15.

Platform concepts and

design issues
Classification of platform Dynamic behavior of
concepts structures in waves

Design principles for Natural period for some

offshore structures cases

Strength/resistance of Selection of platform

structures; actions/loads concept

Selected issues related to

actions/loads
 Platform Concepts
Main issues in selection process:
 Dry trees versus wet trees
 Drilling/workover facilities
 Oil storage and offloading versus pipeline
 Contractor capabilities and previous experience
 Cost and schedule

Water depth and dynamic behavior determine technical feasibility

Load-bearing structures

Platform substructures are designed to carry topside

loads of up to 50000 tonnes and more
 Well support structures
Dry trees – wet trees
• In many cases it is very attractive to use “dry-tree” wells

• This can easily be done with fixed platforms (the normal case). It is much more
challenging, or even impossible to do this with floating platforms

• There are three main issues related to this:

– The relative motion between platform and X-mas trees may be so large
that it is impractical or impossible to design a reliable motion compensating
system
– The reliability of the mooring system may be considered to be too low for a
system that can not be disconnected (extreme weather, iceberg)
– The area/space required in the wellhead area (due to motions and risk of
riser clashing) may be so large that it will be considered impractical or too
expensive

• Since the use of fixed platforms is limited by water depth, lot of work has been
done in order to develop concepts that can use dry trees also in deep water
(i.e. tension leg platforms and deep draft floaters)
 Risers and J-tubes

J-tube
Supported
riser Top tensioned riser Flexible riser

Pipeline Pipeline Pipeline Pipeline

• The function of a production riser is to provide conduit(s) for conveying hydrocarbons or

injection fluids between the sea floor equipment and the topsides

• The function of an export/import riser is to provide conduit(s) for the hydrocarbons

between the topside-mounted processing plant and the pipeline, tanker or other transport
systems
 Riser/platform interface

Supported risers Tensioned risers Flexible risers

 Fixed platform concepts
used primarily in combination with dry tree platform wells

Jack-up platform Fixed concrete platform Fixed steel platform Compliant tower
Tension leg platforms and Deep
draft floaters
used primarily in combination with dry tree platform wells

TLP Mini-TLP Classic Spar Truss Spar MC DDF

 Floating Production UNITS – FPU
used in combination with subsea wells

Semisubmersible Shallow buoy Ship-shape

i.e. Sevan Single-point-moored

Ship-shape
Spread-moored

Mini TLP Deep buoy

i.e. Spar

Ship-shape
Dynamically positioned
 Some statements/assessments
There are many more…

• Fixed platforms can have “dry-tree” wells and are very competitive in shallow
water

• Tension leg platforms can have “dry-tree” wells and can be used in deeper
water than fixed platforms. They are more complex than fixed platforms

• Deep draft floaters can have “dry-tree” wells and can be used in deeper water
than tension leg platforms. They have a more simple mooring system than
tension leg platforms, but larger heave, pitch and roll motions

• Spread-moored platforms are cheap and simple solutions used in combination

with “wet-tree” wells
– Semi-submersibles have good motion characteristics and are used for both drilling and production
– Buoys and barges can have integrated oil storage
– They can be used in very deep water

• Single-point-moored ship-shaped units (FPSO) are weather-vaning units,

suitable for the combination of production, storage and off-loading of oil
– They can be designed with disconnectable mooring and riser systems for areas with icebergs or
extreme wind conditions (typhoons)

• Dynamically positioned units are used as mobile drilling units, in particular for
very deep water and remote areas
 15. Platform concepts and
design issues
Classification of platform Dynamic behavior of
concepts structures in waves

Design principles for Natural period for some

offshore structures cases

Strength/resistance of Selection of platform

structures; actions/loads concept

Selected issues related to

actions/loads
 Environmental loads

Wind

Iceberg
Tide
Air gap

Current Waves

Earthquake
Waves are very important in the
design of marine structures
Prioritized standards
 Design principles; NORSOK N-001
• A structural system, its components and details shall be designed to comply with ISO
19 900 and the following listed principles:

– Structures and structural elements shall normally be designed with ductile resistance
– Structures shall be designed such that an unintended event does not escalate into an
accident of significantly greater extent than the original event
– Structures shall be designed with the objective to minimize overall dynamic stress
concentrations and provide a simple stress path
– Structures shall be designed such that fabrication, including surface treatment, can be
accomplished in accordance with relevant recognized techniques and practices
– Design of structural details, selection of structural profiles and use of materials shall be
done with the objective to minimize corrosion and the need for special precautions to
prevent corrosion
– Adequate access for inspection, surveillance, maintenance and repair shall be provided
– Satisfy functional requirements as given in the Design Premises.

• Active operation (such as draft adjustment, re-location of cargo, etc.) may be taken
into consideration on the condition that it can be demonstrated that the operations
have an acceptable degree of reliability

• Active operation in an emergency situation should consequently not depend on a

high degree of reliability of operations personnel
 Limit state design
• The principles of the limit states design method and the definitions of the
four limit states categories are given in ISO 19 900

• The term limit state shall be understood to mean that state where a
structure or part of a structure no longer meets the requirements laid down
for its performance or operation

• All identified forms of fault shall be checked within the respective groups of
limit states (load conditions and failure modes)

• It must be checked that the structure has sufficient ductility to develop the
relevant failure mechanism.

• Limit states:
– Ultimate limit state (ULS)
– Serviceability limit state (SLS)
– Fatigue limit state (FLS)
– Accidental damage limit state (ALS)
Ultimate limit state design
• Characteristic load or action effect: Sk
• Characteristic strength or resistance: Rk
• Design load or action effect: Sd = Sk gf
– where gf is load partial safety factor
• Design strength or resistance: Rd = Rk/gm
– where gm is material partial safety factor
• Design requirement: Sd < Rd

S
S=R : Limit state

R
 Ultimate limit state design
Design requirement: Sd < Rd

Probability distribution
for load/action
Probability distribution
for strength/resistance

Sd Rd

Sk Rk

Load and strength

Ensure that probability P( Sd < Rd ) is acceptable

 15. Platform concepts and
design issues
Classification of platform Dynamic behavior of
concepts structures in waves

Design principles for Natural period for some

offshore structures cases

Strength/resistance of Selection of platform

structures; actions/loads concept

Selected issues related to

actions/loads
Characteristic strength or resistance
• Characteristic Strength is a term used in order to describe the
engineering strength of a material

• The Characteristic Strength is the strength of a material (i.e. steel,

concrete, etc.) which has been established by a standard testing
method
– Defined as a percentage of material samples (e.g. 95%) that shall have strength at
or above the characteristic value
– The Characteristic Strength is then used in the design as the material strength

• In the case of steel or other ductile materials which exhibit post-yielding

strength, the characteristic strength generally refers to the material
elastic response only
– Post yielding material behvaiour will be defined be separate parameters
 Determination of loads or actions
Loads are in general determined by analysis:

• When theoretical predictions are subjected to significant uncertainties, theoretical

calculations should be supported by model tests or observations of existing structures or
by a combination of such tests and observations

Hydrodynamic model tests should be carried out to:

• Confirm that no important hydrodynamic action has been overlooked (for new types of
installations, environmental conditions, adjacent structure)
• Support theoretical calculations when available analytical methods are susceptible to large
uncertainties
• Verify theoretical methods on a general basis

Wind tunnel tests should be carried out when:

• Wind loads are significant for overall stability, motions or structural response
• When available theoretical methods are susceptible to large uncertainties (e.g. due to new
type of installations or adjacent installation affects the relevant installation)
• It is necessary to support or replace theoretical calculations completely
• There is a danger of dynamic instability
Motion characteristics and wind and wave loads

Model testing
 15. Platform concepts and
design issues
Classification of platform Dynamic behavior of
concepts structures in waves

Design principles for Natural period for some

offshore structures cases

Strength/resistance of Selection of platform

structures; actions/loads concept

Selected issues related to

actions/loads
 The Morison equation
• In fluid dynamics the Morison equation is a semi-empirical equation for the
inline force on a body in oscillatory flow.

• The Morison equation is the sum of two force components: an inertia force
in phase with the local flow acceleration and a drag force proportional to
the (signed) square of the instantaneous flow velocity.

• The Morison equation contains two empirical hydrodynamic coefficients

which are determined from experimental data; an inertia coefficient, Cm,
and a drag coefficient, Cd

• Besides the inline force, there are also oscillatory lift forces perpendicular
to the flow direction, due to vortex shedding. These are not covered by
the Morison equation, which is only for the inline forces.
 Vertical circular cylinder subject
to wave loads
z

regular wave
a x

x-component of velocity:
u a ekz sin t
dz dF
D

 
dF = (Cm – D2 2 a ekz cos t + Cd  – D 2 a2 e2kz sin t sin t )dz
 

• The Morison equation is the sum of two force components: an inertia force in phase with the
local flow acceleration and a drag force proportional to the (signed) square of the
instantaneous flow velocity.

• The Morison equation contains two empirical hydrodynamic coefficients which are determined
from experimental data; an inertia coefficient, Cm, and a drag coefficient, Cd
 Vertical circular cylinder subject to
wave loads – time variation
1,5

0,5

-0,5

-1

-1,5

mass force drag force total force

 
dF = (Cm – D2 2 a ekz cos t + Cd  – D 2 a2 e2kz sin t sin t )dz
 
 Vertical circular cylinder subject to
wave loads
L
H/D

H
D

No waves possible
(breaking wave criterion) Drag-forces are dominating

Mass-forces are dominating

Reflection and
diffraction effects

L/D
 Wind and current

Wind

Current

Drag force

Loads from wind and current can also be calculated from the Morison equation
 15. Platform concepts and
design issues
Classification of platform Dynamic behavior of
concepts structures in waves

Design principles for Natural period for some

offshore structures cases

Strength/resistance of Selection of platform

structures; actions/loads concept

Selected issues related to

actions/loads
Platform motions and response
Response can be any wave induced motion or load

z
Motion along axis:
x-axis surge
y-axis sway
x y z-axis heave

Rotation about axis:

x-axis roll
y-axis pitch
z-axis yaw
 Basic stiffness relations
• Displacement = x • Rotation = q
• Force = F • Rotational moment = M
• Spring stiffness = k = F/x
• Mass = m • Spring stiffness = k = M/q
m • Mass = m
To = 2
k • Radius of gyration = r
• Mass moment of inertia = I = m r2
I m
To = 2 To = 2r
k k

q
x
VVVVV

k k
Forced oscillations – steady state
• The steady-state solution is proportional to the driving
force with an induced phase change of h.
Fo
y(t) = DAF cos( t – h)
k

• The dynamic amplification factor, DAF, and the phase angle,

h, are given by:

1 2ox
DAF = tan h = ( )
2 – o2
(1 – (/o)2)2 + (2x/o)2

• DAF and h are functions of the frequency  and are

determined by only two parameters, the natural frequency
o and the damping ratio xdefined as:
k c
o = x=
m 2 mk
 Response in irregular waves
Linear wave theory – linear response analysis
the principle of superposition can be applied!

Response can be
obtained by adding results
from regular waves of
different wave amplitudes
and wave lengths
Dynamic response in irregular waves
Obtained from linear wave theory and regular waves

1.Responses are
calculated for a unit • Give the Response Amplitude Operator
wave height for (RAO) for the actual structure
different frequencies

Wave spectrum give the

actual wave height for • Define the actual
the different wave environmental conditions
frequencies

1.The total response is

found by linearly • The sum of all the wave
superimpose the response responses define the response
from the different wave spectrum
components

1.Response statistics • Area under the spectrum is

and max values can be equal to the variance
calculated from the
response spectrum
 Dynamic response in irregular waves
Wave spectrum, S()
30
Hs = 12 m
25
Tp = 12 sec

spectral density
20 s=3m

Irregular waves 15

10

SR(ω) = RAO(ω)2 S(ω) 5

0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0
frequency, 

Response amplitude operator Response spectrum, SR()

6 40
To = 5 sec 35 s= 5 m
5 dynamic amplification = 5/3 = 1,67
ω0 = 1,26 rad/sec 30
spectral density
4 x = 0,1
25
RAO

3 20
15
2
10
1
5

0 0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0

frequency,  frequency, 
Heave natural period and wave spectrum
 Sway natural
Sway naturalperiod
periodand
andwave
wavespectrum
spectrum
Dangerous range

Wave spectrum

Increasing natural period Hs = 14m Increasing natural period

12m

10m

8m

6m

1 10 100 1000
Sway natural period, wave period (sec)
Wave period and natural period (seconds) – sway motion
 15. Platform concepts and
design issues
Classification of platform Dynamic behavior of
concepts structures in waves

Design principles for Natural period for some

offshore structures cases

Strength/resistance of Selection of platform

structures; actions/loads concept

Selected issues related to

actions/loads
Surge and sway motion of fixed platform

m
Surge and sway Model The natural period for surge/sway is: To = 2
k
m is the topside mass
k is the “stiffness” corresponding to bending

By definition k = F/x, where F is the restoring force

corresponding to the displacement x. Then:
k = 3EI/h3, where:

E is the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus)

I is the moment of inertia of the jacket
h is the height of the jacket

mh3
To = 2
3EI
 Surge and sway motion of jack-up
Surge and sway Model
m
To = 2
k
x ///////////
P
M

k = P/x
mM
@
The natural period for surge/sway is: To = 2 m By definition k = P/x, where P is the
k restoring force corresponding to the
m is the topside mass divided by the number of legs displacement x
k is the “stiffness” corresponding to bending of one leg Ph3 3 m
x = 3EI ( 1 – – )
2 1+m
M is the bending moment at topside level E is the modulus of elasticity (Young’s
mM is the bending moment at the bottom modulus)
I is the moment of inertia of one leg
m = 0 means ”simple support” at bottom h is the length of one leg
Surge and sway motion of tension leg platform

Surge and sway The natural period for surge/sway is: To = 2

m
k
Model m is the total mass, including hydrodynamic
(added) mass
k is the “stiffness” corresponding to surge/sway

By definition k = F/x, where F is the restoring force

corresponding to the displacement x. Then:
k = Po/d, where:

Po is the total pre-tension of all tension legs

d is the length of the tension legs
md
To = 2
Po

x F
x/d = F/Po

d Po k = F/x = Po/d
Heave motion of tension leg platform

Heave
m
The natural period for heave motion is: To = 2
Model k
m is the total mass, including hydrodynamic (added) mass
k is the “stiffness” corresponding to heave motion

By definition k = F/z, where F is the restoring force

corresponding to the displacement z. Then:
VVVVV k = EAt/d, where:

E is the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus)

At is the total cross sectional area of all tension legs
d is the length of the tension legs
md
To = 2
E At
Pitch and roll of tension leg platform

Roll and pitch m

The natural period for pitch/roll motion is: To = 2r
k
m is the total mass of the platform
r is the radius of gyration (r2=I/m), where I is the mass
Model moment of inertia of the platform
k is the “rotational stiffness” corresponding to pitch/roll
VVVVV

VVVVV
By definition k = M/q, where M is the restoring (righting)
moment corresponding to the rotational angle q. Then:
k = EAtb2/4d, where:

E is the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus)

At is the total cross sectional area of all tension legs
r md d is the length of the tension legs
To = 4 b is the distance between the tension legs
b E At
 Surge and sway motion of moored
floating platform
Surge and sway m
The natural period for surge/sway is: To = 2
k
Model m is the total mass, including hydrodynamic
(added) mass
k is the “stiffness” of the mooring system
VVVVVVVVVV
 Mooring line geometry
H
300
Height over sea bottom

250

200

150 Higher tension

100

50 Lower tension
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Horizontal distance from anchor

H qoL - cosh [ qo (x-L/2)] }

y = q { cosh H
o 2H
 Mooring systems

Catenary mooring system

Increased tension Reduced tension

Taut leg mooring system

Increased tension Reduced tension
Heave motion of free floating platform
m
The natural period for heave motion is: To = 2
Heave k
m is the total mass, including hydrodynamic (added)
Model mass
k is the “stiffness” corresponding to heave motion

By definition k = F/z, where F is the restoring force

corresponding to the displacement z. Then:
k = gAw, where:
VVVVV
 is the density of sea water
m g is the acceleration of gravity
To = 2 Aw is the water plane area of the hull
gAw
Pitch and roll of free floating platform
Roll and pitch
m
The natural period for pitch/roll motion is: To = 2r
k
Model m is the total mass of the platform
r is the radius of gyration (r2=I/m), where I is the mass
moment of inertia of the platform
VVVVVV k is the “rotational stiffness” corresponding to pitch/roll

By definition k = M/q, where M is the restoring (righting)

VVVV
moment corresponding to the rotational angle q. Then:
k = GM m g, where:

GM is the metacenter height of the platform

2r
To = g is the acceleration of gravity
g GM
Fundamental stability parameters

Buoyancy

Z
For small angles:
GZ = GM q

Righting arm, GZ
G

• M – metacentre
• G – centre of gravity
GZ
• GZ = righting arm
• GZ = GM sin q
q – heeling angle
Angle of heel, q
 15. Platform concepts and
design issues
Classification of platform Dynamic behavior of
concepts structures in waves

Design principles for Natural period for some

offshore structures cases

Strength/resistance of Selection of platform

structures; actions/loads concept

Selected issues related to

actions/loads
 How select - decision criteria
• Net Present Value (NPV) of cash flow after tax is by most companies considered
as the main parameter for concept screening and selection decisions

• Break Even Price (BEP) is also a very important selection parameter

• It is essential that all relevant risk factors are described, evaluated and
incorporated in the decision process and that important corporate policies are
taken into consideration

• Criteria in addition to the NPV may be defined to reflect risks, issues and
challenges related to the specific case. Such criteria could be based on the
following bullet list:
– HSE issues (health, safety and environment)
– Technology status (new, proven, previous experience, technology strategy)
– Flexibilities and constraints related to execution (schedule, market, contractors, local
content)
– Flexibilities and constraints related to operation (production, manning, logistics)
– Flexibilities and constraints related to resource utilization (reservoir management, IOR)
– Value chain assessment (use of infrastructure, new infrastructure, strategic interests)
– Other relevant key performance parameters and risk elements
Application areas for different platform concepts

Number of wells

Fixed
platforms
TLP, Spar
Dry trees

Floaters
Wet trees

Water depth
Feasibility of design, construction and installation
 GEOTECHNICAL

• Geotechnical conditions can:

– put restrictions on the development
– cause considerable cost increases
• Potential problem areas are:
– Very soft soil offshore
– Calcareous soil offshore (calcium
particles may cause loss of bearing
capacity due to pile installation
process)
– Rocky outcrops offshore
– Active earthquake zones
– Shallow gas areas
– Uneven bottom and sand dunes
– Mudflow areas
 Substructure cost estimates are
based on weight estimates

Fixed steel platform Fixed concrete platform Floating steel platform

Density:
50 kg/m3 Density:
Density/columns:
330 kg/m3
175 kg/m3

Density/pontoons:
200 kg/m3

Column volume: 32000 m3

Pontoon volume: 43000 m3

Total enclosed volume: 300,000 m3 Total volume: 600,000 m3 Total volume: 75,000 m3
Total weight: 15,000 t Total weight: 198,000 t Total weight: 14,200 t
Structural steel (88%): 13,200 t Structural concrete (98%): 194,040 t Structural steel (80%): 11,360 t
Outfitting (12%): 1800 t Outfitting (2%): 3960 t Outfitting (20%): 2840 t
10 Questions
1. Define “natural frequency” (eigen-frequency) for rotational motion.
2. Define “dynamic amplification factor”.
3. How can subsea flowlines be connected to the topside facilities when
we use fixed platforms?
4. What are the four limit states?
5. What is the characteristic strength/resistance?
6. What is the relation between characteristic resistance and design
resistance?
7. What is the “yaw” motion?
8. What are the main advantages of a fixed concrete platform compared
to a fixed steel platform?
9. What platform concepts have special advantages in areas with sea ice?
10. What platform concepts have an advantage if offshore loading is the
only option for oil export?