Project Report

for

BIOSENSORS

Prepared by:
Praneeksha Jayam - IIT2020058
Saloni Doshi - IIT2020059
Gaurav Katiyar - IIT2020062
Anjali Sahu - IIT2020063
Puja Saraf - IIT2020068
Contents

1. Introduction 2
2. History 4
3. Principle 5
4. Components of Biosensors 6
5. Working of Biosensors 7
6. Applications 9
7. Advantages & Disadvantages 11
8. Ethical Issues 13
9. Recent Advancements 14
10. Future Applications 17
11. References 18

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 1. Introduction

A biosensor is an instrument designed to detect and measure changes in biological

components, such as cells or microorganisms, and convert this information into an
electrical signal. This electronic signal is directly proportional to the concentration of a
particular molecule or analyte being targeted by the biosensor.

So, a biosensor is combined up of a biological sensing component and a transducer,

which transforms the data into electrical impulses. Along with this, there is an additional
unit called an Electronic unit which contains Signal Conditioning Unit, a Processor, and a
Display Unit as depicted in the below diagram.

[1]

Thus, In simple words

Biosensors= Bioreceptors + Transducers

These biosensors are employed in a variety of processes, which includes drug

discovery, detection of disease-causing microorganisms, environmental monitoring,
markers that are indicators of disease in bodily fluids (saliva, urine, sweat, blood), and
food safety testing. Many biosensors are designed to be portable and easy to use,
allowing for rapid and convenient testing in the field. For example: Glucometer which is

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used to measure the sugar level in blood. It consists of a test strip, which takes a small
amount of blood to check sugar levels. This test strip consists of a reference and a
trigger electrode. Now, when the sample of blood is taken on the strip then the chemical
reaction takes place inside it which in turn generates the electric current which is
directly proportional to the amount of sugar in the blood and with the help of an
electronic system of biosensors this electric current is displayed on a display screen.

[2] Glucometer and its strip

Biosensors are electronic devices that can identify and evaluate infections, harmful
diseases, and viruses. They come in different shapes, sizes, and electrode materials and
can be a small examination or a larger device that records and detects small changes in
biological elements.They generate data in the form of electronic signals that can be
used for more in-depthanalysis. So, good and capable biosensors should have these
characteristics :

● Selectivity: Selectivity is the most important aspect of a biosensor. It refers to a

bioreceptor's ability to distinguish and detect a specific substance in a sample
that may contain various contaminants or impurities. The dinding of an antigen
and an antibody is a prime illustration of selectivity.

● Stability: In biosensors designed for extended periods of use or ongoing

monitoring, stability is the most crucial component. The reaction of the
biosensor's electronic units and transducers to temperature changes can
significantly impact its stability. As a result, it's necessary to properly adjust the
electronics to achieve a consistent and steady response from the sensor.

● Reproducibility: This is the biosensor's ability to produce the same responses for
replicated experimental setups. It is determined by how accurate and precise the
biosensor's electronics and transducers are.

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 ● Sensitivity: The sensitivity or limit of detection (LOD) of a biosensor refers to the
lowest concentration of an analyte that it can detect. For various applications like
medical and environmental monitoring, it's crucial to detect even the slightest
traces of analytes in a sample. Therefore, biosensors with the ability to detect
analyte concentrations as low as ng/mL or fg/mL are highly valuable.

2. History

Leland Charles Clark Jr. was the first person to report biosensors in 1962. He came up
with the concept of exhibiting the biosensor's components as well as a method to
combine a bioreceptor with a transducer device. So, Here is the table which has
important dates that have increased the scope or use of biosensors in our life.

Years Development

1962 Clark and Lyons developed the first

glucose biosensor

1970s The use of enzymes as catalysts for

biosensors was explored by researchers.

1980s Development of microelectronics and

nanotechnology for smaller, more
sensitive biosensors

1990s Introduction of optical biosensors using

fluorescence, chemiluminescence, and
surface plasmon resonance

2000s Development of biosensors using

nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes
and quantum dots

2010s Advances in biosensor design, including

lab-on-a-chip and wearable biosensors

Present Ongoing research into new biosensor

technologies

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Hence, the development of biosensors can be presented in three generations. The
degree of electroactivity displayed by the biomolecule under examination is the basis
for classifying biosensors into various generations. The initial generation of biosensors
mainly rely on enzymes that produce an electrochemical response, such as oxidases
and dehydrogenases.

[3] Development Of Biosensors

Redox mediators are used in the second generation of biosensors to help with electron
transfer from the biomolecule to the electrode surface, producing a quantifiable signal.
The third generation of biosensors uses a direct electron transfer method to provide a
signal between the electrode surface and the redox-active biomolecule.

3. Principle

● Biosensors work on the principle of signal transduction and biorecognition of

elements.

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 ● Usually, enzymes are the required biological substances for a particular process.
To convert these enzymes into electric signals, which are typically in the form of
current, a method called the "electro-enzymatic approach" is employed. This
technique involves the use of a transducer that chemically alters the enzymes,
resulting in electrical signals.

● Enzyme oxidation is a widely employed biological response that acts as a

catalyst and alters the pH of the biological substance. The pH variations
influence the enzyme's efficiency, which is proportional to the enzyme being
quantified.

● The transducer's output current is a direct reflection of the enzyme being

measured at present. Typically, the current is converted to voltage so that it can
be accurately analyzed and displayed.

4. Components of Biosensors

Biosensors are made up of two unique components: biological components like cells
and enzymes and physical components like signal processors and transducers. A
biological component is discovered and transferred via the analyte to generate a signal
that the transducer can detect.

1. Biological recognition element: This is part of the biosensor that interacts with the
target analyte and generates a signal. An enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, or other
biomolecule that selectively binds to the target analyte might serve as the recognition
element.

2. Transducer: This component turns the biological recognition element's signal into a
measured output. Transducers can be electrochemical, optical, or mechanical in origin,
and may comprise field-effect transistors, surface plasmon resonance, or
microcantilevers.

3. Signal processor: This component processes and analyzes the output signal of the
transducer and can be an electronic or computer signal. To improve and interpret the
signal from the transducer, the signal processor may incorporate components such as
amplifiers, filters, and microprocessors.

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[4]

These components operate together to detect and quantify the presence of a specific
analyte in a sample, making biosensors useful tools for a variety of applications
including healthcare, environmental monitoring, food safety, and more.

5. Working of Biosensors

1. A specific enzyme or preferred biomaterial is inactivated by a number of conventional

methods and this deactivated natural material is in close contact with the transducer.

2. The analyte binds to the biological entity, forming a clear analyte that yields an
electronic reaction that can be calculated. In some circumstances, the analyte is
transformed into a device that is coupled to a gas, heat, electron-ion, or hydrogen ion
discharge.

3. The product-linked changes are then converted by the transducer into electrical
signals that may be amplified and monitored.

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 [5]

Sensing Techniques for Biosensors :

There are several sensing techniques used in biosensors, some of these are:

1. Optical sensing: The presence of an analyte is detected using light in this technique.
Fluorescence, luminescence, and absorbance-based biosensors are examples of optical
biosensors.

2. Electrochemical sensing: The electrical characteristics of a system are measured in

order to detect the presence of an analyte. Amperometric, potentiometric, and
conductometric biosensors are examples of electrochemical biosensors.

[6]

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3. Mass-based sensing: This method detects the presence of an analyte by monitoring
variations in mass or frequency. Some examples of this sensing are - Surface plasmon
resonance and quartz crystal microbalance biosensors.

[7]

4. Thermal sensing: This technique includes detecting temperature variations to detect

the presence of an analyte. Thermistor-based biosensors and calorimetric biosensors
are two types of thermal biosensors.

Each sensing approach has advantages and limitations and is appropriate for a variety
of applications. The type of sensing technique utilized is determined by the analyte
being detected, the requisite sensitivity and specificity, and the environmental
circumstances in which the biosensor will be used.

6. Applications

7. Advantages & Disadvantages

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Disadvantages of Biosensors:

1. High cost: Developing and manufacturing biosensors can be costly, particularly if

they call for specialized materials or technologies.

2. Limited lifespan: Over time, the biological components of biosensors may

deteriorate, resulting in a loss in sensitivity or precision.

3. Interference: Interfering substances in the sample that is being analyzed might alter
biosensors, producing readings that are either falsely positive or falsely negative.

4. Complexity: Because biosensors often require specialized knowledge and experience

to build and operate, non-experts may not have access to them.

5. Stability: Variations in temperature, humidity, and other external factors can have an
impact on how effectively biosensors work.

6. Specificity: Because structurally identical substances may be difficult for biosensors

to distinguish between, this might provide results that are either falsely positive or
falsely negative.

7. Standardization: Lack of standardization in the development and testing of

biosensors might make it challenging to compare the outcomes of various studies or
devices.

8. Ethical Issues

1. Privacy issues: Biosensors can produce a lot of private information about people,
such as their genetic makeup, overall health, and exposure to environmental toxins. To
safeguard people's privacy and avoid its exploitation, this data must be gathered,
maintained, and used with the highest care.

2. Informed consent: Participants must give their informed consent before using
biosensors in clinical or medical contexts. The nature, function, risks, and advantages of

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utilizing the biosensor, as well as how their data will be used and safeguarded, must all
be thoroughly disclosed to participants.

3. Accuracy and reliability: In order to produce reliable data, biosensors must be

accurate. The use of faulty or imprecise biosensors may result in wrong diagnoses,
inappropriate treatments, and unnecessary operations.

4. Access and equity: Biosensors may not be affordable for everyone, which could lead
to inequities in the healthcare system and other sectors. Efforts must be made to
guarantee that everyone who needs biosensors can have them, regardless of their
social or economic standing.

5. Environmental impact: Disposing of biosensors might endanger the environment

because they may contain harmful compounds. The right disposal procedures must be
followed to prevent polluting the soil, water, and air.

6. Intellectual property: The use of proprietary technology and materials in biosensors

frequently raises issues with regard to intellectual property rights and the sharing of
knowledge and data.

9. Recent Advancements

Wearable biosensors are becoming more and more common in the medical field. They have the
ability to continuously monitor vital signs like oxygen saturation, blood pressure, and heart rate.
They can also identify potential health problems and notify the wearer, enabling early
intervention.

Biosensors based on nanotechnology: Nanotechnology has made it possible to construct

biosensors with excellent sensitivity and selectivity. Biosensors' sensitivity can be increased by
using nanoparticles, and they can also be functionalized with biological molecules for targeted
detection.

Smartphone-based biosensors: Due to their low cost and simplicity of use, smartphone-based
biosensors are growing in popularity. They can be utilized for a variety of purposes, including

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environmental monitoring and food safety. Smartphone cameras can spot color or fluorescence
changes that might point to the presence of a certain chemical.

10. Future Applications

Point-of-care testing: Biosensors have the potential to revolutionize point-of-care testing. They
can replace the requirement for laboratory testing by delivering results quickly and accurately.
This can save time and money on medical expenses.

Environmental monitoring: Real-time monitoring of environmental contaminants is possible with

biosensors. They are able to identify and measure toxins in the soil, water, and air, enabling early
intervention to stop environmental harm.

Artificial intelligence (AI): Biosensors and AI together can deliver individualized healthcare. AI
can use biosensor data analysis to create individualized diet and lifestyle change suggestions.
This can enhance general health and aid in the prevention of diseases.

Biosensors are developing quickly, and both their design and use are improving. They could
revolutionize environmental monitoring, food safety, and healthcare. Biosensors will become
increasingly effective, affordable, and accessible as technology advances, making them a
valuable tool for a variety of businesses.

11. References

[1] https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/8/3/1400

[2] https://www.electronicshub.org/types-of-biosensors/

[3] https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6374/12/7/543

[4]https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Biosensor-operating-principle-main-subsystems_fig8_
230611770

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[5] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128031001000013

[6] https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6374/8/2/29

[7] https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-47405-2_193-2

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