1 Function

and Structure of the Respiratory System

OBJECTIVES
The reader states the functions of the respiratory system and relates the structural organization of
the system to its functions.
Describes the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the atmosphere and relates gas
exchange to the metabolism of the tissues of the body.
Defines the role of the respiratory system in acid-base balance.
Lists the nonrespiratory functions of the lungs.
Defines and describes the alveolar-capillary unit, the site of gas exchange in the lungs.
Describes the transport of gas through the conducting airways to and from the alveoli.
Describes the structural characteristics of the airways.
Lists the components of the chest wall and relates the functions of the muscles of respiration to
the movement of air into and out of the alveoli.
Describes the central nervous system initiation of breathing and the innervation of the
respiratory muscles.

The main functions of the respiratory system are to obtain oxygen from the external environment and
supply it to the cells and to remove from the body the carbon dioxide produced by cellular
metabolism.
The respiratory system is composed of the lungs, the conducting airways, the parts of the central
nervous system concerned with the control of the muscles of respiration, and the chest wall. The chest
wall consists of the muscles of respiration—such as the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles, and the
abdominal muscles—and the rib cage.

FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The functions of the respiratory system include gas exchange, acid-base balance, phonation,
pulmonary defense and metabolism, and the handling of bioactive materials.

Gas Exchange
Oxygen from the ambient air is exchanged for carbon dioxide produced by the cells of the body in the
alveoli of the lungs. Fresh air, containing oxygen, is inspired into the lungs through the conducting
airways. The forces causing the air to flow are generated by the respiratory muscles, acting on commands
initiated by the central nervous system. At the same time, venous blood returning from the various body
tissues is pumped into the lungs by the right ventricle of the heart. This mixed venous blood has a high
carbon dioxide content and a low oxygen content. In the pulmonary capillaries, carbon dioxide is
exchanged for oxygen from the alveoli. The blood leaving the lungs, which now has a high oxygen content
and a relatively low carbon dioxide content, is distributed to the tissues of the body by the left side of the
heart. During expiration, gas with a high concentration of carbon dioxide is expelled from the body. A
schematic diagram of the gas exchange function of the respiratory system is shown in Figure 1–1.

Figure 1–1. Schematic representation of gas exchange between the tissues of the body and the
environment.

Other Functions

ACID-BASE BALANCE
In the body, increases in carbon dioxide lead to increases in hydrogen ion concentration (and vice versa)
because of the following reaction:

The respiratory system can therefore participate in acid-base balance by removing CO2 from the body.
The central nervous system has sensors for the CO2 and the hydrogen ion levels in the arterial blood and
in the cerebrospinal fluid that send information to the controllers of breathing. Acid-base balance is
discussed in greater detail in Chapter 8; the control of breathing is discussed in Chapter 9.

PHONATION
Phonation is the production of sounds by the movement of air through the vocal cords. Speech, singing,
and other sounds are produced by the actions of the central nervous system controllers on the muscles of
respiration, causing air to flow through the vocal cords and the mouth. Phonation will not be discussed in
detail in this book.

PULMONARY DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Each breath brings into the lungs a small sample of the local atmospheric environment. This may include
microorganisms such as bacteria, dust, particles of silica or asbestos, toxic gases, smoke (cigarette and
other types), and other pollutants. In addition, the temperature and humidity of the local atmosphere vary
tremendously. The mechanisms by which the lungs are protected from these environmental assaults are
discussed in Chapter 10.

PULMONARY METABOLISM AND THE HANDLING OF BIOACTIVE MATERIALS

The cells of the lung must metabolize substrates to supply energy and nutrients for their own maintenance.
Some specialized pulmonary cells also produce substances necessary for normal pulmonary function. In
addition, the pulmonary capillary endothelium contains a great number of enzymes that can produce,
metabolize, or modify naturally occurring vasoactive substances. These metabolic functions of the
respiratory system are discussed in Chapter 10.

STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Air enters the respiratory system through the nose or mouth. Air entering through the nose is filtered,
heated to body temperature, and humidified as it passes through the nose and nasal turbinates. These
protective mechanisms are discussed in Chapter 10. The upper airways are shown in Figure 10–1. Air
breathed through the nose enters the airways via the nasopharynx and through the mouth via the
oropharynx. It then passes through the glottis and the larynx and enters the tracheobronchial tree. After
passing through the conducting airways, the inspired air enters the alveoli, where it comes into contact
with the mixed venous blood in the pulmonary capillaries.

The Airways
After passing through the nose or mouth, the pharynx, and the larynx (the upper airways), air enters the
tracheobronchial tree. Starting with the trachea, the air may pass through as few as 10 or as many as 23
generations, or branchings, on its way to the alveoli. The branchings of the tracheobronchial tree and its
nomenclature are shown in Figure 1–2. Alveolar gas exchange units are denoted by the U-shaped sacs.