primarily responsible for mine operations and after closure.
Michigan law and policy Michigan’s earlier reclamation law, the Minnesota law and policy
Michigan also has Reclamation of Mining Lands, still governs In Minnesota,
seen changes in ferrous mining under Part 631 of NREPA. ferrous and
its mining laws. Michigan’s Department of nonferrous mining
Until 2004, ferrous Environmental Quality (DEQ) is laws are a part of
and nonferrous the agency primarily responsible for the Minnesota
metallic mining mine permitting. The permit fee for a Environmental
were regulated nonferrous mine permit in Michigan is Policy Act of 1973,
under the same $5,000; there is no application fee for a although additional
statutory framework, the Reclamation ferrous mine permit. The timelines for laws relating to nonferrous metallic
of Mining Lands law, and Michigan had permit decisions depend on the type of mining were adopted in 1992. Minnesota’s
no specific provisions for the mining of mining permit sought. For ferrous mining, newer laws emphasize financial
nonferrous metallic minerals. In 2004, the state has 60 days to approve or deny
however, due to increased interest in the permit once it deems the application In Minnesota, the primary agencies
metallic mining in the State’s Upper accurate and complete; for nonferrous responsible for mine permitting are the
mining, the timeline prescribed by statute Department of Natural Resources and the
Michigan does not prepare its own can range from four to six-and-a-half Pollution Control Agency.
Environmental Impact Statement for a months depending on various aspects of
proposed metallic mining project but
the application process. assurances, waste characterization, and
rather uses one prepared and submitted a thorough environmental review and
Michigan is unusual in that it is one of
by the mine applicant. permitting process. The state’s policy
only two states to whom the Army Corps
regarding reclamation focuses on both
of Engineers has delegated authority
Peninsula, Michigan passed Part 632 of environmental protection and the
the Natural Resources and Environmental to administer a section 404 permitting economic value of mining to the state. As
Protection Act (NREPA). Part 632 program for discharges of dredged or fill declared by statute, Minnesota recognizes
provided new regulations for the mining of material into waters of the United States. the effects of mining on the environment
nonferrous metals and set up a permitting Because of this delegation, a potential but aims to provide for the reclamation
system to oversee it. Michigan recognizes mine operation in Michigan is less likely of mined lands, control possible adverse
in Part 632 that nonferrous mining may to have active federal participation in its environmental effects of mining, preserve
be an important contributor to Michigan’s permitting process and may not be subject natural resources, and encourage
economic vitality but that it shall only to the National Historic Preservation Act planning for the future of the land. At
occur under conditions that assure the or the National Environmental Protection the same time, the state aims to further
environment, natural resources, and Act’s requirement for an Environmental “the orderly development of mining, the
public health and welfare are protected. Impact Statement. encouragement of good mining practices,
and the recognition and identification of to the Ontario Ministry of Northern approvals for activities such as the use of
the beneficial aspects of mining.” Development and Mines (MNDM), is water and disposal of waste.
A Minnesota statute enacted in 2011 to “encourage prospecting, staking and Before a mining project can proceed,
imposes a goal upon the Minnesota exploration for the development of the MNDM requires a closure plan
Department of Natural Resources (DNR) mineral resources” in a manner consistent prepared by the applicant in which the
and the Minnesota Pollution Control with the recognition and affirmation of applicant must certify its compliance with
Agency (MPCA) to approve or deny existing Aboriginal and treaty rights, all legislative requirements.
environmental and resource management including the duty to consult, and to
permits within 150 days of receiving an
application. These two agencies oversee
minimize the impact of these activities on The Role of Tribes and
public health, safety, and the environment.
most mining activities in Minnesota and
To implement these requirements, the
Aboriginal Communities
are primarily responsible for approving Tribes have extensive regulatory authority
Mining Act mandates consultations
the various permits necessary to over their reservations and may have
mine. A third agency, the Minnesota
Ontario's Mining Act mandates consultations regulations that could impact mine
Environmental Quality Board (EQB),
with First Nations at various stages of the development on reservation lands. In
is not as involved in the permitting
process but plays a role in overseeing the process of reviewing a mine proposal. addition, US tribes that have treatment
environmental review process. A mine as a state status under the Clean Water
permit in Minnesota is required for both with First Nations at various stages of Act or Clean Air Act can enact water or
ferrous and nonferrous metallic mining, the process of reviewing a proposal. The air quality standards for the reservation.
although the permitting fee differs: duty to consult lies with the government When discharges upstream or upwind of
$25,000 for a ferrous mining operation; considering the decision or action that a reservation have the potential to exceed
and $50,000 for a nonferrous mine. may impact Aboriginal and treaty rights, those standards, federal statutes prescribe
although Ontario encourages mining procedures to ensure that the tribe’s
Ontario law and policy companies to establish communications standards are not violated.
Ontario’s laws and relationships early on to facilitate the In the ceded territory, states must
governing consultation process. take into account tribes’ treaty-reserved
mining remained Ontario’s Mining Act outlines the rules rights. States do not have the unfettered
relatively and regulations that apply to mining in the discretion to exercise authority over
unchanged province. The MNDM is the government natural resource management in ways that
throughout agency that oversees mining, but other would be detrimental to tribal treaty rights
much of its agencies also have regulatory roles related or violate the court cases that reaffirmed
history but in to the legislation they administer. For those rights. States may not legislate
2009, the government promulgated the example, the Ministry of the Environment away treaty rights nor may they defeat
Mining Act. The Act’s purpose, according and Climate Change issues permits and them through legislation that negatively
concerns are not sufficiently addressed

by state regulators. Thus, tribes often
also pursue consultation with the federal
government who, as a treaty signatory,
has specific treaty obligations as well as
a general trust responsibility to protect
treaty rights.
Treaties are the law of the land, and state

and federal agencies cannot disregard treaty
obligations when implementing laws that
regulate mineral development.
As described above, recent amend

ments to Ontario’s Mining Act recognize
and affirm the treaty rights of Aboriginal
people, and emphasize consultation in
order to minimize adverse impacts.
Select Commonalities
Native veterans’ color guard at the Wisconsin Capitol prior to the State of Tribes address in 2011. In that address,
Bad River tribal chairman Mike Wiggins Jr. explained how a proposed iron mine upstream from the Bad River
and Differences in the
reservation threatened the existence of Ojibwe people and the natural resources they rely on. Mining Laws and Policies
affects treaty resources through habitat by Executive Order, has committed to of Minnesota, Wisconsin,
destruction. consult with tribes whether or not a Michigan, and Ontario
The US federal government and court has required it. The extent of these
the states of Michigan, Minnesota, and consultations depends on the specific
Wisconsin have obligations to consult statutes or regulations that prescribe when
Environmental review
with tribes when they are considering tribes must be notified or consulted, the Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan each
actions that may impact the tribes and willingness of the parties to substantively requires an environmental review process
their treaty-reserved rights. For individual engage, and the extent of the potential to occur before a mine permit can be
states, court cases often prescribe the impacts of the proposed action. It is often issued. Ontario requires an environmental
form of that consultation, but each state, the case, however, that tribes feel their review process in some but not all cases.
Each state process analyzes significant in turn trigger a separate environmental

environmental impacts and alternatives to review process. The review process for that
the proposed project. This review process individual activity, however, may not be as
also discusses mitigation techniques as comprehensive as one that considers the
well as the unavoidable economic and mining activity in its entirety.
sociological effects on the surrounding The environmental review processes
communities. The names vary slightly for mining permits in Minnesota and
between the states: Minnesota has an Wisconsin are structured to provide
Environmental Analysis Worksheet (EAW) opportunities for public participation,
followed by an Environmental Impact and public hearings and informational
Statement (EIS); Ontario (when required) meetings are required at certain points in
has an Environmental Assessment (EA); the process. In Michigan, the DEQ may
Wisconsin requires an EIS that conforms hold public hearings but is not required to.
to federal EIS requirements; and Michigan For mining projects in Ontario, the project
requires an Environmental Impact proponent must give public notice of the
Assessment (EIA) for nonferrous mine producing their own EISs. However, these availability of its closure plan.
reviews depend heavily on information
Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, and the supplied by mine applicants. Michigan Water quality
Canadian province of Ontario all regulate law differs: the DEQ does not prepare its Under US federal laws such as the
mining in slightly different ways. own EIA for a proposed metallic mining Clean Water Act, states may take over
project but rather uses an EIA prepared the responsibility of promulgating and
proposals but does not require an explicit and submitted by the mine applicant. enforcing regulations. States also have
environmental analysis document for In Canada, the province of Ontario independent authority to regulate water
ferrous mining proposals. As noted earlier, does not generally require a separate quality and mining. As a result of these
environmental review neither approves environmental assessment, but one may be combined powers, states often are the
nor denies a proposed project; rather, required in some cases under the federal primary regulators of water quality (and
its purpose is to analyze and document Canadian Environmental Assessment mining activity more generally) within
possible impacts so decision makers have Act. In instances where environmental their borders.
complete information before them when assessments are required under provincial In the case of the Clean Water Act, all
determining whether to permit a mine. and federal legislation, the governments three states have assumed the authority
In Minnesota and Wisconsin, the have agreed to a harmonized process. to set water quality standards. How a
state Departments of Natural Resources It should be noted that other activities water body is used dictates how it is
perform the environmental review, related to mining—such as air or water regulated; for example, Minnesota has
conducting their own analyses and discharges—can require permits which enacted a sulfate standard for “waters used
in the production of wild rice.” Neither

Wisconsin nor Michigan has a comparable
standard.
Laws and regulations
The states also differ in their regulation protecting wetlands
of groundwater. In Wisconsin, for example, and their functions
groundwater standards for nonferrous often differ between
mines apply at a predetermined boundary, states, and policies
sometimes depend
which may be up to 1,200 feet from the on the type of
location of the facilities. Monitoring is mining at issue.
required within the compliance boundary,
and if there is a reasonable probability
that standards will be violated at the
boundary, the DNR may order the mining
operation to take action to remedy the
problem. In Minnesota, the location
at which groundwater standards apply
is determined by the PCA; in general
they apply only at the boundary of the
mining company’s property. In Michigan,
groundwater compliance wells must be
located within 150 feet of the mining
activity being monitored.
Wetlands
Many states have both federal and state
wetlands that can be regulated in different
ways. The Army Corps of Engineers
typically has authority if “waters of the
United States” (which include many
wetlands) will be dredged or filled. As
noted earlier, however, Michigan issues
permits for wetland activities with
minimal involvement from the Corps
because it is one of two states with
delegated permitting authority under the Under federal regulations, a mining For nonferrous mining projects, the use of
Clean Water Act. If a mine in Michigan is company must first avoid and next wetlands is presumed to be unnecessary
located in a wetland, the state’s Wetland minimize impacts to wetlands before unless particular showings are made. For
Protection Act applies, and a permit may it can turn to compensatory mitigation ferrous mining operations, the Wisconsin
be issued only if the mining activity is (creation or restoration of wetlands). legislature changed state policy in 2013 to
“primarily dependent upon being located Similarly, Minnesota law requires a
direct that significant impacts to wetlands
in the wetland” and an alternative does mining project to evaluate how to avoid
not exist. are “presumed to be necessary.”
or mitigate wetland impacts before the
state will consider allowing it to use In Ontario, no legislation exists specific
In Wisconsin and Minnesota, both
state and federal regulators will determine compensatory mitigation to replace to wetlands, but wetlands are indirectly
whether to allow a mining project to wetland functions. protected under a variety of provincial and
impact wetlands, and if so, how those Wisconsin’s wetland policies vary federal laws that protect other resources
wetland functions should be replaced. depending on the type of mining at issue. like water, fish and birds.
Conclusion
Throughout the US, many communities Anishinaabeg would counsel that decisions far beyond the loss of food sources. It
are paying the price of unwise decisions must ensure the protection of natural violates the solemn promises made to the
related to metallic mineral mining: resources for the next seven generations. Anishinaabeg and goes to the core of what
acid mine drainage, heavy metals When mining damages the ecosystems is necessary to sustain them, consistent
contamination, and other forms of and environment of the limited land base with what the US has promised. When
environmental damage. In the Great remaining for tribes, there are lasting mining projects damage or destroy treaty
Lakes region, various projects have left impacts for Anishinaabeg who cannot and resources, treaty promises are broken.
environmental degradation in their would not leave their homeland. Treaty rights are legal protections that
wakes. Given its full cost, whether to allow Those who determine whether metallic cannot be undermined.
metallic mineral mining must be a decision mining can occur in the Great Lakes Indian tribes with reservations and
undertaken thoughtfully and using every region inevitably balance a variety of off-reservation harvest rights in the Great
available resource. At stake are solemn trade-offs. While new mining technologies Lakes region are particularly susceptible
treaty promises to the Anishinaabe people are being developed to mitigate or prevent to the impacts of metallic mineral mining.
guaranteeing their rights to use the land. environmental damage, these methods To the Anishinaabeg, the cost of mining is
In light of mining’s legacy of necessarily use the natural environment qualitatively and quantifiably different than
environmental damage, it is important as their testing grounds. Failures can be the cost to those who make and administer
that those who make mining laws, those irreversible and sometimes catastrophic, state and federal mining laws and
who administer mining regulations, and and mining disasters continue to occur regulations. Anishinaabe culture mandates
those who evaluate metallic mineral in modern times and with alarming respect for the earth and humility and
development proposals employ every effort frequency. For the Great Lakes region, an gratitude for the resources it provides.
to fully understand the environmental and area so abundant in water resources, the Mining laws not written by tribes come
societal impacts of those proposals. To threats of metallic mining are real and from those whose decisions do not reflect
carry out their sovereignty as independent potentially devastating. this culture. For the Anishinaabeg, the
nations, tribes must be in a position to When mining ventures cause the loss price of the mining process may well be too
exercise their authority and have the or contamination of natural resources, dear—a price that goes to the core of this
capacity to engage in mining decisions. The it affects Anishinaabe culture in ways nation’s treaty and trust obligations.
68
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Glossary
Acid mine drainage (or acid rock Beneficiation refers to the various regulating discharges of pollutants into the
drainage) is produced by the oxidation processes that mines use to separate the waters of the United States and regulating
of sulfide minerals. Many metallic ore valuable target mineral from the extracted quality standards for surface waters.
bodies contain significant quantities of ore. The beneficiation method a mine uses Under the CWA it is unlawful to discharge
depends on the target metal, ore grade, any pollutant from a point source into
sulfide minerals—often including the
and specific chemical characteristics of navigable waters without a permit.
ore minerals themselves. When sulfide the ore.
minerals are brought to the surface, Concentration is the process of
they react chemically with air and water Bulk sampling means removing material increasing the amount of the target
and produce sulfuric acid. These acidic from a potential mine site to obtain
mineral in ore by separating it from the
conditions can cause metals in geologic site-specific data to assess metallurgical
crushed and milled rock.
materials to dissolve, impairing water characteristics and the quality and
quantity of a deposit. Cone of depression refers to a drop
quality when the discharges enter waters
used by terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Ceded Territory/Ceded Territories in water levels in the ground resulting
Once acid mine drainage has started, are lands in Michigan, Wisconsin from pumping water out of a mine to
it is difficult to stop without long-term and Minnesota ceded by Ojibwe (or keep the workings dry. As the cone of
treatment. Chippewa) tribes to the United States in depression expands away from the mine,
various treaties. In the treaties of 1836, the drawdown can lower the water table in
Anishinaabe is an Ojibwemowin word 1837, 1842 and 1854, the signatory tribes that area, meaning area wells may go dry.
that means person. Other tribes such as reserved the continued right to hunt,
fish and gather on the land ceded. First Dewatering refers to the removal of
the Cree, Menominee, and Potawatomi
Nations entered into similar land cession water from the mine pit by pumping or
also call themselves Anishinaabe and
treaties with the Canadian government. evaporation.
speak languages closely related to
Ojibwemowin. Anishinaabeg is the plural Clean Water Act (CWA) is a federal Drill sludge (or drill cuttings) are
of Anishinaabe. act that forms the basic structure for broken bits of solid material brought to
72
Glossary 73
the surface in the process of drilling holes environment, or human health due to their Reclamation is the process of returning
during metallic mineral exploration. tendency to out-compete native species. the mine area as close as possible to its
pre-mine condition. Reclamation typically
Effluent is a liquid that is discharged from Leachate refers to liquid that extracts involves activities such as removing any
a mining operation. the soluble or suspended solids of the hazardous materials, reshaping the land,
material though which it has passed; restoring topsoil, and planting native
Financial assurance is a financial in mining, it typically means liquid that grasses, trees, or ground cover.
guarantee, ideally in the form of cash drains from stockpiled material.
or an equivalent financial instrument, Riparian means relating to or located on
meant to ensure the costs of all mine Milling refers to the process of grinding
the banks of a natural watercourse or a
clean-up and remediation activities will or crushing the ore in a mill to create
river or stream.
small sized pieces best suited to mineral
be paid. The amount of financial assurance
extraction. Sintering is the pyrometallurgical process
should be based on a prediction of the
mine’s impacts. of forming a solid mass of metal by heat or
Ojibwe refers to a group of Anishinaabe
pressure.
who speak a distinct language called
Fragmentation is a decrease in the area
Ojibwemowin. The US government Smelting is the process of heating
of contiguous habitat available to wildlife. recognized these tribes as “Chippewa” the metal concentrate beyond its
during the treaty-making era.
Fugitive dust is particulate matter not melting point, typically the final step in
emitted from a stack, vent, or hood and Ore is a type of rock containing minerals concentrating a metal that can be sold to
includes emissions from haul roads, wind with economically valuable elements, manufacturers.
erosion, and exposed surfaces. including metals, that are removed
Subsidence refers to the downward
through the mining process.
Gangue refers to the worthless or motion (or sinking) of a land surface;
unusable material that surrounds or is Overburden refers to all materials that in mining, this is most commonly caused
closely mixed with a desired mineral in overlie a deposit, including waste rock and when underground mine workings
an ore deposit. other materials, which must be removed to collapse, leading to subsidence at the
reach the underground ore body. The mine surface.
Groundwater is the water located does not process the displaced overburden.
beneath the ground surface in soil or rock Sulfate: A negatively charged ion that
pore spaces or fractures. Remediate/remediation are terms that can be produced when metal sulfides are
generally refer to the environmental clean- oxidized, consisting of one atom of sulfur
Invasive species are organisms that cause up of land and water contaminated by the and four atoms of oxygen, SO4. Sulfates
or are likely to cause harm to the economy, mining process. are salts of sulfuric acid.
Sulfide: A form of sulfur that often is product, more economical to transport Treaty rights are rights retained in
found in the environment bound to and process into finished goods. treaties that were negotiated between
metals. Under acid conditions, sulfide can governments in which tribes sold the
convert to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and a Tailings are the main byproducts of land but did not give up the right to use
metal. Oxidation of sulfide produces sulfur the beneficiation process, composed of the land. Treaty rights are not individual
or sulfate. rock particles and minerals which could rights but are held and regulated by the
not be recovered or have no value along signatory tribes.
Sulfide mineral: A class of mineral ore
with the water and chemicals used in the Waste rock is the waste produced
containing sulfides, many of which contain
metals. Common sulfide minerals are beneficiation process. Tailings can be in during mine development, including
Pyrite (FeS2) and Cholcocite (Cu2S). a slurry, paste or granular form and must overburden and gangue, and those parts
be stored in a reservoir, often a pond or of an ore deposit that fall below the
Surface water includes water in rivers, basin. Because tailings range in size from economic cut-off grade. Waste rock is
streams, creeks, lakes, and reservoirs and coarse sand to fine powder, their stability usually stored at the surface in large piles
can be replenished through precipitation varies depending on their placement and and may contain sufficient sulfide mineral
or through the movement of groundwater concentrations to generate long term
moisture content.
to the surface. acid drainage problems.
Tailings basins (also called tailings Wetlands are areas that are inundated
Taconite is low-grade iron ore, found
ponds or impoundments) typically or saturated by surface water or ground
extensively in the iron ranges of Michigan,
Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Once the are large facilities or systems used to water at a frequency and duration
taconite ore is removed from the ground, isolate tailings and tailings water from sufficient to support vegetation typically
it is concentrated into pellets slightly the surrounding environment. They adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.
smaller than a marble. The pellets (also may contain acidic water and elevated Wetlands generally include swamps,
called taconite) are a concentrated iron concentrations of toxic elements. marshes, and bogs.
Notes 75

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Metallic Mineral Mining:

The Process & the Price

Graphic design by Catherine Lange

5. Mining’s Effects on 6. Legal Landscape: An Overview Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

T he development of a major mine

M ining is the process by which target

Treaty Ceded Territories in the

Treaty With the

Treaty With the Robinson Huron

Treaty With the Chippewa Treaty With the Ottawa

Ceded Territory/Treaty Area Boundary

Ceded Territory, Treaty, and Tribal land boundaries are

Areas ceded by tribes in the western Great Lakes region.

reserves (or reservations) for individual management of those resources.

Mining’s Potential to Alter

Anishinaabe people are very cautious when

more than just a means to provide food.

To prevent pollution of ecosystems

F rom inception through closure, a

Mines, Mineral Exploration and Mineral

Date:November 18, 2015

St. Louis Bay/River Highland Copper #

iron ore decreased, the mining industry

(At far left)

species and compact soils, resulting in Developing an open pit or

24 million tons of ore in a year will

Erosion and Sedimentation

including hydrology changes, aerial

Tailings ponds of the

Air Quality Impacts economically feasible to ship it to facilities

Fugitive dust can potentially contaminate

suitable for mineral extraction, down to

Beneficiation: Gravity separation, used in nonferrous Metallurgical Beneficiation

that is of particular concern in the Lake GILE FL

Superior basin; the negative effects of mercury

to human health are well documented.

CIRCLE LILY L LYNX L

contained elevated levels of soluble sulfate

and arsenic. Scars from this contamination

were evident in satellite imagery taken

in 2010 even though the plant had been

closed for 12 years.

Mercury is another byproduct of

beneficiation that is of particular concern

in the Lake Superior basin; the negative L CHIPPEWA

effects of mercury to human health are

GLIFWC: February 2016 Eat up to 8 meals or 64 ounces per month.

and is released when the ore is processed

with heat, such as during taconite pellet

formation and pyrometallurgy. The

mercury enters the air and is deposited on

the landscape by dry and wet deposition.

Fish living in contaminated waterways

absorb and concentrate mercury in TURNER L FRANKLIN L

their bodies. When humans eat the PIKE L PICKEREL L CRANBERRY L

contaminated fish, mercury acts as a

neurotoxin, interfering with the brain and

nervous system. DUROY L WILLOW FL

SQUASH L CRESCENT L GEORGE L

MAP FOR USE BY WOMEN BEYOND CHILDBEARING AGE L MOHAWKSIN L ALICE

FOR OGAA LARGER THAN 20 INCHES, EAT FEWER MEALS.

Major sources of mercury in the Lake Superior basin.

communities. Even when subsidence is

5. Mining’s Effects on 6. Legal Landscape: An Overview Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

As described above, recent amend