CIVE1173

Infrastructure
Management

Dr David Law

Room 12.13.31
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Week 3 Lecture

• Conducting a site assessment

– Procedure
– Preparation
– Equipment
– Testing
– Common Defects
– Visual Inspections

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Condition Assessment

• Procedures
–Read Reports & discuss with Client
– Get background information
– Identify requirements for initial site visit
–Initial Site Visit
– Visual Inspection
– Photographs and sketches
– Identify areas of interest and additional data required
– Identify test locations and equipment/personnel required
– Issue report (if required)
–Detailed Site Inspections (if required)

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Site Investigations

• Preparation
–Why is assessment being undertaken?
– Discuss with client
– Deterioration detected
– Standard/Routine inspection
– Fire/Impact damage
– Change of Use/Loading conditions
–Obtain previous reports
– Design/As built drawings and construction specifications and records
–Suitability of tests
– Coatings can prevent electrochemical measurements
– Environmental conditions can severely affect tests

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Site Investigations

• Testing
–Initial Inspection
– Visual Inspection
– Delamination Survey
–Detailed Inspection
– Cover Survey
– Half Cell Survey
– Resistivity
– Corrosion Rate
– Sampling
– Other

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Site Investigations

• Equipment
(visual/delamination survey)
–Pen, pencil, paper (special test
sheets), clipboard
–Copies of construction drawings
(as built if available)
–Chalk/Crayons, chalk line, spray
can
–Tape measure, steel ruler, crack
gauge, brush/scraper, hammer,
chisel
–Camera, batteries, binoculars,
torch
–Storage cases

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Site Investigations

• Equipment (specialist)
–Power cables, leads, screwdriver, batteries, sample bags, drill, drill
bits (masonry and steel), generator, bucket, steel rod, gloves
–Covermeter
–Half cell (Cu/CuSO4, AgCl), distilled water, multimeter
–Linear polarisation kit, laptop, half cells (3 x Cu/CuSO4)
–Resistivity meter
–Coring Rig, water supply, replacement mortar, paint, paint brush,
–Phenolphthalein
–Schmidt Hammer
–Any other specialist equipment

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Site Investigations

• Personnel
–Experience
– Knowledge of deterioration
process
– Familiar with equipment
–Appropriate safety
training/inductions
– Relevant cards
–Specialist testing
– Coring contractors
– Divers
– Cherry picker/lift operators
– Scaffolders

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Site Investigations

• Access
–By foot, pavements, road,
bridge, ladder, car
–Cherry picker, scissor lift
–Crane/Dog Box
–Scaffolding/Platforms
–Boat
–Abseiling
– Inaccessible sides of buildings
–Diving
– Bridge piers

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Site Investigations

• OH&S
–Mitigate Risk
–Prepare Risk
Mitigation Plan
–Develop Site
Induction Plan

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Site Investigations

• Site Induction
–All personnel must be
inducted on to site
–Each site has own specific
site induction, possibly in
conjunction with company
induction
–May allow them to work alone
or be accompanied by
inducted personnel at all
times

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Site Investigations

• Job Safety Analysis

–Each Job/Test must have a
safety analysis undertaken
–This must be specific to each
site location
–Often the same for different
sites allowing the same JSA
to be used, or slightly
modified

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Site Investigations

• Write a Work Method Statement for each test based on

JSA
–Detail Tasks to be undertaken
–Write procedure, step by step
–Detail all hazards
–Detail all safety measures to be taken
–List all equipment
–List all materials
–List all Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) to be used

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Site Investigations

• PPE
–Safety Boots
–Hard Hat
–Reflective vest
–Goggles
–Ear Plugs
–Safety Harness
–Breathing Apparatus
–Life Vest
–Specialist Training
– Confined Spaces
– Working at Heights

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Visual Inspection

• Visual Inspections
–Cracks
–Rust staining
–Spalling
–Delamination
–Poor workmanship
–Water leaks/damage
–Poor quality repairs
–Other damage
–Causes

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Cracking

• Corrosion
• Casting
–Plastic Shrinkage
–Drying shrinkage
–Surface Crazing
–Thermal
• ASR
• Loading
• Impact

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Corrosion - Cracking

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Surface Crazing (map cracking)

• Small cracks in surface of

concrete
• Surface shrinks at different rate
to bulk concrete below
• Causes
– Rapid Drying (high
temperatures)
– Rapid Cooling (overnight)
• Occurs at point concrete goes
from plastic to solid
• Cracks typically less than
0.3mm thick and 1-2 mm deep
• Can be solved by good curing
• Mainly aesthetic rather than
durability

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Cracking – Plastic Shrinkage

• Water evaporates rapidly from

the surface when cast.
• Faster than it can be replaced
by the bleed water.
• The surface layer concrete
“shrinks”, but is restrained by
the concrete below.
• Tensile stress develop in the
“plastic” surface concrete
leading to “plastic shrinkage
cracking”
• Generally occurs in first 6 hours
of casting

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Cracking – Plastic Shrinkage

• Can be solved by good curing

• Occurs when concrete is still
“plastic”
• Cracks run parallel to each other
• Mainly at surface
– less than 0.3 mm wide, 2-10 mm
deep
• But can penetrate to rebar
– 1-2mm wide, 20-30mm deep

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Cracking – Drying Shrinkage

• Concrete generally contains more

water than is needed for hydration
reaction. As such water is lost to
evaporation
• As water is lost concrete shrinks
• The concrete is restrained due to other
parts of the structure
• Results in tensile stress being
developed which cause drying
shrinkage
• Most structures drying shrinkage is
inevitable
• Generally occurs over first 24 hours,
but can be over a longer period

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Cracking – Drying Shrinkage

• Solve by using control joints or

reinforcement
• Occurs when concrete sets
• Mainly at surface
– less than 0.3 mm wide, 2-10 mm
deep
• But can penetrate to rebar
– 1-2mm wide, 20-30mm deep

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Cracking – Thermal Cracking

• Hydration reaction is exothermic.

– High temperatures are generated in
the centre of the concrete which can
result in large thermal gradients,
particularly in large mixes
• Thus as the external concrete cools and
contracts the centre is still hot and
expanding.
• This results in tensile stresses giving
rise to thermal cracking
• Crack size and depth dependant upon
thermal gradient
• Generally to depth of reinforcement,
significant durability issues
• Solve by controlling size of mix, cooling
mixing water or adding mixing water as
ice
• Casting often done a night

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Loading

• Increased loads
– Vehicle numbers and size
increase with time
• Repetitive Loading
– Repeated loading cause fatigue
• Poor design
– Design does not account for
actual structural load
• Washout
– Foundations, soil or supports are
washed out due to flooding or
river flow

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Loading

• Impact
–Vehicle impact on bridge
–Load dropped on to structure

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Cracking

While it can be a problem – appearance and performance

(cracks<0.3mm often autogenously heal due to bleed
water/curing)

It is that it allows access to aggressive agents such as

chlorides and acidic gases, which promote corrosion, that
is the major cause for concern.

This in turn will lead to further cracking, spalling and

eventually failure!

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Delamination

• Delamination occurs when

the concrete has de-
bonded from the steel but
has not spalled
• The concrete sounds
hollow
• Testing with a hammer
tapping survey
–Chains or a coin may also be
used

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Spalling

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Water Retaining Structures

• Low oxygen
– Water access from rear wall
• Forms FeO
• No rust or cracking
• Sever corrosion of steel
• Difficult to observe

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Poor Workmanship

• Low cover
– Poorly fitting formwork
– Wrongly placed steel
– Too high a detail

• Poor compaction
– No vibration
– Too much water in mix

• Poor QA
– No curing
– Wrong mix
– Too long standing

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Poor Design

• Durability assessment
–No durability assessment
–No consideration of
environmental loading
–No allowance for change in
exposure/use
–Poor drainage
• Materials selection
–Cheap materials
–Inferior materials
–Insufficient testing

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Poor Quality Repairs

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Interpretation of Visual Data

• Single structure
–Client has only one structure
–Structure is unique

• Network of structures
–Large number of similar structures
– Single owner
– e.g. Highways Agency, bridges
– Similar structures many owners
– e.g. Port authorities, docks

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Condition Assessment System (CAS)

• Collect Data
• Record Data
• Evaluate Data
–Rating system
–Algorithm
–Experience
• Recommendations
–Individual structures
–Network of structures
• Store Data

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Condition Assessment System

• Prioritisation of structures for inspection/assessment

• Categorisation of component parts
–In network first step is to break it down to individual structures
–Piers, abutments, bridge deck, etc
• Categorisation of vulnerability of structure and it’s
components
• Categorisation of extent and severity of deterioration and
structural adequacy
• Rating of structure

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Level of Inspection

• Routine
–Set period of time
– 1-5 years
–Visual/delamination
–Installed monitoring equipment
• Detailed
–Set period of time
– 5 – 10 years
–Defects identified in routine inspection
–Standard NDT equipment
• Specialist
–Defects identified in detailed inspection
–Specialist testing equipment

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Rating Systems

• Routine and visual inspections often given a standard rating system

• Generally based on 4 or 5 levels
– 0-4 or 1-4 most common
• Further testing and repair triggered when higher levels are reached
– Levels 2, 3 or 4
– Based on degree of deterioration and extent
• Generally reactive rather than proactive
– Some deterioration must be evident before action taken
– Will affect repair and maintenance strategies as deterioration already
underway
• Requires experienced personnel
– Subjective decisions
– Training and reference photographs are available to make decisions

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Visual Inspection

Rating Description

0 No visible sign of deterioration

1 Rust staining, hairline cracks

2 Severe rust staining

Cracks upto 0.3mm
3 Severe cracking
Some minor spalling
4 Major spalling, exposed rebar showing
significant section loss, structural concern
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Extent and Severity

Extent Severity Damage

1 No significant defect No significant defect

2 Slight, not more than 5% of Minor defects of a non-urgent nature

length/area affected

3 Moderate, 5 – 20% affected Defects which shall be included within next

annual maintenance programme

4 Severe, more than 20% affected Severe defects where urgent action required

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Detailed Inspection

Rating Description

0 Cover below specified limit

1 Initiation of corrosion

2 Longitudinal cracking

3 Spalling of cover in non-sensitive areas

4 Potential collapse

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Structural Inspection

Rating Description

0 Damage had no influence on performance

1 Damage will influence performance of component over the long term, if

unchecked. A growth of damage or consequential damages of other
components is not expected
2 Damage has influence on performance of component and will lead to an
influence of component durability in the long run. Medium term damage
elimination necessary
3 Damage has influence on safety but overall structural capacity unaffected

4 Due to the damage the component no longer possesses an adequate margin of

safety. Restriction of serviceability or renewal required

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