1---TACHOMETERS-----ENGINE SPEED INDICATORS

—INTRODUCTION
These indicators measure the rotational speeds of piston engine
crankshafts and compressor shafts of turbine engines.

There are three basic methods of measuring engine rotational speeds:

Mechanical Tachometer.
Electrical Generator System. (Tacho Genny)
Inductive Probe System.

1-1--MECHANICAL INDICATORS.
Mechanical indicators consist of a flyweight assembly connected to the engine by
a flexible drive shaft and coupled to a gear type pointer mechanism.
The gear ratios at the engine and indicator are such that the flexible ddve shaft
rotates at a lower speed to minimise wear. As the shaft rotates centrifugal
forces act on the flyweight and cause it to take up a certain angular position.
The displacement is transmitted to the pointer which rotates over the scale to
indicate the speed of the engine crankshaft
A more common variation of this type of mechanical tachometer uses a magnetic
drag cup to move the pointer in the indicator.

As the drive shaft turns, it rotates a permanent magnet in a close-tolerance

aluminum cup. A shaft attached to the indicating point is attached to the exterior
center of the cup. As the magnet is rotated by the engine flex drive cable, its
magnetic field cuts through the conductor surrounding it, creating eddy currents
in the aluminum cup. This current flow creates its own magnetic field, which
interacts with the rotating magnet’s flux field. The result is that the cup tends to
rotate, and with it, the indicating pointer. A calibrated restraining spring limits the
cup’s rotation to the arc of motion of the pointer across the scale on the
instrument face.

THE SIMPLIFIED MECHANISM OF A FLYWEIGHT TYPE MECHANICAL TACHOMETER.

 A SIMPLIFIED MAGNETIC DRAG CUP TACHOMETER INDICATING DEVICE.

A TACHOMETER FOR A RECIPROCATING ENGINE IS CALIBRATED IN RPM

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE----

verify that there are no kinks, worn spots, loose or fractured strands in the
flexible shaft and that the end connectors are secure.
A kink may be detected by holding the complete assembly vertically at one end
and slowly rotating the flexible shaft between the fingers to feel for binding and
jerky motion
In instances where the flexible shaft is rejected because of loose strands, it is
advisable to renew the complete drive as it is possible that the bore of the casing
may have been damaged and this would result in excessive wear of the new
flexible shaft.
The outer casing should be inspected for kinks, sharp bends and security
Prior to re-assembly the flexible shaft should be coated with an approved
grease
1-2---ELECTRICAL INDICATING SYSTEMS---TACHO-GEN
Electrical indicating systems comprise an alternating current generator which
supplies a synchronous motor-driven indicator.

The generator consists of a permanent magnet rotor and a three-phase stator

winding. The rotor may be driven by a short length flexible drive shaft, ·or as in
the case of turbine engines which have high rotational speeds prohibiting the use
of flexible drives, by direct coupling to a splined shaft driven by the compressor
shaft via reduction gearing.

1-2-1

1-2-2
 TACHO-GEN OPERATION ----SUMMARY
The Electrical Generator System (TACHO-GENERATOR/TACHO-GEN) is
possibly the oldest form of engine speed measurement still in use on large
aircraft.
It utilises a small three phase (tacho) generator, driven by the engine.

The output of this generator is then taken to an indicator which consists

of a synchronous motor turning a drag cup assembly which moves a pointer
over a scale as in the mechanical system

The indicator can either show the actual revolutions per minute (not too
common), or the speed as a percentage of maximum engine speed.

1-2-3

1-2-4 PERCENTAGE SPEED INDICATORS.

These indicators are designed to indicate the speed of a turbine engine as a
percentage of the nominal maximum speed.

The scales are graduated from O to I 00%, the I 00% indication corresponding
to the nominal maximum engine speed and a specific generator drive speed
which is typically 4,200 rev/min.
Indicators allow for slight increases in nominal maximum engine speed by
reading up to 110%.
1-3----TACHO PROBE AND INDICATOR SYSTEM
Tacho probe/indicator systems are made up of a flux switch, in the form of a
magnetic probe, the principle of which is illustrated below

The speed probe is positioned on the compressor casing in line with either a
phonic wheel or the actual fan blades As the spool rotates, the magnetic
flux in the probe or sensor head is altered. This changes the current flowing in
the coil fitted inside the probe and the frequency with which it changes is directly
related to the spool speed. This frequency is fed to an indicator in the cockpit to
show the spool rotational speed.

This system has the advantage of providing a number of separate electrical

outputs in addition to those required for speed indication (e.g. automatic engine
control and fiight data recording).
It has the advantage of no moving parts, and thus is not subject to high
rotational loads/wear
2----ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO (EPR) MEASUREMENT
A----INTRODUCTION
EPR is an operating variable which, together with rev/min, EGT and fuel flow,
provides an indication of the thrust output of turbine engines, and involves the
measurement of the ratio between the pressures at the compressor intake
and the turbine outlet or exhaust.
In general, a measuring system consists of an engine inlet pressure probe,
a number of pressure-sensing probes projected into the exhaust unit of
an engine, a pressure ratio transmitter, and an indicator

The interconnection of these components based on a typical system is shown

below

B---OPERATION
The inlet pressure (P1 ) sensing probe is similar to a pitot probe, and is
mounted so that it faces into the airstream in the engine intake or, as in
some power plant installations,on the pylon , and near the air intake.

The probe is also protected against icing by a supply of warm air from the
engine anti-ice system
Pipelines terminating at a manifold interconnect the exhaust pressure-
sensing probes (PEX) in order to average out the pressures. In some
engine systems, pressure sensing is done from chambers contained within the
EGT sensing probes.
A pipeline from the manifold, and another from the inlet pressure probe, is each
connected to the pressure ratio transmitter.
If a circuit malfunction occurs,an integrity monitoring circuit within the indicator
activates a warning flag circuit, which obscures the digital counter display

Provided in some aeroplanes is a maximum allowable EPR limit indicator.

Integrated with a TAT indicator and with the CADC, its purpose is to indicate
limits related to air density and altitude values from which thrust
settings have been predetermined for specific operating conditions.
These conditions are climb, cruise, continuous, and go-around.
3---TOURQUEMETERS
A----INTRODUCTION
The power developed by an engine driving a propeller is measured and
indicated by a torquemeter.
Some large supercharged piston engines are fitted with these instruments,
but in general they are more commonly associated with turbo-propeller
powerplants.

Torque is the turning moment transmitted through the propeller

reduction gearing and is principally considered in terms of positive torque
developed by the engine when it is driving the propeller.

When the propeller is windmilling it develops negative torque and drives

the engine.

The power output of the engine is the product of rpm and torque, so
clearly if both are known the power can be calculated, either manually or by a
simple computer.

Since exceeding the torque limitations of the engine and its reduction
gearing can lead to serious damage, it is essential that the pilot of a turbo-
prop aircraft be provided with a torque meter.

Aircraft torque meters are usually either hydro-mechanical or electronic

devices

3-1--------- HYDRO-MECHANICAL TOURQUEMETER

3-1--- HYDRO-MECHANICAL TOURQUEMETER OPERATION
The hydro-mechanical type operate on the principle of pistons that are moved in
their cylinders an amount proportional to the turning moment

The cylinders are connected to a closed hydraulic system and so the system
pressure, due to the movement of the pistons, is directly proportional to torque
and is used to operate a pressure gauge calibrated to indicate torque in ft. lb
or N m. The principle is illustrated above

-- HYDRO-MECHANICAL TOURQUEMETER INDICATION

The units of measurement vary from system to system.

The indicator gauges may be calibrated to read, P.S.I., Inch or Foot pounds,
Newton metres, Brake or Shaft Horsepower.
Torque is measured between the engine and the reduction gearbox.

TOURQUEMETER

Torque indicators are sometimes colour-coded in a similar manner to other

engine instruments, with red lines indicating permissible torque limits and
a green arc to indicate the normal operating range.

In some cases a yellow arc in the lower range cautions against the onset of
negative torque.
3-2---ELECTRONIC TORQUEMETER
The Electronic system comprises of two concentric shafts. One, the Torque
Shaft, is connected to both the engine and the propeller’s reduction gear
box.
The second shaft, the Reference Shaft, is connected only to the engine.
An exciter wheel (toothed gear) is formed at the forward end of each shaft.
The exciter wheels rotate past an electro magnetic pick-up and produce an
AC voltage. The exciter wheels are aligned at assembly, but as power is
increased the torque shaft twists, this displaces the phase relationship of the
voltages produced.
The displacement is proportional to the change in power, and is used to drive an
indicator
This system is simple, and lighter than other systems and has proven to be very
reliable in service.
4----SYNCHROSCOPES.
A---INTRODUCTION
Synchroscopes are designed for use in multi-engined aircraft to indicate the
degree of synchronism existing between a selected 'master' engine and the
remaining engines designated as 'siaves'.

On multi-engine aircraft, to reduce structural vibration and noise the speed

of all engines must be synchronised

It is impractical to have the pilot adjust the throttle of each engine manually
to synchronise the speed, and individual indicators may vary in accuracy.
In order to facilitate manual adjustment of speed an additional instrument known
as a Synchroscope is used

B---OPERATION
The synchronisation system is used to set all of the engine's CSUs/PCUs at
exactly the same rpm, thus eliminating excessive noise and vibration.

On four-engine aeroplanes any engine can be selected to act as the

master, but on a light twin-engine aeroplane it is always the left
engine.

Generally, the rpm of the slave engines must be within approximately 100 rpm of
the master engine for synchronisation to occur.

This system is used during all phases of flight, except for take-off and
landing, when failure of the master engine would result in all the engines
attempting to follow the master engine

THE DIAGRAM BELOW SHOWS A TYPICAL TWO-ENGINE

SYNCHRONISATION SYSTEM.
C—TYPICAL SYNCHROSCOPE INDICATIONS

THIS SYNCHROSCOPE ABOVE INDICATES THE RELATIVE SPEED OF

THE SLAVE ENGINE TO THE MASTER. “SLOW” AND “FAST” REPRESENT
THE OTHER ENGINE’S RPM RELATIVE TO THE MASTER ENGINE, AND
THE PILOT MAKES ADJUSTMENTS ACCORDINGLY.

TYPICAL SYNCHROSCOPES
5-----SYNCHROPHASING SYSTEM
A---INTRODUCTION
Synchrophasing is a refinement of Synchronisation, and allows the pilot to
set the blades of the slave engines a number of degrees in rotation
behind the blades of the master engine.

This system further reduces noise and vibration. The Synchrophasing angle
varies by the pilots' adjustment for different flight conditions to achieve a
minimum noise level.

B---OPERATION
Fitted to the same blade root of each propeller is a pulse generator (e.g. No.1
blade), and the signals generated are to ensure that all of the No.1 blades are in
the same relative position at the same instant

The pulse generator serves the same function as the tacho-generator does in the
synchronisation system.
By comparison, when the signals from the slave pulse generators occur in
relation to the master engine pulse, the mechanism synchronises the phase
relationship of the slaves to the master engine.

A propeller phase control in the cockpit then allows the fiight crew to select the
phase angle which gives the minimum amount of vibration
6---FUEL FLOW MEASUREMENT
Fuel flow metering systems are designed to provide the crew with a continuous
indication of the instantaneous rate of fuel flow to each engine and in
some instances, the amount of fuel consumed.
Measurement of fuel flow is at the fuel intake of each engine (LP fuel supply line
on a gas turbine).
If the fuel flow increases for a particular engine power, it indicates a
reduction in efficiency and probably an impending mechanical problem.

The basic method of measuring fuel flow is by a rotating vane flow meter, as
shown below In this system, the shaft carrying the vane forms the transmitter of
a synchro transmission system.

The receiver rotor attaches to, and drives a needle moving against a scale
calibrated in fuel used per unit time , which can be either volume or mass
related.
ROTATING VANE FUEL FLOWMETER