INTRODUCTION TO PLANT BREEDING AND

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

‘Plant Breeding’ is the science which deals with

principles and methods required for favorably
changing the genetic constitution of crop plants
suited to human needs in one or or more aspects
superior than the existing one.
• Frankel (1968) - Plant Breeding as the genetic adjustment
of plants to social, cultural, economic and technological
aspects of the environment

• Smith (1967) - Plant Breeding as the art and science of

improving the genetic pattern of plants in relation to
their economic use

The typical examples of the achievements of plant breeding

applied as an art are:
• Huskless barley
• Awnless wheat
• An adequate scientific knowledge of botany, genetics,
cytogenetics, physiology, pathology, agronomy etc. of crop
plants has provided the necessary background to a breeder for
the selection of desirable traits in a desired direction

• The modern plant breeding is neither an art nor a science but a

combination of both. The science of plant breeding coupled
with allied disciplines is applied with skill to achieve
commercial end products

• Plant Breeding aims to improve the characteristics of plants so

that they become more desirable agonomically and
economically.
 HISTORY
The process of bringing a wild species under human management is referred
to as ‘DOMESTICATION’. This give rise to better types than wild ones.
Transfer of specific genes from wild species to cultivated ones may be
regarded as domestication of those genes.

• Babylonians and Assyrians pollinated date palm artificially as early as

700 B.C.

• Thomas Fairchild (1717) produced the first artificial hybrid.

• Joseph Kolreuter made extensive crosses in tobacco between 1760 and

1766.

• Knight (1759 – 1835) was the first man to use artificial hybridization to
develop several new fruit varieties.

• Le Couteur and Shireff (1840) used individual plant selection and

progeny test to develop some useful cereal varieties.
• Vilmorin (1856) further developed the progeny test in sugar beet.

• The individual plant selection method was developed in detail by

Nilsson et al. (1900).

• Johannesen (1903) proposed pure line theory that provided the

genetic basis for individual plant selection.

• Gregor Mendel‘s laws of inheritance provided the basis for the vast
knowledge that has accumulated in genetics.

• G.H. Shull found that inbreeding in maize produced a considerable

loss in hybrid vigor. But, when some of the weak inbred lines were
crossed, the resulting hybrids were more vigorous than the original
variety. These observations led to the development of hybrid
varieties.
• One of the most important developments is the production of semi- dwarf
cereal varieties, particularly in wheat and Rice.

• N.E. Borlaug et.al. at CIMMYT (International Centre for Wheat and Maize
Improvement), Mexico used a Japanese variety NORIN 10 (Rht 1 and Rht 2 or
both genes) as the source of dwarfing gene.

• Later, ICAR developed Kalyan Sona and Sonalika varieties as the source of
Introduction from the selections. These varieties are semi-dwarf, lodging
resistant, fertilizer responsive, high yielding and rust resistant.

• Development of semi- dwarf rice varieties has revolutionized rice cultivation.

The scientists developed Dee – geo – woo – gen, a dwarf, early maturing variety
of japonica rice from Taiwan.

• T(N) 1 and IR 8 were introduced in India during 1966.

• Later replaced by other semi- dwarf varieties viz., Jaya and Ratna. Those
varieties were lodging resistant, fertilizer responsive, high yielding and photo-
insensitive.
Barber and Venkatraman at Sugar Cane Breeding Institute,
Coimbatore transferred thicker stem and high sugar
content and disease resistant traits from noble canes to
Indian canes.

It is referred as Nobilisation of Indian Canes

In cotton, through exploitation of heterosis, hybrids viz.,

Varalaxmi, CBS 156, Savithri, Jayalaxmi were released for
commercial cultivation.

These varieties were high yielding, maximum ginning

outturn and possessed good fibre quality.
 Intervarietal
ACTIVITIES IN PLANT BREEDING
Distant
HYBRIDIZATION
DOMESTICATION
Physical
CREATION OF MUTATION
GERMPLASM VARIATION
COLLECTION Chemical

Auto
POLYPLOIDY
INTRODUCTION

Allo
SOMOCLONAL
VARIATION

NATURALLY CREATION
EXISTING SELECTION OF NEW
VARIABILITY VARIABILITY

EVALUATION

MULTIPLICATION

DISTRIBUTION
 Undesirable Consequences
• In general, yield improvement of a crop species is accompanied with
a reduction in variability. Rapid depletion of genetic variability is
referred as ‘Genetic Erosion’ which in turn, limits the prospects of
further improvement

• Germplasm Collections aim at minimizing the detrimental effects of

genetic erosion.
– Eg: Improved rice varieties have IR 8 (or) T (N) 1 as one of their parents
(Dee – gee – woo – gen)
– Wheat varieties have Norin 10 (Rht 1, Rht 2 or both)

• Improved varieties have one of the above varieties as parents. This

has led to the narrowing down of the genetic base of the varieties.
Genetic base refers to the genetic variability among varieties. The
narrow genetic base has created genetic vulnerability, which refers
to susceptibility of varieties to a disease / insect pest/ stress

– Eg: Susceptibility to downy mildew and ergot in Cumbu.

 Modes of Reproduction
Modes of reproduction determines the genetic constitution
of plants i.e., whether the plants are homozygous or
heterozygous.
– Self pollinated crops are normally homozygous and
– Cross pollinated ones are heterozygous

Asexual

Mode Sexual (Amphimixis)

Apomictic
 Asexual Reproduction
It does not involve fusion of male and female gametes. New Plant types
may develop from vegetative parts of the plant (vegetative
reproduction) or may rise from embryos that develop without
fertilization (Apomixis).

Vegetative reproduction
– Underground and sub –aerial stems
– Bulbils

Underground stems
Tuber - Potato
Bulb - Onion, garlic
Rhizome - Ginger, Turmeric
Corm - Colocasia

Sub-aerial stems: Runner, Stolon (Strawberry), sucker (chrysanthemum,

mentha) etc.

Bulbils: Bulbils are modified flowers that develop into plants directly
without formation of seeds.
Artificial Vegetative Reproduction

Stem cuttings - Sugarcane, Roses etc.

Layering, Budding and Grafting - Fruit tress and ornamental

shrubs.

Significance of Vegetative Reproduction:

A desirable plant may be used as a variety directly
regardless of whether it is homozygous or heterozygous.
 Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves fusion of male and female
gametes to form a zygote which develops into an embryo.

In many groups of plants, the life cycle involves a regular

alternation of a sexual with asexual generation.

Sporophytic (diploid) generation

Gametophytic (haploid) generation

Zygote (2n)
In the sexually reproducing crop plants, definite male and
female sexual organs namely androecium and gynoecium
produce male and female gametes respectively

– The male gametes are formed from a haploid cell

microspore and the female gametes are formed from a
haploid cell, megaspore

Production of microspores and megaspores is known as

sporogenesis

– In anthers, micropores are formed through

microsporogenesis and in ovules the megaspores are
formed through megasporogenesis
Microsporogenesis
The sporophytic cells (Pollen Mother Cells) in the pollen sacs of anther
that undergo meiotic division to form haploid microspores are called
microspores and the process is called microsporogenesis

– Each PMC produces four microspores and each microspore after

thickening of the wall transforms into pollen grain

Megasporogenesis
A single sporophytic cell (Megaspore Mother Cells) inside the ovule that
undergoes meiotic division to form a haploid megaspore and the
process is called megasporogenesis

– Each MMC produces four megaspores out of which three

degenerate resulting in a single functional megaspore

The production of male and female gametes in the microspores and

megaspores is known as gametogenesis
Microgametogenesis

It is the production of male gamete or sperm.

– On maturation of the pollen, the microspore nucleus divides mitotically

to produce a generative and a vegetative or tube nucleus.
– The pollen is generally released in this binucleate stage.

The reach of pollen over the stigma is called pollination.

– The vegetative nucleus degenerates. After the pollination, the pollen

germinates.
– The pollen tube enters into the stigma and travels down the style.
– The generative nucleus at this phase undergoes another mitotic division
to produce two gametes or sperm nuclei.
– The pollen along with the pollen tube possessing a pair of sperm nuclei
is called the microgametophyte.
– The pollen tube enters into the embryo sac through a micropyle and
discharges the two sperm nuclei in the embryo sac.
Megagametogenesis

The nucleus of the functional megaspore undergoes multiple mitotic

divisions to produce four or more nuclei.
The exact number of nuclei and their arrangement varies from one
species to another.
Frequently, the megaspore nucleus divides thrice to produce eight
nuclei. Three of these nuclei move to one and produce a central egg
cell and two synergid cells on either side.

Another three nuclei migrate to the opposite pole to develop into three
antipodal cells. The two nuclei remaining in the centre and the polar
nuclei fuse to form the secondary nucleus. The megaspore thus
develops into a mature female gametophyte called
megagametophyte or embryo sac.
The development of embryo sac from a megaspore is known as
megagametogenesis.

The embryo sac generally contains one egg cell, two synergids with the
apparent function of guiding the sperm nucleus towards the egg cell
and three antipodal (all haploid) which forms the prothalamus cells
and one diploid secondary nucleus.
 Sexual Reproduction
Fertilization

The fusion of one of the two sperms with the egg cell
producing a diploid zygote is known as fertilization

The fusion of the remaining sperm with the secondary

nucleus which after several mitotic divisions develops into
mature endosperm is called triple fusion

Significance of sexual reproduction

– Sexual reproduction makes it possible to combine genes

from the parents into a single hybrid plant
– Recombination of genes produces a large number of
genotypes
– It is one of the steps in creating variation through
hybridization