1. Briefly explain the theory of evolution by natural selection.

4 marks
• parents produce more offspring than survive
• there is competition among members of a species for survival/struggle for existence
• species show variation
• certain variations will give a selective advantage/survival of fittest
• depending on environment
• these variations will be passed on to the next generation
• leading to change in allele frequency

2. Outline four types of evidence which support the theory of evolution by natural selection. 6
• fossils/paleontological
◦ fossilized horse ancestors/other evidence
• homologous structures
◦ pentadactyl limb/vertebrate embryos/other
• geographic distribution
◦ ring species/other evidence from geographical distribution
• recent observed evolution
◦ resistance to antibiotics/insecticides/heavy metal tolerance/other recent example

3. Outline one modern example of observed evolution by natural selection. 3 marks

• named example (this must be a real example, naming the species using binomial nomenclature
or a full common name)
• selective pressure (what caused the change)
• result (describing the evolutionary change)
example
• beaks of Galapagos finches
• competition for food
• change in numbers/proportion of birds with different sized beaks

4. Explain the evidence from homologous anatomical structures that supports the theory of
evolution. 6 marks
• homologous structures are various different structures of the same basic plan
• derived from a similar embryonic origin
• variations on the basic structure allow different functions
• permitting exploitation of differnt ways of life/adaptive radiation
• the suggests divergence from a common ancestor
• named example of a homologous structure (e.g. pentadactyl limb, flower, birds` beaks)
• description of basic structure of this example
• variation related to different functions of this example

5. Outline how antibiotic resistance in bacteria can arise in response to environmental

change. 5 marks
• antibiotic resistance can be inherited;
• alleles for resistance can be passed from one cell to another by exchange of
• plasmids/conjugation;
• some varieties are more resistant than others;
• bacteria reproduce very rapidly and have high mutation rate;
• evolution can occur rapidly;
• increased exposure to antibiotics is the environmental change that selects for resistant varieties;
• for example, in hospitals / animal feed / inappropriate prescriptions / not finishing prescriptions;
• bacteria without resistance die / resistant bacteria survive and pass on genes to next generation;
• results in change in genetic makeup of population;

6. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is an example of evolution in response to environmental

change. Using another example, explain how an environmental change can lead to evolution. 8
marks
• natural selection (in correct context);
• better-adapted individuals survive/more likely to survive;
• more reproduction/genes passed on by better adapted individuals;
• name of species; (accept even if remainder of answer is invalid)
• description of original/decreasing phenotype;
• type of environmental change that led to evolution;
• consequence of environmental change
• description of new/increasing phenotype;
• genetic basis of phenotypes;
• reason for new phenotype being better adapted;
 • detail of reason for adaptedness of new phenotype;
The following has been provided as an example answer.
• great tit;
• bird that lays its eggs in spring;
• global warming/climate change;
• more caterpillars (on trees) in early spring;
• laying eggs earlier in spring;
• time of egg laying is (partly) genetically controlled;
• eggs laid early hatch at start of period of greatest food abundance;
• more young can be fed/young grow faster/fewer deaths;

The following questions are for HL only:

7. Discuss the definition of the term species. (8 max)
• a species is a group of organisms
• a species shares a common gene pool
• showing similar morphology / characteristics
• capable of interbreeding
• and producing fertile offspring
• but dissimilar organisms sometimes interbreed
• mule formed by crossing horse and donkey / other example of interspecific hybridisation
• interspecific hybrids are sometimes fertile
• sometimes organisms that are very similar will not interbreed
• Drosophila pseudoobscura and persimilis / other example of sibling species
• reference to the problem of defining fossil species
• reference to the problem of species that only reproduce asexually
• reference to the problem of isolated populations gradually diverging

8. Outline allopatric and sympatric speciation. 4 marks

• speciation is the formation of a new species by the splitting of an existing species;
• allopatric speciation caused by geographical separation;
• sympatric speciation occurring within the same habitat caused by different niches / caused by
courtship/feeding differences/behavioural differences;
• both processes lead to isolation of sub-populations;
• isolation favours certain genetic variations (within a species);
• over time this leads to genetic barriers/speciation;
Both allopatric and sympatric speciation must be mentioned. 3 max if only one mentioned.

9. Discuss the theory that evolution occurs by punctuated equilibrium. 3 marks

• long periods where there was no (apparent) change/stasis
• short periods of rapid evolution
• periods of mass extinctions leading to opportunities/caused by environmental disruption/rapid
environmental change in short periods
• supported by lack of fossils showing gradual changes
• an example of such environmental disruption (meteors, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.)
• alternative theory is gradualism
• punctuated equilibrium is based on fossil evidence rather than biochemical evidence

10. Compare evolution by punctuated equilibrium with evolution by gradualism. 3 marks

• punctuated equilibrium involves faster mutation rates
• punctuated equlibrium involves more powerful natural selection
• punctuated equilibrium implies that the environment undergoes sudden changes
• punctuated equibrium involves discontinuous evolution
• gradualism implies continuous evolution
• punctuated equilibrium involves faster evolution rates (when it occurs)

1. Outline the international system used for naming species of living organisms. (4 max)
• binomial system
• devised by Linnaeus
• the first name is the genus name
• the second name is the species name
• genus name can be abbreviated
• genus consists of a group of (closely related) species
• upper case for first letter of genus name and the rest of the binomial is lower case
• Sequoia sempervirens / other example
• first published name is the correct one
• local / colloquial names can be very confusing / helps international communication
2. Name the levels and the specific taxa in the hierachy of classification using humans as an
example. (2 max)
• (Kingdom) Animalia
• (Phylum) Chordata
• (Sub-phylum) Vertebrata
• (Class) Mammalia
• (Order) Primata
• (Family) Hominidae
• (Genus) Homo
• (Species) sapiens

3. Outline the structural differences which characterize bryophytes, filicinophytes,

coniferophytes and angiospermophytes. 9 marks
bryophytes
• small plants
• no true stems or leaves
• rhizoids only
• dominant plant is haploid / is the gametophyte
• spores produced in a capsule
• non-vascular / lack of xylem and phloem
filicinophytes
• seedless
• vascular tissues / xylem and phloem
• roots
• leaves and stems
• spores produced in clusters / spores usually produced under the leaves
• prothallus / small gametophyte / gametophyte grows independently
coniferophyta
• seeds not enclosed in ovary / pericarp / fruit
• pollen and ovules
• cones
• often have narrow leaves / thick waxy cuticle
• vascular tissue / xylem and phloem
angiospermophytes
• flowers / flowering plants
• ovules / seed are enclosed
• fruits
• xylem vessels

4. List the structural differences between bryophytes and angiospermophytes. 5 marks

(Award 1 mark for each structure not found in the other group, up to 5 marks)
• bryophytes have a thallus
• bryophytes have rhizoids
• bryophytes contain archegonia and antheridia
• bryophytes main plant is a gametophyte
• angiospermophytes have a (complex) vascular system /xylem / phloem
• angiospermophytes have a cuticle / bark on their surface
• angiospermophytes have lignified tissues
• angiospermophytes have flowers
• angiospermophytes grow pollen tubes / produce pollen
• angiospermophytes have (enclosed) seeds / fruits
• angiospermophytes have roots / stems / leaves
• angiospermophytes main plant is a gametophyte

5. Outline the value of classifying organisms. 4 marks

• classification arranges organisms into groups
• classification allows identification of species / organisms
• classification allows prediction of related taxa / based on common characteristics
• classification reveals evolutionary links / shared derived characteristics / inherited from common
ancestors
• classification allows effective communication / all scientists use same terminology
• classification avoids problem of convergence / ignores analogies
• classification emphasizes homologous structures / traits derived from common ancestry
6. Explain the biochemical evidence provided by DNA and protein structures for the common
ancestry of living organisms. 6 marks
• DNA/genetic code is universal;
• same four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine; To award the mark full names of all
four are required.
• always pairing of A T and G C;
• same structure of double helix of complementary strands;
• use the same 20 amino acids in their proteins;
• all left-handed;
• same/similar enzymes in processes of replication/transcription/translation;
• small differences in DNA/proteins show closer relationships;
• e.g. hemoglobin/cytochrome C/gene structures show relationships among organisms;
• humans have the same biochemistry as all organisms so part of same evolution/ common
ancestry;
• mitochondrial DNA used to determine maternal lines / y chromosome used to determine paternal
lines;
• endosymbiotic theory/mitochondria/chloroplast structures indicate common lines of evolution;

7. Explain how variations in specific molecules can indicate phylogeny. 4 marks

• differences between molecules can be used to deduce phylogeny
• phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a (taxonomic) group
• mutation rates in DNA occur with predictable rates
• compare nucleotide sequences (of DNA) between taxa
• compare amino acid sequences (of proteins) between taxa
• differences can be used as a molecular clock
• to develop phylogeny
• to determine time since common ancestry
• variation can be due to mutations;
• mutations are chance events so caution must be taken when interpreting these;

8. Discuss how biochemical variations can be used as an evolutionary clock. 5 marks

methods of using evolutionary clocks: 3 max
• differences in nucleotide base sequences / DNA / amino acid sequences / proteins
• accumulate gradually over time
• differences accumulate at (roughly) predictable rates
• therefore the number of differences can be used as a clock
• to measure the time since two divergent groups shared a common ancestor
• example; e.g. amino acid sequences in globin genes
problems with using evolutionary clocks: 2 max
• however variations are partly due to mutations
• which are unpredictable chance events
• so there must be caution in interpreting data
• establish a variety of molecular clocks for reliability

9. Distinguish, with examples, between analogous and homologous characterisitcs 4 marks

analogous characteristics: 2 marks max
• analogous characteristics are structures with a common function
• but a different evolutionary origin
• example: dolphin fins and shark fins
homologous characteristics: 2 marks max
• homologous characteristics are structures that have a common evolutionary origin
• even if they have different functions
• example: dolphin forelimbs and human arms

10. Discuss the relationship between cladograms and the classification of living organisms. 4
marks
• cladograms (often) confirm existing classifications
• since both are based on phylogeny
• cladograms are (sometimes) different than traditional classifications
• because nodes can be placed at any point / arbitrary
• cladograms (sometimes) radically alter existing classifications
• example: birds grouped with dinosaurs
• strength of cladistics is that the comparisons are objective / rely on molecular homologies
• weakness of cladistics is that molecular differences are based on probabilities
—————————-
1. Discuss the definition of the term species. (8 marks)
• a species is a group of organisms
• a species shares a common gene pool
• showing similar morphology / characteristics
• capable of interbreeding
• and producing fertile offspring
• but dissimilar organisms sometimes interbreed
• mule formed by crossing horse and donkey / other example of interspecific hybridisation
• interspecific hybrids are sometimes fertile
• sometimes organisms that are very similar will not interbreed
• Drosophila pseudoobscura and persimilis / other example of sibling species
• reference to the problem of defining fossil species
• reference to the problem of species that only reproduce asexually
• reference to the problem of isolated populations gradually diverging

2. Compare the ways in which autotrophic, heterotrophic and saprotrophic organisms obtain
energy. (6 max)
• autotrophs use an external / non-organic energy source
(reject statements suggestion that energy is made)
• (some) autotrophs use light / (some) autotrophs use photosynthesis
• (some) autotrophs use inorganic chemical reactions / (some) autotrophs use chemosynthesis
• heterotrophs obtain energy from other organisms
• heterotrophs (usually) ingest food / consume food
• saprotrophs obtain energy from non-living matter / dead organisms
• saprotrophs digest organic matter extracellularly

3. Outline what is meant by the trophic level of an organism with three examples from one
named habitat. (4 max)
(Award 1 mark for the meaning)
• feeding level for an organism in a food chain
• naming of habitat (1 mark)
• naming three trophic levels correctly (1 mark)
• three examples forming a food chain from the named habitat (1 mark)

4. Outline the energy flow between trophic levels in a food chain. 6 marks
• (original) source of energy in a food chain is from (sun)light;
• captured by plants/autotrophs/producers/first trophic level;
• by means of photosynthesis/converted to chemical energy/organic molecules;
• plants use part of energy for own energy requirements/lost through cell respiration;
• consumers use energy for own requirements from organisms in previous trophic level;
• energy travels between trophic levels/producer to 1st consumer/1st consumer to 2nd consumer/
2nd consumer to 3rd consumer;
• not all material is assimilated/consumed/not digested/lost in faeces / OWTTE;
• only a small amount of energy/(approximately) 10–20% is passed between trophic levels / most/
80–90%/a large amount of the energy of a trophic level is lost (and not transferred);
• loss of energy from organisms in form of heat;
• energy is not recycled in an ecosystem (but nutrients are);

(Award any of the above marking points in a correctly annotated diagram.)

5. Ecologists sometimes display data from an ecosystem using a diagram called a pyramid of
energy. Describe what is shown in pyramids of energy. 6 marks
• pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next (in a community);
• units of pyramids of energy are energy per unit area per unit time/kJ m–2 yr –1;
• bar width is proportional to the energy stored (in the biomass) in that trophic level;
• the first/lowest trophic level is producers;
• second level is primary consumers/herbivores;
• third level of secondary consumers/carnivores;
• only a small amount (10 to 20 %) of energy of one level is passed to the next;
• bar width/energy stored in the trophic level decreases (proportionally) as you go up each level;
• pyramid shows that there is a limit to the length of food chains;

6. Draw a labeled diagram of the carbon cycle. 6 marks

(Award [1] for each of the following shown using labelled arrows or notes on a diagram. Accept carbon
dioxide or CO2 throughout.)
• carbon dioxide/CO2 in atmosphere/water;
• (cell) respiration producing CO2 in atmosphere;
 • photosynthesis (fixing) CO2 from atmosphere into producers/plants;
• death/decomposition transforming C in plants/animals to C in bacteria/fungi/saprotophs;
• fossilization converting carbon in organisms to fossil fuels/coal/oil/natural gas;
• combustion/burning of fossil fuels/coal/oil/natural gas/peat producing CO2 /weathering of shells/
rocks releasing CO2;
• combustion/burning of producers/forests producing CO2;
• feeding (organic C) in producers/plants to (organic C) in consumers/animals;
• feeding (organic C) in consumers to other consumers;

7. All organisms in an ecosystem are involved in the carbon cycle. Outline the roles of living
organisms in the carbon cycle. (8 marks)
•
• plants/producers fix carbon (dioxide)/use carbon (dioxide) in photosynthesis;
• sugars/carbon compounds (produced) in plants/producers from photosynthesis;
• (carbon compounds in) plants/producers eaten by animals/primary consumers/herbivores;
• (carbon compounds in) primary consumers eaten by secondary consumers/ passed along food
chain;
• carbon compounds/sugars/organic molecules digested and absorbed by consumers;
• carbon dioxide released by cell respiration (in plants/animals/consumers);
• plants/animals die and are decomposed by (saprotrophic) bacteria/fungi;
• carbon dioxide released by cell respiration in bacteria/fungi/decomposers;
• enzymes released to digest/hydrolyse carbon compounds in organic matter;
• forest fires/combustion releases carbon dioxide;
• humans burn fossil fuels adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere;

8. Describe the relationship between the rise in the concentration of atmospheric carbon
dioxide and the enhanced greenhouse effect. 5 marks
• CO2 is a greenhouse gas;
• increases in CO2 increase/enhance the greenhouse effect;
• greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon but not its increase;
• Earth receives short wave radiation from the sun;
• reradiated from Earth as longer wave radiation/infra red/heat;
• CO2 /greenhouse gases trap/absorb longer wave radiation/infra red/heat;
• global warming happened during same time/period as CO2 rise;
• CO2 concentration correlated (positively) with global temperature / global temperature
• increases as CO2 concentration increases;
• (causal) link accepted by most scientists;
• no proof that man-made increases in CO2 have caused global warming;

9. Outline the causes and consequences of the enhanced greenhouse effect. 4 marks
• a. burning of (fossil) fuels/coal/oil/gas releases carbon dioxide;
• b. deforestation/loss of ecosystems reduces carbon dioxide uptake;
• c. methane emitted from cattle/livestock/melting permafrost/waste dumps;
• d. heating of the atmosphere/global warming/climate change;
• e. melting of ice caps/glaciers/permafrost / sea level rise / floods / droughts / changes in ocean
currents / more powerful hurricanes / extreme weather events / other abiotic consequence;
• f. changes in species distributions/migration patterns / increased decomposition rates / increases
in pest/pathogen species / loss of ice habitats / other biotic consequence;

10. Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems. 6 marks
• melting of permafrost;
• disturbance to food chains/webs/trophic levels;
• increased detritus decomposition;
• expansion of temperate species / reduced range for arctic species;
• changes in distribution of prey species affecting higher trophic levels
• increased success of pest species, including pathogens
• rise in sea levels;
• change in climatic patterns;
• loss of ice habitat;