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Article ID: IJARET_11_07_024 Bwari Communities of Federal Capital Territory

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International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET)
Volume 11, Issue 7, July 2020, pp. 227-236, Article ID: IJARET_11_07_024
Available online athttp://www.iaeme.com/IJARET/issues.asp?JType=IJARET&VType=11&IType=7
ISSN Print: 0976-6480 and ISSN Online: 0976-6499
DOI: 10.34218/IJARET.11.7.2020.024

© IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed

STATUS OF DOMESTIC WATER QUALITY IN

BWARI COMMUNITIES OF FEDERAL CAPITAL
TERRITORY NIGERIA
Ayodeji Adeyemi
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Abuja, Nigeria.

*Olufunmilayo I. Ndububa
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University, Oye- Ekiti, Nigeria.

Emmanuel E. Ndububa
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Abuja, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author

ABSTRACT
The quest for effective prevention and control of waterborne diseases necessitates
the need for constant water quality monitoring and control. Water naturally contains
many micro-organisms, of which pathogen micro-organisms are detrimental to health.
The consumption of safe water is important in the control of many diseases, considering
that about 80% of all diseases in the world are associated with unsafe water use. This
research focused on assessing the quality of domestic water at selected sources in some
communities of Bwari area council. Physical, chemical and microbiological analyses
were carried out on water samples, physical parameters measured include, color, odor,
temperature, turbidity and conductivity. The chemical analysis carried out on samples
is arsenic, nitrate, nitrite, iron and manganese. Microbiological parameters measured
are total and faecal coliform bacteria. Results showed that communities’ members have
access to both improved and unimproved sources, one community with an unimproved
water source exhibited water quality values higher than recommended in manganese,
arsenic and fecal coliform. The mean, standard deviation and relative standard
deviation of the samples were calculated; results show that over 70% of the estimated
parameters have relative standard deviation values less than 2 %, the implying that the
sampling is representative, reproducible, useful and valid. It is recommended that
follow up action on accessing safe water in the community with unacceptable values for
drinking water parameter be put in place to safe guard the health of the people.
Keywords: Bwari, Quality, Domestic, Rural, Consumption

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 Ayodeji Adeyemi, Olufunmilayo I. Ndububa and Emmanuel E. Ndububa

Cite this Article: Ayodeji Adeyemi, Olufunmilayo I. Ndububa and Emmanuel E.

Ndububa, Status of Domestic Water Quality in Bwari Communities of Federal Capital
Territory Nigeria, International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and
Technology (IJARET), 11(7), 2020, pp. 227-236.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJARET/issues.asp?JType=IJARET&VType=11&IType=7

1. INTRODUCTION
Water is an essential natural resource that affects social, economic and ecological sustainability
aspects of life (Daum, 2014). Water quality is as important as water quantity in the
determination of domestic water suitability (Amadi et al, 2012). The quality of water greatly
influences the health status of any populace, thus, only safe water free of pathogens and toxic
chemicals is recommended for human consumption (Madueke et al, 2014, Seib, 2011). Access
to safe water has become a human right phenomenon through various designations in
international treaties and declarations (Grady et al, 2014) which is a global concern that
continues to receive attention.
The challenges and concerns of depreciated domestic water quality at point of consumption
cuts across the globe, however, the scenario is reportedly prevalent in developing countries, and
the problem is exacerbated in rural areas (Liu et al, 2017). About 60% of all the diseases in the
developing countries are related to unsafe water supply and inadequate sanitation (Akali et al,
2014), more than one-third of deaths in developing countries are caused by contaminated
drinking water (Tiku et al, 2003).
The quest for effective prevention and control of waterborne diseases necessitates the need
for constant water quality monitoring and control at not only source, but as well, at point of
consumption. There are several ways contaminants gain access to water bodies, some sources
are naturally occurring, for example some chemicals in drinking water. All natural water
contains a range of inorganic and organic chemicals, many chemicals in water are essential as
part of daily nutritional requirements; many result from human contamination of a small area,
only affecting a few water sources; most chemicals in drinking water only pose a health concern
after an extended period of exposure (WHO, 1997). Hence, only if certain chemical
contaminants are of special local significance, their levels should be measured and the results
evaluated in the light of the guideline values.
Water naturally contains many micro-organisms, some of which do not possess the capacity
to cause health hazards or even beneficial, but the presence of pathogen microorganisms are
detrimental to health (WHO, 2013). Microorganisms that cause diseases, known as pathogenic
microorganisms, microbes, germs or bugs are of significant concern in water quality analysis.
Activated carbon has been used to reduce levels of contaminants as saturated activated carbon
powder results in denser micro-structure (Aiswarya et al, 2019). The major classes of
pathogenic microbes of significance to drinking water quality are protozoa, bacteria, viruses,
and helminths. The presence of any of these pathogenic microbes in water is referred to as
microbiological contamination. The most serious public health risk associated with drinking
water is microbiological contamination, which makes it the priority for water quality analysis
(CAWST, 2013).

1.1. The Use of Water Quality Standards

Water quality standards and guidelines are put in place to protect the various designated uses
of a water body (Daniels et al, 2009). These standards and guidelines set parameters, maximum
allowable limits, normative references/laws, institutional roles and responsibilities, monitoring,
data management and compliance criteria such as in the Nigerian Standards for Drinking Water
Quality (NSDWQ) (NIS, 2007). The NSDWQ contains mandatory limits concerning

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 Status of Domestic Water Quality in Bwari Communities of Federal Capital Territory Nigeria

constituents and contaminants of water that are known to be hazardous to health and/or give
rise to complaints from consumers. The standard includes a set of procedures and good practices
required to meet the mandatory limits (NIS, 2007). The various limits specified will take
cognizance of the differing uses for which water quality must be maintained (EPA, 2001).
The implementation of the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking
water quality varies among countries. The guidelines are recommendations to work towards,
and they are not mandatory limits. Countries can consider the WHO guidelines along with the
environmental, social, cultural, and economic circumstances peculiar to the country (WHO,
1997). This is for guidance rather than a set of mandatory standards, WHO recognizes the need
to consider local or national environmental, social and economic conditions.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The consumption of safe water is important in the control of many diseases, considering 80%
of all diseases in the world are associated with unsafe water use (Bashir, 2005). As such,
concentrated efforts have been devoted to improving safe water supply, particularly via
improved water sources globally including Nigeria. These efforts have seen to an appreciable
increase in supply of safe water globally via improved sources. Notably in Nigeria, appreciable
progress was made in the population gaining access to safe sources between 1990 and 2015
(World Bank, 2017).
Currently, numerous efforts have been concentrated to investigating and ascertaining the
quality of water in different parts of the country, the FCT inclusive. However, most of the
reported works are limited to urban areas and towns while about 51 % (i.e. about half) of the
Nigerian population dwell in rural areas (Akali, 2014), where the susceptibility to
contamination of drinking water is higher than the urban areas due to methods of accessing
water from the improved water source facilities. It has become imperative to assess the quality
of water in rural areas. This study considers a case study of some of the rural communities of
the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) of Nigeria.

1.3. Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to assess the quality of domestic water at the source in some selected
communities of Bwari area council.
In achieving the aim, the specific objectives are:
• To collect domestic water samples at source in each community of Yhupe, Igu, Kaima,
Tokulo and Lupma of Bwari area council of the FCT;
• To assess the physical, chemical and microbiological quality of the collected water
samples;
• To compare the quality at source with pertinent drinking water standard and guidelines;
• To give recommendations for a possible intervention to reduce water contamination in
the study areas if any.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Study Area
The focus of this study is Bwari Local Government Area in the FCT. Selected communities
include: Yhupe, Igu, Kaima, Tokulo and Lupma. Bwari area council is one of the six area
councils in the FCT, others being Abuja, Abaji, Gwagwalada, Kuje and Kwali. It is located
between latitudes 6º45’ and 7º45’ north, and longitudes 8º25’ and 9º35’ east

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 Ayodeji Adeyemi, Olufunmilayo I. Ndububa and Emmanuel E. Ndububa

According to Demography, the population of Bwari as of 2006 was 229,274 with a

projection of 581,100 for 2016 (NPC, 2006). The Bwari area council covers about 2,300 square
kilometers, and lies in the north – eastern part of the Federal Capital Territory (Zubairu and
Folorunsho, 2014).

2.2. Experimental Procedure

A questionnaire containing pertinent questions necessary to assess the domestic water supply,
use and practices was prepared. The questionnaire was designed to know the individual opinion
of residents of the studied areas. It included variables on water collection, transportation,
storage, treatment, use, sanitation practices and facilities.

2.3. Sampling
Samples were collected from all sampling points following proper sampling procedures that
enabled collection of representative and viable samples. Notably, purposive sampling, a non-
probability sampling method was used for sampling in each community. Typically, deliberate
efforts without actually sampling at random were made in obtaining representative samples by
spreading the choice of investigated households in each community across the community
geographic region. However, in the selection of the 5 investigated communities, a combination
of stratified sampling and convenience sampling was employed. First a list of rural communities
in the area council were listed out (stratified sampling), and 5 were selected based on
accessibility and convenience (convenience sampling).
The selected communities: Yaupe, Igu, Kaima, Tokulo and Lupma are rural communities
of the Bwari area council, FCT. All five selected communities with majority of the population
engaging in farming as a profession. 75cl volume of water samples were collected at different
sources. Furthermore, to ensure sample collection quality control; one sample in each
community was replicated in duplicates; implying that one sample in each community was
collected in triplicates.

2.4. Water quality analysis

Physical, chemical and microbiological analyses were performed to assess the water sample
quality. The physical analysis was conducted by analyzing key physical parameters such as
color, odor, temperature, turbidity and conductivity. Temperature was also measured at the
point of collection using a digital thermometer.
The chemical analysis basically considered parameters such as arsenic, nitrate and nitrite,
iron and manganese. Arsenic was analyzed using the silver diethyldithiocarbamate method; iron
was done using phenanthroline method; nitrite using colorimetric method; nitrate using phenol
disulphonic acid method; and manganese using persulfate method.
The microbiological analysis was also performed using the membrane filtration method to
determine the quantity of E.coli and total coliform bacteria. All analytical methods conformed
with the standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (Baird et al, 2017).

2.5. Validation of Data

Considering that sampling is one of the greatest sources of error in water monitoring, extra
caution was taken to ensure the collected samples were accurate, valid and representative of the
sampled population. Data validation was done by estimating the relative standard deviation of
the parameters of replicated samples (about 10 % of the sampled population). Relative standard
deviation (RSD) of less than 15 % was taken to imply the data is valid for use, while relative
standard deviation of over 15 % is an indication of great variability (poorly representative)
samples, and dimed unfit for use. RSD was estimated using Equation 1:

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 Status of Domestic Water Quality in Bwari Communities of Federal Capital Territory Nigeria

𝑆
𝑅𝑆𝐷 = 𝑥̅ × 100 (1)
Where 𝑥̅ , the simple arithmetic mean is the sum of a set of observations divided by the
number of observations as expressed in Equation 2; and S, the standard deviation is the square
root of the mean square deviation of the variant from the mean and is given by Equation 3.
∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑥̅ = ( 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … 𝑛 ) (2)
𝑛

∑𝑛
𝑖=0(𝑥−𝑥̅ )
2
S(𝜎) = √ 𝑛
(3)

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 presents the water quality results obtained from collected samples.

Table 1 Physiochemical and microbial results in the 5 communities

Param Un
S/No Yaupe Igu Tokulo Kaima Lupma
eters its
1(S 1(S 1(S 5( 5(H 5(H 1( 1(H 1(H 3(P 3(P 3(P 10( 10( 10(
Wu Wu) Wu) HH H) H) HP Pi) Pi) Wu Wu) Wu) HH HH) HH)
) R1 R2 ) R1 R2 i) R1 R2 ) R1 R2 ) R1 R2
29. 30.
Tempe 27. 27.2 27.0 22. 22. 22. 28. 29. 30.0 30.1 24. 24.7 24.7
1 ℃ 00 30
rature 300 00 00 300 100 300 980 100 00 00 700 00 00
0 0
Odor
N N
2 and ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
D D
Taste
5.9 5.95 5.98 7.1 7.1 7.1 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.9 5.87 5.81 5.4 5.41 5.40
3 PH
80 0 0 80 60 10 50 50 50 00 0 0 30 0 0
µS 218 218 218 36. 29. 211
Condu 38. 38.9 38.8 36. 36. 29.5 29.6 211. 212.
4 /c .00 .00 .00 70 70 .00
ctivity 800 00 00 700 700 00 00 000 000
m 0 0 0 0 0 0
150 80.
H 150. 150. 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 80.0 80.0 1.0 1.00 1.00
5 Color .00 00
U 000 000 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 0
0 0
96.
Turbidi NT 90. 92.0 96.0 2.1 2.1 2.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 96.2 96.3 2.0 2.00 2.00
6 00
ty U 000 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 0
0
Manga mg 5.0 5.00 5.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.03 0.03 0.0 0.00 0.00
7
nese /L 00 0 0 10 10 10 01 10 10 30 0 0 02 2 2
mg 8.0 8.00 8.00 15. 15. 15. 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.10 8.10 5.0 5.00 5.00
8 Nitrate
/L 00 0 0 000 000 000 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 0 0
mg 0.1 0.13 0.14 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.30 0.30 0.2 0.22 0.22
9 Nitrite
/L 20 0 0 60 60 60 10 10 10 00 0 0 20 0 0
mg 2.0 2.05 2.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.70 0.70 0.3 0.32 0.30
10 Iron
/L 00 0 0 80 80 80 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 0 0
Arseni mg 0.2 0.20 0.20 N 0.0 0.00 0.00
11 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
c /L 00 0 0 D 01 1 1
CF
U/
Total 28.
10 20. 22.0 24.0 10. 10. 10. 0.0 0.0 0.0 27.0 28.0 5.0 5.00 5.00
12 Colifor 00
0 000 00 00 000 000 000 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 0
m 0
m
L
CF
U/
10 4.0 4.00 4.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00
13 E.coli
0 00 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 0 0
m
L

Note:
ND = Not detected

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 Ayodeji Adeyemi, Olufunmilayo I. Ndububa and Emmanuel E. Ndububa

Subscript denotes the source classification where i denotes improved source and u denotes
unimproved sources
The superscripts in the household section indicate the stored source in the household at the
point of sampling
The numbers 1, 2 3… are the sample identification numbers at the point of sampling
The alphabets in parentheses denotes the source where,
SW = Surface water; BH = Borehole; PW = Protected dug well;
HH = Household
R1 and R2 denotes replicates where R1 is replicate 1 and R2 is replicate 2
Table 2 presents the statistical results of analyzed samples from five communities.

Table 2 Mean, Standard Deviation and Relative Standard Deviation of replicate samples
S/ Paramet
Units Yaupe Igu Tokulo Kaima Lupma
No ers
Mea RS Mea RS Me RS Me RS Mea RS
SD SD SD SD SD
n D n D an D an D n D
Temperat 27.1 0.1 0.4 22.2 0.0 0.4 29. 0.0 0.1 30. 0.1 0.4 24.7 0.0 0.0
1 ℃
ure 67 25 59 33 94 24 027 52 81 133 25 14 00 00 00
5.97 0.0 0.2 7.15 0.0 0.4 5.8 0.0 0.0 5.8 0.0 0.6 5.41 0.0 0.2
2 PH
0 14 37 0 29 12 50 00 00 60 37 39 3 12 30
Conducti 38.8 0.0 0.1 218. 0.0 0.0 36. 0.0 0.0 29. 0.0 0.2 211. 0.4 0.2
3 µS/cm
vity 33 47 21 000 00 00 700 00 00 600 82 76 333 71 23
150. 0.0 0.0 1.00 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 10. 0.0 0.0 1.00 0.0 0.0
4 Color HU
000 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 00 000 00 00 0 00 00
92.6 2.4 2.6 2.10 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 16. 0.1 0.1 2.00 0.0 0.0
5 Turbidity NTU
67 94 92 0 00 00 00 00 00 167 25 30 0 00 00
Mangane 5.00 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.0
6 mg/L
se 0 00 00 0 00 00 01 00 00 10 00 00 2 00 00
8.00 0.0 0.0 15.0 0.0 0.0 8.1 0.0 0.0 8.1 0.0 0.0 5.00 0.0 0.0
7 Nitrate mg/L
0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00
0.13 0.0 6.2 0.06 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.22 0.0 0.0
8 Nitrite mg/L
0 08 81 0 00 00 10 00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00
2.01 0.0 1.1 0.08 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.30 0.0 3.0
9 Iron mg/L
7 24 69 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 7 09 74
0.20 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
10 Arsenic mg/L - - - - - - - - -
0 00 00 01 00 00
Total CFU/10 22.0 1.6 7.4 10.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 5.00 0.0 0.0
11 - - -
Coliform 0mL 00 33 23 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00
CFU/10 4.00 0.0 0.0
12 E.Coli - - - - - - - - - - - -
0mL 0 00 00

3.1. Discussion of Results

Results of the Physical, Chemical and Biological parameters presented in Table 1 are analyzed
as follows:

3.1.1. Temperature
The temperature for all the samples at source in the study area ranged from 27.2 ℃ to 30.3 ℃.
With respect to the WHO standards, guidelines was silent on value for temperature on drinking-
water quality, thus, the observed temperature range in the study area is considered acceptable
and in consonance with the NSDWQ specification of ambient temperature.

3.1.2. Odor and taste

The odor and taste result revealed that no objectionable odor or taste was observed at any of the
sources at the given time of sampling, and was denoted with ND meaning not detected. This

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 Status of Domestic Water Quality in Bwari Communities of Federal Capital Territory Nigeria

observation meets the requirement of the WHO drinking guidelines and NSDWQ which
maintained that drinking water should be free of tastes and odors that would be objectionable.

3.1.3. pH
The pH analysis for the sources in the 5 communities revealed a pH range of pH 5.4 to pH 7.18.
The WHO drinking guidelines did not specify any guideline value for pH, with reasons being
that it is not of health concern at levels found in drinking water, it can be concluded from the
observed pH range in this study, that most water sources in the studied area are acidic
considering they fall below pH 7.

3.1.4. Conductivity
Conductivity of water samples ranged from 29.50µS/cm to 218.00µS/cm. This observed range
did not exceed the maximum permitted value of 1000 µS/cm specified by NSDWQ for
conductivity.

3.1.5. Color
The color results for the sources in the studied areas range from 1 HU to 150 HU. Based on the
NSDWQ’s specified maximum permitted level of 15 TCU, most of the water sources recording
a value of 1 TCU.

3.1.6. Turbidity
Turbidity analysis at the sampled sources revealed turbidity range of 1.1 NTU to 96 NTU.
Based on the WHO drinking guideline and NSDWQ value of 5 NTU maximum allowable limit,
more than 50 % of the results have values within the acceptable range.

3.1.7. Manganese
The analysis for manganese revealed levels in the range of 0.001 mg/l to 5 mg/l; with only 1
sample source from Yaupe exceeding the NSDWQ maximum permitted level of 0.2 mg/l.

3.1.8. Nitrate
The nitrate levels observed at the sampled sources were between the range of 5 mg/l and 15
mg/l. These levels do not exceed the WHO drinking guidelines and NSDWQ value of 50 mg/l.
Thus, the nitrate levels observed are within permissible limits.

3.1.9. Nitrite
The nitrite levels observed at the sampled sources were between the range of 0.01 mg/l and 0.3
mg/l. The observed levels at all sources did not exceed the WHO drinking guideline value of 3
mg/L however.

3.1.10. Iron
The observed iron levels at the sampled sources fell in the range of 0.08 mg/l to 2.05 mg/l.
Although the WHO drinking guidelines did not specify any guideline value for iron, stating that
it is not of health concern at levels causing acceptability problems in drinking water; it
elucidated that iron is an essential element in human nutrition, and as a precaution against
storage in the body of excessive iron, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food
Additives (JECFA) established a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 0.8
mg/Kg body weight, which applies to iron from all sources except for iron oxides used as
coloring agents and iron supplements taken during pregnancy and lactation or for specific
clinical requirements (WHO, 2011), an allocation of 10 % of this PMTDI to drinking-water

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 Ayodeji Adeyemi, Olufunmilayo I. Ndububa and Emmanuel E. Ndububa

gives a value of about 2 mg/l which does not present a hazard to health. The NSDWQ however,
specified a value of 0.2 mg/l. Comparing results with the NSDWQ standard, only 1 sample
exceed the specified value. Since the NSDWQ is the ultimate standard for the studied areas,
then the iron levels observed in the source is beyond permissible limits..

3.1.11. Arsenic
Investigation of the arsenic levels in the sampled sources revealed a range of zero (not detected)
to 0.2 mg/l; with only 1 sampled source exceeding the WHO drinking guidelines and NSDWQ
maximum permitted level of 0.01 mg/l. The source was the surface water at Yaupe [1(SWu)]
with values of 0.2 mg/l. Going by the reported health hazards of arsenic, these sources are very
unsafe for drinking water.

3.1.12. Total coliform

The total coliform analysis for the sampled sources indicated results ranging from 0.00
CFU/100ml to 28 CFU/100ml. With respect to the NSDWQ’s value of 10 CFU/100ml only 2
samples were beyond the specified value. The 2 samples were the surface water at Yaupe
[1(SWu)] and Kaima surface water [1(SWu)], with values of 20 CFU/100mL and 28
CFU/100mL.

3.1.13. E. coli
The E. coli analysis for the sampled sources revealed that only the surface water at Yaupe
[1(SWu)] of the sampled sources (10%) indicated presence of E. coli with a value of 4
CFU/100ml. This observed value of 4 CFU/100ml is beyond the WHO drinking guideline and
NSDWQ value of 0 CFU/100mL for E. coli. The implication of this result is; the Yaupe surface
water is fecally contaminated.
Table 2 presents the mean, standard deviation and relative standard deviation of the
samples; which shows that over 70 % of the estimated parameters have relative standard
deviation(RSD) values less than 2 % and the highest RSD for all estimated parameters is 7.42
%, a value which is less than the 15 % acceptable RSD for validation (Daniel, 2015). Besides
it was observed that the sample set with relatively higher RSD values (RSD values greater than
2 %) is the triplicate sampled set at Yaupe, which was sourced from a surface flowing water.
The implication of this result is that the sampling is representative, reproducible, defensible,
useful, valid and shows high precision.

4. CONCLUSION
The understanding of water quality at both source and point of consumption is requisite for
planning and development of efficient domestic water quality and consumption practices that
will alleviate the burdens of water related diseases and fatalities. Thus, this study assessed the
quality of domestic water in 5 rural communities of Bwari area council, FCT. The outcome of
this study indicated the following:
a. Improved sources including the handpump equipped boreholes and motorized boreholes
possessed water quality values that met requirement of the NSDWQ and WHO drinking
water guidelines.
b. Yaupe community with an unimproved water source exhibited water quality values
higher than recommended in manganese, arsenic and fecal coliform.
c. It was found that some communities resort back to unimproved water sources when
there is no access to safe water sources.

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 Status of Domestic Water Quality in Bwari Communities of Federal Capital Territory Nigeria

d. Based on comparison of results with the NSDWQ and WHO drinking water guidelines;
the improved sources deliver safe water at the point of supply however, it cannot be
concluded that quality is maintained at point of consumption.
e. Although protected dug well is classed as an improved source, some of the water quality
parameters did not meet requirement given in water quality standards as established by
the quality of other improved sources like boreholes and hand pumps, with respect to
turbidity values;
f. Some of the predominant water handling and sanitary practices observed in the study
area such as; the absence of cover on transportation containers, dipping of cups into
storage vessels, and poor sanitary facilities area are indices of post source
contamination.

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