Concrete takes an important place among the most durable construction materials.

Even though it
gives benefits cracking is problematic. The functionality, appearance and durability are largely
affected by the cracking. Cracking is mainly caused by the shrinkage induced strains and also by
the stresses created when concrete is restrained. Shrinkage of concrete is taken place due to the
drying of concrete over a long period of time. Many recent studies have focused on the early age
autogenous shrinkage problems. It is important to repair the cracked concrete to prevent the
further deterioration Reasons for the further reasons may be thawing, freezing and also the
corrosion of steel reinforcement which takes place due to the infiltration of water with or without
chloride ions from de-icing salts. Cracking leads to additional repairing costs so as to prevent the
early deterioration of the concrete and the corrosion of reinforcement steel. Life span of many
concrete structures (concrete bridge decks, pavements) is reduced by the cracking. Nowadays,
different types of admixtures are frequently using in different ways to enhance the properties of
concrete. The behavior of an admixture in concrete depends on the properties of cementitious
material, aggregate, other admixtures, temperature and mixing methods.

1.1 Concrete as a Composite

Concrete is a well-known term among public. To a layman, it is just a mixture of Portland

cement, sand, crushed rock and water. But to a specialist in the field, it is much more than that.
In a general way, concrete is a particulate composite. Matrix of this composite is called the
binder, and the particles are called the aggregate. The concept is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Matrix (Binder)

Particles (aggregate)

Figure 1.1 Illustration of a particulate composite

The term, cement has its roots in French. ciment, and Latin cæmenta, “stone chips used for
making mortar”. Cement, in broad sense, means a binder. Binders or cements may be of different
materials; Portland cement paste, bitumen, Sulphur, and polymers are some examples. Aggregate
may be such as crushed rock, gravel, sand, crushed slag, crushed glass, and pieces of metal.
From the Latin word concretus the term, concrete, is derived and it has the meanings of
condensed, hardened, and clotted.

1.2 Portland Cement

Main material of the Portland cement is heated argillaceous (Latin argilla is white clay).
Different types of Argillaceous materials can find such as shale, and calcareous material.
Calcium containing material are called as calcareous. Argillaceous is heating to a high
temperature. Portland cement contains aluminum, silica, potassium, sodium, and in many
instances, iron, manganese and chromium.

1.3 Proportioning of concrete mixtures

The process of proportioning of concrete mix involves the selection of ingredients and
determining their amounts to produce fresh and hardened concrete of specified properties, while
achieving economic and sustainability targets. This process is sometimes referred to as “concrete
mix design”, but this term misleadingly implies that the process is almost based on computation
as the case of structural design.
Proportioning of a mix may be entirely empirical. That is, it may totally depend on experience or
observation alone or it may have technical basis of tests and calculations. Every property of the
ingredients controlling the character of concrete mix cannot be expressed quantitatively at the
current status of practices. For example, aggregate shape and texture cannot be quantified in a
fully satisfactory manner. even water requirement for the required consistence or water-cement
ratio to achieve the specified strength cannot be predicted with certainty. Therefore, an approach
based on calculation is limited to make a reasonable initial guess of mix proportions. The
proportions so arrived lead to trial mixes. The properties of the trial mixes are to be checked first
in a laboratory against their specified values. In the event of observing differences, mix
proportions are to be suitably adjusted and a new trial mix should be produced. This procedure
has to be continued until a totally satisfactory mix is obtained. Even satisfactory laboratory trial
mix does not guarantee that the mix produced on the site by using equipment there gives the
specified properties. In other words, only a mix made and used on the site can assure that all the
properties of the concrete are satisfactory in terms of the specification. This is particularly true
with pumpable concrete, shotcrete, and self-compacting concrete.
Even though the properties of ingredients are attempted to be maintained, those may vary from
time to time, and consequently periodic adjustments to the mix proportions are necessary. In
conclusion, it should be noted that, with the present state of knowledge, and exact determination
of mix proportions by means of charts, tables or computer programs is generally not possible.
Even such calculations are made the results of those are only to be used as intelligent guesses for
the initial trial mixes.

1.4 ACI method for concrete mix design

For designing a normal concrete mix for a given strength under different weather and workability
conditions different methods can be used. Among the various methods in use, the most popular
and highly accepted method was the method proposed by the American Concrete Institute (ACI)
With the selection of water content for a given maximum size of coarse aggregate and
workability required for the type of work the design is started and the workability is expressed by
slump. Then the cement content is simply found out from this water content and the w/c ratio,
which is determined earlier on the basis of the design strength. The volume of coarse aggregate
is then determined as per 3, and fine aggregate content is found out by subtracting the volume (or
weight) of other ingredients from the total volume (or weight) of concrete. Volume basis gives
more accurate and direct results. Weight basis is considered as a trial and error approach.

1.5 Hydration

Chemical reaction between compounds in cement and water is called hydration. Hydration
causes setting and hardening of cement paste. Hydration begins with the addition of water to
cement and continues over a long period of time at varying rates. Even after many years,
unhydrated portions of cement particles may be present.
1.6 Setting of Cement Paste

Setting is the apparent conversion of cement paste from fluid state to rigid state. The time taken
to enter into setting is measured from the instant of adding water to dry cement. The common
equipment to assess the setting time is Vicat apparatus.
Flash setting is quick stiffening of cement paste with considerable evolution of heat. The
stiffening associated with flash setting cannot be reverted by further mixing. False setting is an
apparent stiffening with a little evolution of heat. The stiffening associated with false setting
reverts back on further mixing.

1.7 High Temperature on Hardened Paste

Hardening and gaining strength of Portland cement paste is caused by the hydration reaction.
Hydration causes to form mainly, calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), and calcium
sulphoalumnate hydrates, and calcium hydroxide. Water exists in cement paste in the forms of
chemically combined water, interlayer water, adsorbed water and capillary water. Upon
increasing temperature, first, capillary water starts to evaporate. That does not affect the strength
unless the material is heated rapidly, but causes shrinking of the paste. Once the temperature has
reached around 3000C, some combined water and interlayer water begin to lose. Around 500 °C,
Ca(OH)2 starts to decompose. Complete decomposition of C-S-H takes place around 900 °C,
losing the strength of the hardened paste completely. Even though not much used for structural
applications after discovering the loss of strength with age or retrogression of strength associated
with the conversion of crystal structure of aluminate hydrates at normal temperatures, calcium
aluminate cement (CAC) or high alumina cement (HAC) is more tolerant to high temperature.
Hence, that type of cement is used for high temperature applications such as refractory concrete.

1.8 ASTM Standards

ASTM standards have their own requirements, based on their recommended test procedures. It is
to be noted that the ASTM test procedures and EN test procedures differ in many instances. For
example, compressive strength given in Euro Norms (EN) is based on performing 40 mm
indirect cube testing of fractured mortar prism halves, whereas in ASTM that is based testing 50
mm cubes. The compositions of the mixes are also different. Consequently, the resulting values
remain different.

1.9 Admixtures
Admixtures are compounds added in small quantities at the mixing stage of concrete, with the
aim of modifying or improving certain properties of fresh and / or hardened concrete.
Admixtures, while imparting beneficial effects may have harmful effects as well. Therefore,
the selection and use of admixtures have to be done cautiously.

Nowadays, mostly admixtures are available as proprietary formulations. The behavior of an

admixture in concrete depends on the properties of cementitious material, aggregate, other
admixtures, temperature and mixing methods. Therefore, the properties given in manufactures’
trade literature cannot be treated no more than an approximate guide. The real behavior can be
observed only by making trial mixes under the proposed condition, viz., batching/mixing
method, temperature, and with the intended ingredients.

Admixtures can be categorized in different ways. One such division is based on the water –
solubility of the compound. Another division is based on whether the compounds are active,
interactive or passive. By definition, active admixtures react with the soluble components of
cement to produce a compound imparting the effect; interactive admixtures are surface-active
compounds associating with liquid-air and solid-liquid interfaces; passive admixtures do not
change their form and give only a physical contribution. During early days, admixtures were
classified as chemical admixtures. Chemical admixtures are mainly liquids, either in solution
or in suspension form. They may also be in the form of water-soluble solids.

1.10 ASTM classification of admixtures

ASTM classification is widely used in product descriptions. Some of the products may qualify
for more than one type. ASTM C494 / C494M – 17, covers 8 types of admixtures.

Type A – Water - reducing

Type B – Retarding
Type C – Accelerating
Type D – Water-reducing and retarding
Type E – Water- reducing and accelerating
Type F – Water-reducing, high range
Type G – Water-reducing, high range, and retarding
Type S – Specific performance

1.11 Water Reducing Admixture

Water-Reducing Admixture is increasing workability of concrete with reduction of water
demand. In other words, the increase of workability by adding the admixture without increasing
water content is caused by the deflocculation of cement particles accommodating a layer of water
in between, and entrainment of air. Water-reducing admixtures also help to reduce bleeding and
segregation in fresh concrete, partly due to the air-entrainment.
The effect of increasing workability without addition of water helps to get increased strength
without increasing the content of cement. Also, the same strength can be achieved with lesser
amount of cement. This allows reducing the total heat generated by the mix.
The extent of water reduction or increase in workability depends on the admixture dosage.
However, very high degree of water reduction or increase in workability cannot be achieved by
extreme dosages of water-reducing admixtures, due to the prominence of adverse side effects,
such as excessive retardation, air-entrainment at such dosages, increase the early shrinkage and
accelerate the speed of cracking.
For applications where very high degree of water-reduction is needed, a different class of
admixtures called high-range water-reducing or super plasticizing admixtures are to be used.

1.12 High-Range Water-Reducing or Super plasticizing Admixture

Whenever a water-reducing effect greater than that is possible with water-reducing admixtures,
high-range water-reducing or super plasticizing admixtures are needed. Chemicals used as high-
range water-reducing admixtures are of large molecular weight, and not by-products as water-
reducing admixtures. Hence, they are more expensive. Some of the chemicals used for the
purpose are:

1. Sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde (SNF)

2. Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF)
3. Polycarboxylate ester
4. Copolymer of carboxylic acrylic acid with acrylic ester
5. Cross – linked acrylic polymer

Superplasticizers enhance the mobility of cement paste as a result of electrostatic repulsion of

cement particles with adsorbed admixture molecules. Unlike water-reducing admixture, high-
range water-reducing admixture does not entrain air. In fact, with this type of admixture it
becomes difficult to entrain air, when air-entrainment is a requirement.
When choosing a high-range water-reducing admixture, compatibility of that with the cement
used has to be checked. Otherwise, the effectiveness in water reduction will be less prominent,
and short lived.
Finer cements have a larger specific surface area than the coarser ones. Since the admixture is
adsorbed to the surface of particles, higher dosage of admixture is needed for finer cement than
for coarser ones to get the same effect of water reduction. Cements with high C 3A content
reduce the effectiveness of superplasticizer. On the other hand, cements with very low content
of C3A may result in excessive retardation.

Consumption of admixture by cement with the commencement of the hydration reaction leads
to rapid loss of flowability achieved with the admixture. Therefore, in order to retain the effect
of water reduction for a longer period, superplasticizers except polycarboxylate type, have to
be added as the last ingredient, with a smaller fraction of mixing water, toward the latter part
of mixing. Retarder added at the beginning of mixing may also help to prolong the water
reducing effect of superplasticizer. Redosing of the admixture is helpful in restoring the lost
workability with time. However, multiple re-dosing is less effective. Because of the effective
deflocculating action, superplasticizers are beneficial where very fine additions like silica fume
or pigments are to be effectively dispersed in a cementitious mix. Even though the direct
benefit of superplasticizer is to get desired workability with much less water content, concrete
mixes can be designed by making use this characteristic to obtain,

(1) High - strength concrete;

(2) reduced cement content;

 (3) reduced heat of hydration;

(4) reduced diffusivity and water permeability even under pressure; and

(5) increased strength at early age such as at 3 - 7 days without increasing cement content.

All those benefits are obtainable as a result of the possibility of reducing water in the mix at
proportioning stage, causing reduction of water-cement ratio. These benefits can be achieved to a
lesser degree with water-reducing or plasticizing admixture.

1.13 Effects of High range water reducing admixtures on concrete properties

(1) Slump
Type of HRWRA is
The rate of slump loss in concrete containing a HRWRA can be affected by the type of HRWRA,
the dosage used, the simultaneous use of a C 494 Type A, B, or D admixture, the type and brand
of cement, the class of concrete, and the concrete temperature. These factors are by no means the
only ones affecting slump loss, but they are those that can typically be controlled by the user.
Ambient temperature is not as controllable but it can also have a dramatic effect on the
performance of a HRWRA.Generally it is believed that all HRWRA concrete rapidly loses
workability.

When the dosage rate of HRWRA in concrete is higher, the rate of slump loss is low(Ravina and
Mor, 1986). However, each product has an operating range beyond which other properties of the
concrete may be affected. If the dosage rate is increased beyond this
range as a means of further lowering the rate of slump loss, the results may include changes in
initial setting characteristics, segregation, or bleeding. When using HRWRAs it is important to
consider the manufacturer’s recommended dosage range.

(2) Segregation

Separation of mixture components as a result of the differences in their particle size or density is
defined as the Segregation in concrete. Usually the Segregation does not take place in concrete
containing a HRWRA which is used as a water reducer. However, segregation may occur if
precautions are not taken when using the admixtures to create flowing concrete. As a result of
Improper proportioning and inadequate mixing, localized excess fluidity and segregation may
occur.

(3) Compressive strength and Tensile strength

The primary effects of HRWRAs on concrete compressive strength are derived from their effect
on the water-cementitious materials ratio (w/c). When a HRWRA is used to lower water
requirements at the same slump and cementitious materials content, the resulting decrease in
w/cm will significantly increase concrete strength at all ages. If mixes with the same w/cm are
compared, those containing HRWRA exhibit a slight increase in strength because of the cement
dispersing effect. At early ages, this strength increase represents a
significant percentage of total strength. Users of HRWRAs should first calculate the w/cm and
then estimate concrete strength using tables in ACI 211.1. This estimate will be conservative
because of the cement dispersing effect mentioned above. It is advisable to develop data on w/cm
versus strength for materials used on each job. The same data can also be used to determine the
influence of the admixture on the rate of concrete strength development at early ages. The
changes in early strength resulting from the use of HRWRAs should not be great in flowing
concrete unless a specifically designated retarding or accelerating formulation is used. Where a
HRWRA is used to increase strength by a reduction in w/cm, the effect on early strength will be
positive.

High-range water-reducing admixtures in concrete will affect the tensile strength in the same
way they affect the compressive strength. Methods for estimating the tensile strength based on
compressive strength are the same as those used for concrete without.

(4) Drying shrinkage and creep

Laboratory studies indicate that adding a HRWRA to a cement paste increases the drying
shrinkage of the paste. Some laboratory data confirm that HRWRAs can increase concrete drying
shrinkage at a given water cement ratio and cement content (given paste content),
but this effect has not been definitively established. Therefore, the drying shrinkage of flowing
concrete should be similar to, or slightly greater than, that of the same concrete mixture without
any HRWRA. If there is a simultaneous reduction in cement content and w/cm when the
HRWRA is added, drying shrinkage can be reduced. If drying shrinkage is a critical factor for
the structure being built,’ the shrinkage (ASTM C 157) should be measured before the mix
proportions are finalized to ensure that the desired value is not exceeded. Shrinkage values of
concrete with and without HRWRA should be compared
at equal strength of the concrete, not equal time (age), so that concretes are compared at a similar
porosity. Although few studies have been made on creep characteristics, it is expected that
adding HRWRAs to concrete should affect creep to the same extent that they
affect shrinkage.

Figure 1.2 - Utilization of water reduction to gain high early as well as late strength

1.13 Specific performance admixture

Specific performance admixture (ASTM Type S) is defined as an admixture that provides a

desired reducing water content, or changing the time of setting of concrete, or both, without any
adverse effects on fresh, hardened and durability properties of concrete as specified Those
specific performance characteristics to, shrinkage reduction, mitigation of alkali-silica reaction,
and viscosity modification.

1.14 Shrinkage

Shrinkage or volume reduction of concrete is time-dependent. Thermal shrinkage is caused by

reduction of the temperature of concrete; autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage are linked
in different ways with moisture in concrete; and the carbonation shrinkage is caused by the
volume changes involved in carbonation reaction unlike creep, shrinkage does not depend on
stress. However, shrinkage causes stresses when the associated movements are restrained.

1.14.1 Autogenous Shrinkage

Autogenous shrinkage is associated with the hydration, so that the major part develops in the
early days after casting. Since autogenous shrinkage is an effect of self-desiccation of cement
paste causing partially empty capillaries, the associated shrinkage takes place. Even if the
concrete is perfectly cured externally, preventing any moisture movement to the ambience.
Autogenous shrinkage is more prominent in concretes with low water-cement ratio, or in other
words, in concretes having high strength.

Figure 1.3 Autogenous shrinkage trends based on EN 1992 -1 -1

1.14.2 Drying shrinkage

Drying shrinkage is associated with the movement of moisture from concrete to the ambience.
Hence, it depends on the ambient relative humidity and the surface to volume ratio of the
member. It also depends on the strength of the concrete, and the age at which the concrete starts
to expose to the drying environment. Drying shrinkage does not take place within the period of
water curing. Since the drying rate becomes higher with water-cement ratio, concretes with
lower strengths demonstrate a greater drying shrinkage. This behavior is opposite in the case of
autogenous shrinkage.
Set of curves shown in figure 1.4 illustrate the trends for the notional size(h 0) equals to 100mm,
relative humidity, 60% and the period of curing is 5 days. The notional size is defined as 2A c/u;
where Ac is the cross-sectional area and u is the perimeter of that part of the cross section which
is expose to drying. The physical meaning of the notional size can be approximately described as
the thickness of a member having large dimensions in the two other directions, if the surfaces
perpendicular to the thickness are open to ambience.

Figure 1.4 - Drying shrinkage trends based on EN 1992 -1 -1

1.14.3 Carbonation shrinkage

Carbonation in concrete is occurred when CO 2 is penetrated into the moist pores and then at first
it becomes carbonic acid and then it reacts with Ca(OH)2 to form CaCO3, increasing the density.
As a result of this, reduction of volume is taken place. Carbonation shrinkage will lead the
surface cracking(crazing), and also the warping of thin sheets of cementitious products if
different carbonation rates are prevailed on surfaces.

1.14.4 Plastic shrinkage

Water loss from fresh concrete can occur in two different ways which causes the plastic
shrinkage. Through evaporation from an exposed surface is the predominant mode. And also,
another way of losing water is through suction by the subbase or, depending on the type of
material used in its manufacture, the formwork. Water loss in such way will increase the effects
of surface evaporation. Generally accepted fact is that the water loss from paste fraction of
concrete due to external factors will generate negative capillary pressures and as a result the
volume of the paste to be contracted, hence it will cause the shrinkage. Usually the water
evaporation rate is increased by the factors such as low relative humidity, high wind speed and
high ambient and concrete temperatures. Even though these conditions are most likely to be
observed during the summer months, it is possible to occur at any time. The rate of the bleed
water transportation to the concrete surface will influence the potential for the phenomenon or
form of cracking which is generally called as plastic shrinkage cracking.Reserch studies have
reported that if the rate of surface evaporation exceeds about 0.1 lb/ft2 /h (0.5 kg/ m2 /h), the
moisture loss will exceed the rate of reaching the bleed water to the surface and with that setting
into motion the mechanisms causing plastic shrinkage.
In literature plastic shrinkage is defined as the fresh concrete shrinkage, exposed to
drying and which is taken place during the time when the concrete is ‘plastic’ ( Neville et al
2000). Usually the duration is short and it ends when the concrete has come to its final set.
Tensile stresses will develop if there is a non-uniform shrinkage or restraint, which may cause
cracking due to the low tensile strength and strain capacity the concrete is having at this stage.
Generally, these cracks are called as ‘plastic shrinkage cracks’. But it is difficult to differentiate
the plastic shrinkage cracks and cracks caused by thermal dilation like rapid cooling during night
or early age drying and autogenous shrinkage. The cracks may or may not be detrimental to the
structural integrity and durability, but they are unsightly since they are usually wide, long, and
visible to the unaided eye. Moreover, it is not uncommon, especially in slabs, that these cracks
run through the whole depth of the member.

1.15 Setting Time and Strength of the concrete

The final decision on acceptance may be made even when the water fails to satisfy preliminary
inspections by performing test on setting time and 7-day compressive strength. Those tests may
be considered an alternative to the qualitative or quantitative chemical tests as well. Therefore,
the limits specified on setting time and strength are considered crucial requirements on
acceptance. Further, in ASTM 1602, the limits on the outcome of chemical tests are considered
as optional requirements.

1.16 Aim of the study

This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing
admixtures for reducing autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage and plastic shrinkage on
concrete mixtures made with different dosages of admixtures and also to study the effects of
shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing admixture on other properties of concrete
including slump, air content, compressive strength and splitting-tensile strength.

1.17 Objectives of the study

• To determine the effectiveness of shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing admixtures for
reducing autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage different concrete mixtures.

•To analyses the effect of shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing admixture on other
properties of concrete.
1.18 Scope of the study

This study is limited to water reducing admixtures and shrinkage-reducing agents. The properties
of concrete will be tested considering the changes in slump during the first hour, initial setting
time, autogenous shrinkage, Compressive strength and splitting tensile strengths.