ISLAM

Its Meaning and Message

E d ited by
K H U R S H ID AHM AD
D irector G en eral
T h e Islam ic F o u n d a tio n

Foreword by
SALEM AZZAM
Secretary G en eral
Islam ic C o u n c il o f E u ro p e
© T h e I s l a m ic F o u n d a t io n 1975, 1980

First E d it io n 1975
S e c o n d E d it io n 1976
R e p r i n t e d 1 9 8 0 /1 4 0 0 A . H . a n d 1 9 8 3 /1 4 0 3 A . H .

ISB N 0 86037 002 X (H ard back )

ISB N 0 86037 000 3 (P aperb ack)

A ll rig h ts re se rve d . N o p a r t o f this p u b li c a tio n m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d ,

sto re d in a r e trie v a l sy ste m , or tr a n s m itte d in a n y fo rm o r b y a n y
m e a n s , e le ctro n ic, m e c h a n ic a l , p h o t o c o p y in g , r e c o r d in g or
oth e r w ise , w it h o u t the p r io r p e rm iss io n o f the c o p y r ig h t ow n er.

P u b lish e d b y :
T h e I s l a m ic F o u n d a t i o n
223, London R oad
L e ic e s te r
on b e h a lf o f
I sla m ic C o u n c i l o f E u r o p e
16 G r o s v e n o r C r e sc e n t
L o n d o n SYV1 7MP

P r in te d a n d b o u n d in G r e a t B ritain by

D o te s io s (Printers) L im ite d , B ra d fo r d -o n -A v o n , Wiltshire

 CONTENTS
Forew ord Salem A zzam 7
Preface to the S e c o n d E d itio n 11
A ck n o w le d g e m en ts 15
C o n tr ib u to r s 16

Part I
T H E IS L A M IC O U T L O O K O N LIFE

1. I sla m : T h e E sse n tia ls 21

2. I s l a m : B a s ic P rin cip le s a n d C h a r a c te ris tic s
Khurshid A hmad 27
3. T h e S p ir it o f I sla m
Muhammad A sad 15

Part II
T H E P R O P H E T A N D T H E Q U R ’A N

4. T h e L ife o f the P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d
'A bd at-Rahman *Azzam 59
5. T h e Q u r ’a n a n d Its I m p a c t on H u m a n H istory
Allahbukhsh K . Brohi 81
 Part III
T H E ISLA M IC S Y ST E M

6. I sla m a n d S o c ia l R e sp o n sib ility

T. B. Irving 101
7. T h e I sla m ic C o n c e p t o f W o r sh ip
M ustafa Ahmad al-Zarqa 109
8. I sla m ic A p p r o a c h to S o c ia l J u s t ic e
Syed Qutb 117
9. W o m a n in Islam
G am alA . S a d a w i 131
10. P o litica l T h e o r y o f Islam
Abu IA ‘la Mawdudx 147
11. O b je c tiv e s o f the I sla m ic E c o n o m ic O r d e r
M uhammad Umar Chapra 173

Part IV
ISLA M A ND T H E W O R LD

12. W h a t Islam G a v e to H u m a n i t y
A bdul H am id Siddiqui 199
13. T h e W estern W orld a n d Its C h a lle n g e s to Islam
Seyyed H ossein N asr 217
14. I s la m a n d the C risis o f the M o d e rn W orld
Muhammad Qutb 243

A S h o r t B i b l io g r a p h y on I sla m 259
In d ex 265
 Foreword
I S L A M to d a y is the s cco n d largest religion in E u ro p e . T h e r e are b e ­
tween seven a n d e ig h t m illio n M u s l im s in W estern E u ro p e a n d o v e r 25
m illion in the w hole o f E u r o p e , in clu d in g E u r o p e a n R u ss ia . T h e r e are
M o s q u e s , I s l a m ic C e n t r e s , in s titu t io n s fo r the e d u c a t i o n o f M u s l im
y o u th a r id o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s e n g a g e d in a m u l t i t u d e o f I s l a m ic
activities. I"he re aliz a tio n o f a n I sla m ic presen ce in E u r o p e is in c r e a s ­
ing; so also is the need on the one h a n d , to h av e g re a te r c o -o p e r a tio n
a n d co -ord in ation betw een the activitie s o f I sla m ic o r g a n iz a t io n s a n d
centres a n d on the o th er h a n d , to d e v e lo p a b e tte r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
Islarn a s a r e lig io n a n d c u l t u r e a m o n g s t a ll th e p e o p l e o f E u r o p e ,
M u slim a n d n o n -M u slim alike.
Islam literally m e a n s c o m m it m e n t a n d o b e d ien c e — as a religion, it
s t a n d s for b e lie f in on e G o d a n d in all the p ro p h e ts o f G o d , the last o f
w h o m w a s M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e b e u p o n h im J, a n d for c o m p le t e s u b ­
m ission to the D iv in e Will a s revealed th rou g h H is p rop h ets. A M u slim
believes in the p r o p h e th o o d o f A b r a h a m , M o s e s a n d J e s u s , h o l d in g
that all o f th e m co n veyed to m a n k in d t h e s a m e m e s s a g e from G o d . T h e
final revelation c a m e th ro u g h P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e b e u p o n
h im ) a n d is kn ow n a s Islam the religion o f all p r o p h e ts, not
‘ M o h a m m a d e n i s m ’. T h is revelation is p reserved in the Q u r ’a n , in the
form in w h ich it w a s r e v e a le d to the P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be
upon him ).
I slam is a c o m p l e t e w a y o f life. It in teg ra te s m a n with G o d , a w a k en s
in him a new m o r a l co n scio u sn e ss a n d invites him to d e a l with all the
p r o b l e m s o f life — i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l ,
n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l — in a c c o r d w i t h his c o m m i t m e n t to G o d .
Islam d oc s not d iv id e life into d o m a in s o f the sp iritu a l a n d the secular.
It s p i r i t u a l i z e s t h e e n t ir e e x i s t e n c e o f m a n a n d p r o d u c e s a s o c ia l
m o v e m e n t to re con stru ct h u m a n life in the light o f p rin ciples re vealed
by G o d . P ra y e r a n d w o rsh ip in I slam a r c m e a n s to p r e p a r e m a n to fulfil
this m ission . I sla m a i m s a t c h a n g i n g life a n d p r o d u c in g a new m a n a n d
a new society, bo th c o m m it t e d to G o d a n d to the w elfare o f m a n k in d .
T h a t is w h y I s l a m is n ot a re lig io n in the lim ite d se n se o f th e w o rd ;
r a t h e r it is a c o m p l e t e c o d e o f life a n d a c u l t u r e - p r o d u c i n g fa c t o r .
M u slim c u ltu re profits from all a v a il a b le sources, local a n d in te r n a ­
tional, bu t its u n i q u e c h a ra c te ristic is that it g row s from the f o u n d a ­
tions o f the Q u r ' a n a n d Sunnah. H e n c e the d istin c tiv e n e ss o f M u s l im
cu ltu re a n d life in E u r o p e a n d elsewhere.
T h e n eed f o r a b etter a n d m o r e s y m p a t h e tic u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Islam
in the W est w a s never a s g re a t a s it is today. T h e presence o f significant
M u slim p o p u la t i o n s in every c o u n tr y o f E u r o p e , in a lm o s t every city
a n d region , h as m a d e it n ecessary for the local c o m m u n itie s to u n d e r ­
s t a n d the b e lie fs a n d l ife - p a tte r n s o f th eir M u s l i m n e i g h b o u r s . T h e
w estern w o rld is c o m i n g in t o close c o n t a c t e c o n o m i c a ll y , p o lit ic a lly
a n d c u lt u r a lly with the w orld o f I sla m . A s the w orld shrinks u n d e r the
i m p a c t o f te c h n o l o g y , the in t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f n a tio n s , c u lt u r e s a n d
e c o n o m ic s is in cre a sin g . T h i s d e v e lo p m e n t d e m a n d s g r e a te r m u t u a l
u n d e r s t a n d in g o f id e a s, v a lu e s a n d life-styles o f the different p e o p le s o f
the w orld. T h e M u s l i m s in the W est a r e n ot only in need o f o b t a in i n g a
b e t te r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the v a l u e s , id e a ls a n d p r a c t i c e s o f W este rn
c u ltu re b u t a ls o o f refresh in g their u n d e r s t a n d in g o f their ow n religion
a n d cu ltu re so th at they m a y c o n tin u e to s tre n g th e n th eir roots in the
I s l a m i c t r a d i t i o n . In v iew o f all th e se c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , th e I s l a m i c
C o u n c il o f E u r o p e p ro p o se s to p ro d u c e , in E n g lish a n d oth er E u r o ­
p e an la n g u a g e s , a n u m b e r o f bo ok s on different a sp e c ts o f Islam . First
in the series is the p rese n t b o o k , Islam : Its Meaning and Message, e d ite d by
Professor K h u r s h i d A h m a d , D irector G e n e ra l, The Islam ic F o u n d a ­
tion , E n g l a n d . T h i s b o o k h a s b e e n s p e c i a l l y c o m p i l e d to se rv e the
n e e d s w e h a v e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e a n d is d r a w n fr o m the w r itin g s o f
le a d in g I sla m ic sch o la rs o f o u r a g e . It not only p ro v id e s a c o m p r e h e n ­
sive in tr o d u c tio n to I sla m ic religion a n d ideology, it a ls o c a p tu r e s the
essen tial spirit o f M u s l im th o ugh t in the seco n d h a l f o f the twentieth
c e n t u r y . F o r m a n y a r e a d e r , th is b o o k w ill a c t a s a w in d o w on the
c o n te m p o r a r y M u s l i m m in d.
N o w a w ord a b o u t the I sla m ic C o u n c il o f E u ro p e.
 T h e I sla m ic C o u n c i l o f E u r o p e w as fo u n d e d in M a y , 1973, by the
C o n fe re n c e o f I sla m ic C u lt u r a l C e n tr e s a n d O r g a n i z a t io n s o f E u ro p e ,
held in L o n d o n a t the in itia tiv e o f the I sla m ic S e c r e t a r i a t , J e d d a h ,
in r e s p o n s e to th e r e s o l u t i o n s a d o p t e d b y th e C o n f e r e n c e s o f the
M in iste rs o f F o reign A ffa ir s o f the M u s l im S t a t e s held at J e d d a h a n d
B e n g h a z i. It is an in d e p e n d e n t o r g a n iz a t io n a n d a c ts a s a c o ­
o rd in a t in g b o d y for the p r o m o t io n o f I sla m ic a ctiv itie s in E u r o p e . T h e
C o u n cil tries to work in c o -o p e ra tio n with l e a d in g I n te r n a tio n a l I sla ­
m ic o r g a n i z a t i o n s like the I s l a m ic S e c r e t a r ia t , th e R a b i t a a l- ‘A l a m
a l- I s la m i a n d oth ers, a n d the g o v e rn m e n ts o f all the- M u s l im s ta te s for
s e r v in g the c a u s e o f da ‘watt at-lslam iyyah. It h as its h e a d q u a r t e r s in
L o n d o n a n d c o n s t i t u e n t s in a l m o s t e v e r y c o u n t r y o f E u r o p e . T h e
C o u n c i l s p o n s o r s a n u m b e r o f r e lig io u s , e d u c a t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l
activ itie s d ire ctly a n d th rou g h its co n stitu en ts. A lt h o u g h the C o u n c il
is still in its e a r ly p h a s e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t, it h as successfully evolved an
in fra stru c tu re for the c o -o rd in a tio n a n d p r o m o tio n o f I sla m ic a c t i v i­
ties in E u r o p e . T h i s it h as been a b le to a ch ie v e w ith the c o -o p e ratio n
a n d a ss is ta n c e o f a large n u m b e r o f I sla m ic C e n t r e s a n d O r g a n i z a t io n s
o f E u r o p e , a n d o f t h e l e a d e r s o f th e M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y . T h e
e n c o u r a g e m e n t it h a s r e c e i v e d fr o m H is M a j e s t y K i n g F a i s a l bin
‘A b d u l ‘A z iz , th e K hadim a l-lja ra m a y n n e e d s s p e c i a l m e n t io n a n d I
w o u ld like to take this o p p o r t u n i t y to sincerely a n d w a r m ly th an k H is
M a je s ty for ta k in g a keen interest in the p r o b le m s o f I sla m ic D a'w ah in
E u ro p e a n d for g rac io u sly e x te n d in g m o r a l a n d m a t e r ia l s u p p o r t a n d
e n c o u ra g em e n t to the Islam ic C o u n c il o f E u r o p e in all its activities.
T h e C o u n c i l is d e v o t e d to d e v e l o p i n g a b e t te r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
Islam a n d M u s l im c u ltu re in the W est. It is in p u r s u a n c e o f this o b je c ­
tive th a t we a r e s p o n s o r in g the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the presen t bo ok . W e
h ope this will be re ad w ith interest by M u s l i m s a n d n o n - M u s li m s a li k e
a n d w ill b e h e l p f u l in p r o j e c t i n g th e i m a g e o f I s l a m in its tr u e
perspective.
B efo re 1 c o n c lu d e , I w o u ld like to th an k Professor K h u r s h i d A h m a d
for c o m p i l i n g this b o o k for us, a n d Dr. M u h a m m a d M a n a z i r A h sa n
a n d M r. A s h r a f A b u T u r a b o f the I sla m ic F o u n d a tio n for assistin g the
e d it o r . I a m a l s o g r a t e f u l t o H i s E x c e l l e n c y M a h m o o d S u l e i m a n
M a g h r i b i , th e L i b y a n A m b a s s a d o r to the C o u r t o f S t. J a m e s , w hose
e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d fin an cial c o -o p e ratio n h ave e n a b le d us to o v e r ­
c o m e s o m e o f the d ifficu lties in the p u b lic a tio n o f this book. W e a r e a ls o
t h a n k f u l t o a l l t h e a u t h o r s w h o h a v e k i n d l y p e r m i t t e d us to i n c l u d c
their w r itin g s in this book. T h e I sla m ic C o u n c il o f E u r o p e re co rd s its
d e e p g r a t itu d e to all these broth ers-in-faith for their u n stin ted c o ­
o p e ra tio n in the p u r su it o f a n ob le cause.

Salem A zzam

London
1st R a m a d a n 1394
18th S e p t e m b e r 1974
 Preface to the Second Edition
M A N h a s c o n q u e r e d the s e a s a n d th e sk ie s; m a n h a s h a r n e s s e d the
fo rc e s o f n a t u r e to h is s e r v ic e ; m a n h a s c r e a t e d v a st a n d c o m p l e x
institutions a n d o r g a n iz a tio n s to a d m in is te r his affa irs: m a n se e m s to
have re ach e d the p in n a c le o f m a t e r ia l progress!
M a n a ls o c l a i m s to h a v e d e e p ly reflected u p o n his p o s itio n in the
un iverse. H e h a s b e g u n to in t e r p r e t r e a lity w ith th e so le use o f his
re aso n a n d th e k n o w le d g e y ie ld e d by his sen ses. W ith a n e w - f o u n d
co n fid c n c e in h is ow n r e ason in g p o w e r a n d in the pow ers o f scien ce a n d
te c h n o lo g y , he h a s je t t is o n e d his link w ith t r a d i t i o n , w ith r e v e a le d
truth , in deed w ith every fo r m o f g u id a n c e from b e y o n d him self.
F ro m this ele vate d position he seeks to m o u ld the w orld a c c o r d in g to
his w h im s a n d fa n c ie s . B u t th e ‘ B r a v e N e w W o r l d ’ he h a s c r e a t e d
d r iv e s a n o r d i n a r y h u m a n b e i n g in to p r o f o u n d d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . In
spite o f u n p r e c e d e n te d te ch n o lo g ica l a d v a n c e m e n t a n d o v e r a ll m a ­
terial d e v e lo p m e n t the c o n d itio n o f m a n r e m a in s h ig h ly u n settled . H e
sees the p ow erful s u b j u g a t i n g the w eak, the rich d o m i n a t i n g the p o o r ,
the ‘h a v e - n o ts ’ a r r a y e d a g a i n s t the ‘ h a v e s ’ ; h e se e s th e in ju s tic e a n d
exp lo ita tio n a t n a tio n a l a n d in te r n a tio n al levels; he sees d is in te g r a tio n
o f the fa m ily , a lie n a tio n o f in d iv id u a l from society a n d its in stitu tio n s,
even from him self; a n d he sees the a b u s e o f trust a n d a u t h o r it y in all
sp h e r e s . A l t h o u g h he h a s s h o w n h is a b i l i t y to fly in th e a i r like th e
birds, a n d to sw im in the o c e a n s like the fishes, he h a s fa iled to show his
a b i lit y to live o n the e a r t h a s a g o o d h u m a n b e in g . H is fa il u r e here
b r i n g s in t o d o u b t h is c a p a b i l i t y to c o n d u c t h is a f f a i r s in s o c i e t y
without clear-cut g u id e lin es for h u m a n action .
M a n f in d s h i m s e l f c a u g h t i n a d i l e m m a . H e b e l i e v e s t h a t h e h a s
reach ed the a p e x o f civ iliz a tio n . Bu t o n r e a c h in g the a p e x he fa ce s a
new a n d g r e a te r void. H e finds h im se lf a n d the civ iliz a tio n he h a s built
th reaten ed with forces o f his ow n creation. H e fra n tic ally s e a r c h e s for
remedies to rid his life o f those p o rten ts o f d e stru ctio n w h ich th re ate n
to deprive h im o f his ch erish ed d r e a m o f u l t i m a t e bliss. H e finds th at
his w orld-view lacks definitive criteria to h elp him j u d g e b etw een right
a n d w ro n g ; he fin d s th a t his l e a r n in g a n d e x p e r t i s e fail to g iv e h im
universal criteria to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n g o o d a n d b a d ; he finds th a t
c h a n g e a n d the p a c e o f c h a n g e h a v e sw ep t h im o ff his fe e t— n o t h in g
tan g ib le a n d la stin g re m ain s. In c re a sin g ly m a n b e co m e s d u b io u s
a b o u t the d ire ction he is h e a d in g for. In a b ility to co n ceive a w a y out o f
this d il e m m a leads him to d e s p a ir a n d g lo o m . M a n b e c o m e s in ­
creasingly selfish a n d u n m in d fu l o f h u m a n i t y ’s collective needs. M a n
beco m es a w a r e o f a choice eith er he relin q u ish es a ll p rete n c es to be
a n y t h in g o t h e r t h a n a n a n i m a l a n d s a d l y p r o n o u n c e h i m s e l f a s the
‘n aked a p e ’ or strive fu rth er to re ga in a n d retain his san ity.
H is search lea d s h im to the a w a re n e ss th at the fruits o f his re aso n are
not in th em selves sufficient for c o m p r e h e n d in g the reality a r o u n d h im .
H e turns to m e d ita tio n , to m ysticism , to occult p ra ctices, to p s e u d o ­
s p i r i t u a l i s m for g a i n i n g fu r t h e r in s ig h t a n d i n s p i r a t i o n . H i s th irst
rem ain s u n q u e n c h e d ; he fails to find a co m p re h e n s iv e d o c trin e b a se d
on reality a n d c a p a b l e o f u n iversal a p p lic a t io n .
At t h is s ta g e , m a n n eeds to d is c o v e r the W o r d o f G o d . It in fo rm s h im
o f his C re a to r, in fo rm s h im o f the p u r p o s e o f his c r e a tio n , in fo rm s him
o f his p la ce a s the ‘ best o f c r e a t io n ’, p r o v id e s h im with g u id a n c e to lead
a fulfilling a n d r e w a r d in g life, tells h im o f the h e r e a fte r , l e a c h e s him
the valu e o f his fellow bein gs, m a k e s e v e r y th in g else su b se rv ie n t to the
criterion o f tru th - in short, e n a b le s h im to be a t p e a c e w ith him self,
with the w h ole o f cre atio n a n d with the C re a to r.
'Hie religion o f Islam e m b o d i e s the final a n d m ost c o m p le t e W o rd o f
G o d . It is the e m b o d i m e n t o f the c o d e o f life w hich G o d , the C r e a t o r
a n d the L o r d o f the U n iv erse, h a s r e v e aled for the g u id a n c e o f m a n ­
kind. Islam in tergrates m a n with G o d a n d H is C r e a tio n in su ch a w a y
th at m a n m o v e s in c o - o p e r a t io n w ith a ll th a t exists. N e g l e c t o f this
d im e n sio n has im p o v erish e d h u m a n life a n d h as m a d e m ost o f m a n 's
m aterial c o n q u ests m ean in g le ss. O v e r-se c u lariz a tio n h as d e p riv e d
h u m a n life o f its sp ir itu a l sign ifican ce. B u t sp ir itu a l g r e a tn e ss c a n n o t
be a ch ie v e d by a s im p le sw in g o f the p e n d u lu m to the o t h e r extrem e .
H a r m o n y a n d e q u ilib r iu m c a n be a t t a i n e d on ly by th e i n t e g r a t i o n o f
the m aterial with the sp iritu a l. T h i s is the a p p r o a c h th at I s la m b rin g s
to b e a r : it m a k e s the w h o le o f th e d o m a i n o f e x ist e n c e s p ir it u a l a n d
religious. It s t a n d s for the h a r m o n i z a t io n o f the h u m a n will w ith the
D ivine W ill - this is h ow p e a c e is a c h ie v e d in h u m a n life. It is th r o u g h
p e a c e w ith G o d th a t m a n a t t a i n s p e a c e in th e h u m a n o r d e r a s a l s o
p c a c c with n atu re , o u ts id e a s well a s w ithin him.
Iliis is the essen tial m e ssag e o f Islam . B u t a n a v e r a g e r e a d e r in the
West finds it difficult to reach the tru e spirit o f Islam . W h a te v e r b e the
co n trib u tion s o f western s ch o la rsh ip in different fields o f I sla m ic s t u ­
dies, t h e fa ct r e m a i n s th a t v e ry little is a v a i l a b l e t h a t p r e s e n ts w ith
precision a n d a u t h e n tic ity the m e a n i n g a n d m e s s a g e o f I s la m a s the
M u s l im s u n d e rsta n d it. N o effort w orth the n a m e w o u ld seem to h a v e
been m a d e to u n d e r st a n d I sla m in the w ay M u s l i m s believe a n d p r a c ­
tise it. O u r e n d e a v o u r is to m a k e a h u m b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n in th is
neglected a rea.
Islam : Its M eaning and M essage is p r i m a r i l y a b o o k o f r e a d i n g s o n
Islam . B u t it is a new b o ok in the sense th a t all the m a t e r ia l it c o n ta in s
w as s cattered a n d b u rie d in a n u m b e r o f j o u r n a l s a n d bo ok s, s o m e o f
th e m not e a s ily a c c e ss ib le to a W este rn re a d e r. M o r e o v e r , th e s c o p e
a n d v a r ie t y o f t o p i c s c o v e r e d in d e p t h in th e p r e s e n t c o l l e c t i o n is
u n u su ally b ro a d . W e h a v e tried to select so m e o f the best w r itin g s o f
c o n te m p o r a r y M u slim s c h o la r s a n d h av e c o m p ile d th e m in to a
sy ste m a tic s tu d y o f I s la m a s a n id e o lo g y a n d w ay o f life. W e h o p e the
re ad e r will find a freshness in the b o o k ’s c o n te n t a n d a p p r o a c h .
T h e book is d iv id e d into fo ur p a r ts , e ac h fo c u s in g a t t e n t i o n on a n
im p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f I sla m . T h e r e are three r e a d i n g s in the first p a r t ,
e lu c id a tin g the I sla m ic o u tlo o k o n life. H i e s e c o n d p a r t is d e v o t e d to a
s t u d y o f th e tw o s o u r c e s o f I s l a m : T h e Q u r ' a n a n d th e P r o p h e t
M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be u p o n h im ) , the g u i d a n c e a n d the g u i d e , the
r e v e la t i o n a n d th e m a n to w h o m th e b o o k w a s r e v e a l e d a n d w h o
p r a c t i s e d it in s u c h a w a y a s to c r e a t e a liv in g m o d e l o f th e I s l a m i c
p erson ality a n d of the Islam ic social order. In p a rt three there a r e six
re ad in g s which throw light on different a sp e c t s o f the I sla m ic sy ste m o f
life, so cial, c u lt u r a l, s p i r i t u a l , p o lit ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic . T h e last p a r t
d e a ls w ith the im p a c t o f l s l a m on h u m a n history a n d c u ltu re a n d w ith
som e o f the p ro b le m s th at c o n fro n t p rese n t-d a y M u s l i m s a s a n id e o lo ­
gical c o m m u n ity . In all, there a r e fourteen selections in this b o o k , nine
o f which were orig in ally w ritten in E n g lish , four in A r a b ic a n d on e in
U r d u . W c a r c gi vi ng E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f ar ti c le s w r i t t e n in A r a b i c
a n d U r d u . A m o n g the a u th o r s, five o r ig in a lly c o m e fro m P a k is t a n , one
from I n d ia , fo u r fro m E g y p t , a n d on e e a c h fro m S y r ia , I r a n , A u s tr ia
a n d C a n a d a . T h e e d ito r h as a ls o a d d e d a short a n n o t a t e d B i b l io ­
g r a p h y o n I s l a m . T h o s e w h o w a n t to p u r s u e f u r t h e r s t u d i e s on the
th em es co v e red in this book will, we h op e , find it useful. In view o f the
co n stra in ts o f s p a c e a n d the d e m a n d s o f the s c h e m e o f the b o o k , the
ed ito r h a d to a b r id g e c e rta in p o rtio n s o f the o rigin al e ssays. I a m very
g r a te fu l to th e a u t h o r s for c o n s e n t i n g to u n a v o i d a b l e e x c e r p t i n g o f
their writings. S o m e m o d ific a tio n s h a d to be m a d e in l a n g u a g e , p a r t i ­
cu larly in the articles th at a r c tra n s la tio n s from U r d u a n d A r a b ic . A n
effort h a s been m a d e to i n t r o d u c e s o m e d e g r e e o f u n i f o r m i t y in the
tr a n s la tio n o f d ifferen t verses o f the Q u r ’a n . S i m i l a r l y d iffe r e n c e s in
the m e th o d a n d style o f referen cin g h av e also been re d u ce d to a m in i­
m u m . T h is, we h ope , will im p a r t a certain d e g r e e o f u n ifo rm ity to the
b(K)k.
I a m g r a te fu l to M r. S a l e m A z z a m for in v itin g m e to c o m p i le this
book. Me h a s a l s o k in d ly c o n t r i b u t e d a fo r e w o rd to it. M y g r a t e f u l
th an ks a r c d u e to m y c o lle a g u e s in T h e I sla m ic F o u n d a t io n . Dr. M . M .
A h san a n d M r. A s h r a f A b u T u r a b for a ssistin g m e in e d itin g the book,
to M rs. K . H o llin g w o r th for t y p i n g the m a n u s c r i p t , to M r . Y o u s s e f
O m a r for re a d in g the p roo fs a n d to M r . A j m a l A h m a d for p r e p a r i n g
the index.
In this seco n d e d itio n , we h a v e tried to im p ro v e the q u a l i t y o f this
lx>ok b y try in g to correct s o m e o f the m ista k e s w h ich h a d in a d v e rte n tly
crept into the e arlie r e d ition . VVe a r e a ls o g ratefu l to K i n g A b d u l A z iz
U n iv e rsity , J e d d a h , fo r h e l p in g us in p r o d u c in g the p r e se n t e d it i o n .
A n d finally to m y w ife A z r a a n d m y b r o t h e r A n is, w h o s ile n tly a n d
cheerfully bore with the strain o f the work a n d w illingly a llo w e d m e to
neglect m a n y o f their rig h ts a n d d e m a n d s , I w ou ld like to w h isp e r m y
realization th at a b u r d e n s h a r e d is affection d e e p e n e d .

K h u rsh id A h m ad

T h e Islam ic F o u n d a tio n
Leicester

10 R a b r a l- T h a n f , 1396
9 A pril, 1976
 A cknowledgments

T h e e d i t o r r e c o r d s h is g r a t e f u l a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t to th e f o llo w in g
p u b lish e rs for p e r m ittin g h im to in clu d e m a t e r ia l in this bo ok : A r a f a t
P u b lic a tio n s, L a h o r e ( The Spirit o f Islam)., I sla m ic P u b lic a tio n s, L a h o r e
(Islam : B a sic Principles and Characteristics a n d Political Theory o f Islam ),
T h e D e v i n - A d a i r C o m p a n y , N ew Y o rk ( The Life o f the Prophet Muham­
mad)', Impact International, L o n d o n ( Islam and Social Responsibility); Crite­
rion, K a r a c h i ( Islam ic Approach to Social Ju stic e a n d What Islam Gave to
Humanity); M S A , G a r y , U .S .A . (Woman in Islam ); B u r e a u o f P u b l i c a ­
tions, U n iv e r s ity o f K a r a c h i (Objectives o f the Islam ic Economic Order); The
Islam ic Quarterly, L o n d o n ( The Western World and its Challenge to Islam );
a n d D a r u l B a y a n , K u w a i t (Islam and the Crisis o f the Modern World).

K . A.
 C O N T R IB U T O R S

K H U R S H I D A H M A D ( U .K .)
Director-General, Islamic Foundation, U .K., and Asst. Professor of Econo­
mics, U niversity of K a r a c h i, Pakistan. H olds M aste rs in Econom ics and
Islamic Studies, first degree in Law, and isengaged in research at the Univer­
sity o f Leicester. Published work: Islamic Ideology (U r d u ) , University of
K arachi, 1973, Socialism or Islam (U rdu), Karachi, 1969; Islam and the West,
Lahore, 1970; Studies in the Family Law o f Islam, K arachi, 1960; Principles of
Islamic Education, Lahore, 1970, etc.

M U H A M M A D A S A D (Morocco)
An Austrian convert to Islam and a scholar of international repute. Published
work Islam at the Crossroads, Lahore, 1969; Sahih liukhari, English Translation
and C o m m e n ta ry (In c o m p le te ), S r in a g a r and Lah ore, 1938; I'he Hoad to
Mecca, London and New York, 1954; The Message of the (jur'an, (Incomplete),
Mecca: Muslim World League, 1964.

•ABD A L -R A H M A N A ZZA M (Egypt)

Scholar and statesman, *Abd al-Rahm an “Azzam was the first Secretary-
General of the Arab League (1945-1952). Published work: The Eternal Message
ofMuhammad, New York: Mentor Books, 1964.

A L L A H B U K H S H K. B R O H I (Pakistan)
A leadin g scholar, lawyer and sta te sm a n an d a former M inister o f Law ,
G overn m en t of P a k istan . Published work: Adventures in Self-Express ion,
Karachi, 1953; Fundamental Law of Pakistan. Karachi, 1958: Islam and the Modern
World, Karachi, 1968.

T. B. IR V I N G (U.S.A.)
A Can adian convert to Islam and a leading authority in Spanish language and
history. Holds Ph.D from Princeton and is Professor of Romance Languages
and Islam ic S tu d ies at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Published
work. Falcon of Spam, Lahore, 1958; The Soble Reading. C e d ar R apids, Iowa,
1971 Presently engaged in a nev\ English translation of the Qur'an.

M U S T A F A A H M A D A L -Z A R Q A (Jordan)
A lea d in g a u th o rity on Islam ic Law H olds Ph.D. in Islamic Law an d is
Professor of Islamic Law in the University of Jo rd a n . A former Minister of
Ju st ice. Government of Syria. Published work, over one dozen books in Arabic
on Islamic law.

S Y E D Q U T B (Egypt)
One of the greatest Islamic scholars of the twentieth century and a martyr to
the Islamic cause. A former educational adviser to the Government of Egypt
and a leader of the Muslim Brotherhood. Syed Q u tb Sh a h fd served a long
sentence in prison for his Islamic and political opinions and was sentenced to
death in N a s s e r ’s Egypt in 1966. Published work: Social Justice in Islam,
Washington, 1953; 7 his Religion oj Islam, Beirut, 1970; and over two dozen
books in Arabic on Islam. His greatest work is an eight volume Tqfsir (Exege-
sis) of the Qur'an h i ziliilal-Qur'an.

G A M A L A . B A D A W l (C an ad a)
A Ph.D. in Business Management, Dr. B a d a w f is Associate Professor in the
School of M an agem en t, Halifax. C a n a d a. He has contributed a number of
articles to different journals.

A B U ’L - A L A MAW D U D f (Pakistan)
One o f the greatest thinkers of the Contem porary M uslim world. Editor,
I'arjuman al-Qur'an, Lahore, and founder of the J a m a t - i- I s la m f, Pakistan.
M a w d u d f is a member of the Foundation Committee of the Muslim World
League, a member of its Islamic Law Academy and a member of the Govern­
ing Body of the Islamic University, Madfna. He has written over two hundred
books an d p a m p h le ts on Islam. Most im portan t of his works being a six
volume ’/'rt/irf/V(Exegesis) of th eQ ur’an — Tafhim al-Qur'an. He v\ rites in Urdu
but his works have been translated into English, Arabic, Turkish. Persian,
French, G e rm an , Swahili, Hindi and a num ber of other lan guages of the
world. Selected published work in En glish : Towards I'ndersianding Islam,
K arach i, Beirut, N airobi, 1973; Islamic Law and Constitution, Lahore, 1968;
Islamic Way oj Life, Lahore, 1970; litrth Control, Lahore, 1968; hlthical Viewpoint
of Islam, Lahore, l % 7 ; I fie Meaning oj the Quran (4 parts), Lahore, 1974,etc.

M U H A M M A D U M A R C H A P R A (Saudi Arabia)
Ph.D. in Economics from Minnesota, Dr. ’ I ’mar Chapra is Economic Adviser
to the Saudi Monetary Agency. 1le has also served as Assistant Professor in an
American I'niversity, .is Senior Economist. Pakistan Institute of Develop­
ment Economics an d as Assoc iate Professor, Institute of Islamic Research,
Pakistan. Published work: Ltonomu Systria of /slum. London and Karachi. 1970,
and a number of papers indifferent st hol.uk journals.

A B D U L H A M ID S ID D IQ U I <Pakistan)
Fellow, Islamic Research Academy, Karachi, and Associate Editor. / aifnman
al-Oui tin. Lahore. Mr. Siddi<|ui holds a masters degree in Economics and has
served as Professor of Economics at Islamic College, Gujranwalah. Published
work: The Life o f Muhammad, Lahore, 1969; Sahih Muslim (T ran slatio n and
editing), L a h o r e , 1974; Philosophical Interpretation o f History, L ah ore, 1969;
Prayers of the Prophet. Lahore, 1968; Prophethood in Islam, Lahore, 1968.

S E Y Y E D H( hSSEIN N A SK i Iran)
Chancellor, Arya-Mchr Univcrsit\ of l et huology, Tehran. Professor Nasr. a
Ph.I) Irom Harvard, is a specialist in Phvsii s, 11isioi \ ol Science and Islamic
Philosophy. I)uriug l*M>1-65, In- was the lirsi holder ul the Aga Kh an CIhairof
Islamic Studies at the American I'niversity of Beirut. Published work: Ideals
ami Realities of Ham, London, 1966; I firrt Muslim Sages. Aiuenrut, Suhrwady, I bn
'Arabi, Cam bridge, Mass., 1964; The Encounter oj Man and Nature: The Spiritual
Crisis o f Modern Man, London, 1971; Sufi Essays, London, 1972.

M U H A M M A D Q U T B (Saudi Arabia)
Professor oflslam ic Studies, K ing Abdul Aziz University, Makka, a renowned
Islamic scholar and a leader of the Muslim Brotherhood, Egypt. Professor
Qutb is the author of over one dozen books on Islam, some of them have been
translated into a number of languages, including English, French, German,
Urdu and Persian. O n e o f his well known books is Islam: the Misunderstood
Religion, Kuwait, 1969.
 PART I

The Islam ic Outlook On Life

 1

Islam: The Essentials*

‘ I S L A M ’ is a n A r a b i c w ord. It m e a n s the a c t o f r e sig n a tio n to G o d . T h e

root w ord i s S L M , p r o n o u n c e d 'satrn' w h ich m e a n s p c a c c from which
c o m e s the w ord ‘a sla m a ' w h ich m e a n s he s u b m itte d , he resign ed h im ­
self. A l- I s la m o r I s la m is th e re lig io n w h ich b rin g s p e a c e to m a n k in d
w h en m a n c o m m i t s h i m s e l f to G o d a n d s u b m i t s h i m s e l f to H is will.
A c c o r d in g to the H o ly Book re vealed to M u h a m m a d (p e a c e a n d bles­
sin gs o f G o d be on h im ), this is the o n ly tru e religion professed by all
P r o p h e ts from A d a m to M u h a m m e d , the L a s t P ro p h e t. A 'M u s l i m ' is
o n e w h o r e s i g n s h i m s e l f to G o d a n d t h e r e b y p r o re sses th e f a it h o f
a l-Isla m . A M u s l im therefore believes in all the P ro p h e ts a n d m a k e s no
d istin ction b etw een on e a n d the oth er. H e also believes that G o d has
sent H is p r o p h e ts to all corners o f the earth to p reach the s a m e religion,
that H is m e s s a g e s t o p p e d c o m i n g afte r th e last revelation s received by
the last P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e a n d b lessin gs o f G o d be on h im ),
a n d th at th e m e s s a g e received by the last P roph et is the m ost c o m p r e ­
hensive a n d the final form o f G o d ’s m e s s a g e to M a n .

FA IT H , A C T IO N A N D R E A L IZ A T IO N
In o r d e r to be a tru e ‘ M u s l i m ’ three th in g s a re n ecessary: F a ith , A ction
a c c o r d in g to th at faith a n d the re aliz a tio n o f o n e ’s relation to G o d a s a
result o f a c tio n a n d o b edien ce.
Faith w h ich is d e s c r ib e d in the Q u r ’a n , the H o ly B o ok o f Isla m , as
Iman c o n sists in b e lie v in g th at A lla h ( G o d ) a lo n e is w orth y o f w orship
* This introductory statement on the Essentials of Islam has been prepared
under the auspices of the Islamic Foundation, England.
22 IS L A M : ITS M EA N IN G AND M E SSA G E

a n d th a t M u h a m m a d ( p c a c c be on h im ) is the M e s se n g e r o f A lla h , a n d
in b e a r in g w itn ess to the a b o v e s ta te m e n t. T h i s im p lies:

( 1 ) T r u e e x i s t e n c e is t h a t o f A l l a h a l o n e ; M a n a n d th e e n t ir e
cre atio n exist o n ly b e c a u s e A lla h wills th e m to exist.
(2) A s there c a n n o t be tw o sources o f cre atio n , a s A lla h a lo n e is the
cre ato r, e v e r y th in g c o m e s from H i m a n d goes b a c k to H i m ; hence
the e n tir e c r c a t io n in c l u d i n g M a n is the m a n i fe s t a t io n o f A l l a h ’s
p o w e r a n d glory a n d hence o f H is q u a litie s or attrib u te s.
(3 ) T h e relatio n betw een M a n a n d A llah.is th at o f a serv an t a n d the
M a s te r . A s M a n ow es his very existen ce to A lla h , to w o rsh ip a n y ­
th in g else is to c o m m it the g rav est o f sins.
(4) T h e a b o v e three a s p e c t s o f F a it h in A lla h are re alize d b y M a n
only w h en he re sp o n d s to the M e s s a g e o f A lla h a n d this is possible
w h en M a n believes in M u h a m m a d (p e a c e be on h im ) a s the m e s ­
se n g e r o f A lla h .
(5) A s a m e sse n g e r he is the last a n d the greatest, a b o u t w h o m all the
e arly m essen g ers h av e p red icte d a n d w h o th u s c o m p le t e s the p r o ­
cess o f revelation .
(6 ) H e is therefore the Perfect Ideal for M a n k i n d , the perfect ser­
v a n t o f A lla h a n d h en ce the m ost c o m p le te a n d the ideally b a la n c e d
m a n ife s ta tio n o f the a tt rib u te s o f A llah.
(7) T o b elieve in h im is to believe in all the o th er p r o p h e ts o f A llah.
(8 ) T o believe in him is also to believe th at the Q u r ’a n c o n ta in s all
the re v e la tio n s sent to m a n k in d th ro u g h h im , th a t these revelation s
p ro v id e g u id a n c e to us a n d th a t we s h o u ld w orsh ip A lla h by fol­
low in g these re v e la tio n s a c c o r d in g to the m e th o d prescribed for us
by M u h a m m a d ( p c a c c be on h im ) a n d hence in a c c o r d a n c e with his
s a y in g s a n d p ra ctice , kn ow n a s Hadith or Sunnah.
(9) T o b elieve in him is also to believe in the ca rrie rs o f this m essag e ,
the a n g e ls , w h o a re d e scrib e d in the Q u r 'a n a s functio n aries.

Action, d e sc r ib e d in A r a b ic by the w ord ‘amal, is the m a n ife s ta tio n in

a c tu a lity h ow far we a r e true serv an ts o f G o d . As actio n n eeds rules a n d
r e g u la tio n s a c c o r d in g to w hich we o rg a n ise o u r in d iv id u a l a n d social
b e h a v i o u r , th e r e v e la t i o n s a n d th e a c t u a l p h y s i c a l e m b o d i m e n t o f
these re v e la tio n s in the a c tio n o f the P ro p h e t ( p e a c e be on h im ) p rovide
both the b a sis a n d the stru c tu re o f the L a w o f h u m a n c o n d u c t , known
a s S h a ii‘ah. B e s id e s Iman (fa ith ) w hich p ro v id e s the ce n tra l p illa r th at
s u s ta in s the w h ole s tru c tu re , the fo ur o th er p illars in th e fo ur corners
a r e : Prayer ( salat) ; Fasting ( sawm) ; Charity ( zakat) ; Pilgrim age ( H a jj).
 ISLA M : T H E E SSEN T IA L S 23

A M u s l i m h a s to p r a y five t i m e s a d a y , b e fo r e s u n r is e , b e t w e e n
m i d - d a y a n d a f t e r n o o n , in th e a f t e r n o o n , i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r s u n se t
a n d betw een the tim e when the tw ilight is o v e r a n d j u s t before d a w n . It
m e a n s he c a n n o t be fo rgetfu l o f his d e p e n d e n c e o f A lla h a n d derives
s u s t e n a n c e a n d new i n i t ia t i v e s a n d s tr e n g t h t h r o u g h this r e m e m ­
bran ce.
H e fa s ts for o n e l u n a r m o n th in a y e a r, e v e ry d a y fro m d a w n till
su n se t, th e m o n th o f R a m a d a n . P h y s ic a lly he d o e s not e a t , d rin k or
sm o k e or h a v e se x u a l intercourse. S p ir it u a lly he a b s t a in s from all evil
th o u g h ts, a c tio n s a n d say in gs. In o th er w ord s he tries to realize his true
s e l f by s t r i v i n g to r e a liz e w ith in h i m s e l f s o m e a s p c c t s o f th e d iv in e
ch a rac te r.
C h a r i t y ( Z a k a t) i m p l i e s t h a t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t he s e e m s to p o s s e s s
be lo n g s to A lla h a n d therefore a n y o n e in need h as a share in it a n d he
sh o u ld w illin gly a n d g la d ly h elp in d iv id u a ls a n d society w h en they are
in n ee d . A s m a n k i n d h a s n ev e r been free from s o m e kin d o f n ee d , a n
a n n u a l a m o u n t is p re scrib e d o u t o f o n e ’s in co m e a n d sav in gs.
P i l g r i m a g e to M a k k a im p l ie s M a n ’s te m p o r a r y s u s p e n s io n o f all
w orldly a ctiv itie s a n d his re aliz a tio n o f h im se lf a s a n ak e d soul in front
o f A lla h a lo n e . T h i s a ls o s y m b o lis e s th e u n ity o f th e M u s l i m Ummah
a n d the o n e n ess o f M a n k i n d .
All these fo u r a r e in tim a te ly tied u p with all o th er a sp e c t s o f m a n ’s
in d iv id u a l a n d social b e h a v io u r. B y fo llow in g th e m a n d th ereb y living
a life o f c o m p l e t e d e d ic a tio n t o th e W ill o f A lla h , a m a n b e co m e s a true
M u s lim .
A M u s l i m is on e w hose o u tlo o k on life is p e r m e a te d with this c o n ­
scio usness. H e is c o m m it t e d to the v a lu e s o f life g iven b y th e Q u r ’an
a n d the Sunnah. H e tries to live a c c o r d in g to the g u id a n c e given by G o d
a n d H i s P r o p h e t a n d h e s t r i v e s to p r o m o t e th e m e s s a g e o f I s l a m
th r o u g h his w o rd a n d a c tio n s . T h i s str iv in g is k n o w n a s J i h a d w h ich
m e a n s a striv in g a n d a s tr u g g le in the p a th o f G o d . It consists in e x e r t­
ing o n e ’s s e lf to th e u t m o s t in o rd e r to p e rson ally follow the te a ch in g s o f
Is la m a n d to w ork for th e ir e s t a b li s h m e n t in society. J i h a d h a s been
d e scrib e d in th e Q u r ’a n a n d the Sunnah a s the n a tu r a l c o ro lla ry o f these
p illars o f faith. C o m m i t m e n t to G o d involves c o m m it m e n t to sacrifice
o n e ’s tim e , e n e r g y a n d w e a lth to p r o m o t e the r ig h t c a u s e . It m a y be
n e c e s s a r y a t t im e s to g iv e o n e ’s life in o rd e r to p r e se r v e T r u t h . J i h a d
im p lie s re a d in e s s to g iv e w h a t e v e r on e h as, in c lu d in g his life, for the
sake o f A lla h .
T h i s str iv in g in th e p a t h o f A lla h w ith Iman ( fa it h ) a s the g u id i n g
24 ISL A M : ITS M E A NIN G AND M ESSA G E

light a n d the s c h e m e o f 'amal (a c tio n ) a s the system a n d str u c tu r e h as

the fo llow in g im p lic a tio n s:

(1) M a n is a c c o u n t a b l e to A lla h fo r a ll th a t h e d o e s . A lla h will j u d g e

him on the L a s t D a y o f J u d g e m e n t a n d sen d him eith er to I le a v e n ,
a s t a g e o f e x ist e n c e w h ich le a d s to fu r th e r b le ssin g s, o r to H e ll, a
s t a g e o f su ffe rin g a n d p u n ish m e n t.
(2 ) T h i s im p lies th at M a n ’s life d o e s not end with his d e a t h in this
w orld. H e h as life afte r d e ath .
(3 ) T h e r e fo r e all h u m a n a c tio n sh o u ld be o r g a n is e d in such a m a n ­
ner th at he m a y n ot suffer in life afte r d e ath .
(4) T h i s o r g a n iz a t io n o f a c tio n in this w orld im p lies the o r g a n i z a ­
tion o f a ll f a c e t s o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e , i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o lle c tiv e ,
h ence e d u c a t i o n a l, e c o n o m ic , p o litica l a n d social. SharVah p rov ides
the g u id e lin e s, the rules o f e x te r n a l c o n d u ct.
(5 ) T h i s m e a n s M a n is free in his will, choice a n d action .

Realization o f m a n ’s r e la tio n to A lla h is a sp ir it u a l a sp e c t kn ow n in

A r a b ic a s 'ihsan' w hich P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be on h im ) e x ­
p la in e d in the fo llow in g w ay : ‘Y o u sh o u ld w orsh ip A lla h a s if yo u are
see in g H i m , for H e sees you th o u g h you d o not see h i m ’ ( B u k h a r f a n d
M u s lim ) . 11 m e a n s th at all a c tio n s h o u ld be p e rfo rm e d with A lla h in
y o u r vision. I f th at is not p o ssib le a lw a y s you m ust realize th at A lla h is
seein g you. T h i s r e a liz a tio n is r e g a r d e d a s the b a s is o f tru e d e v o tio n . It
signifies th a t m a n h a s iden tified his will with the W ill o f G o d a n d has
b r o u g h t it, a t least a s fa r a s he is c o n c e r n e d , c o m p le t e ly in tu n c w ith the
D iv in e W ill. C o n s e q u e n t ly , he b e g in s to like w h at is liked by his L o r d
a n d to a b h o r w h a t is d is a p p r o v e d by H im . M a n , then, not o n ly a v o id s
evils w h ich G o d d o e s not like to b e s p re a d on the e a r t h , b u t uses all his
e n e r g y to w ip e th e m o f f th e s u r f a c e o f th e e a r t h . S i m i l a r l y he is not
c o n t e n t m e r e ly w ith a d o r n i n g h i m s e l f w it h th e v ir tu e s w h ic h G o d
likes, b u t a ls o e n g a g e s h im s e l f in a n u n c e a s in g s tr u g g le to p r o p a g a t e
a n d e sta b lish th e m in the w orld. M a n c o m e s nearest to G o d b y e x c el­
ling in this p ro c ess o f id e n tifica tio n o f m a n ’s will with the D iv in e Will.
T h i s e n a b le s h im to d e v e lo p the d iv in e s p a r k w ithin h im a n d to illu­
m in a te his en tire b e in g with that. T h e m ost c o m p le t e e x a m p l e o f the
re aliz a tio n is th at o f the P ro p h e t ( p e a c e be on h im ). T h r o u g h c o n stan t
r e m e m b r a n c e o f A ll a h , th ro u g h M a n ’s Ix>vc o f G o d a n d the P ro p h e t,
th r o u g h o b e d ie n c e to th e c o m m a n d m e n t s o f A lla h a n d H is P ro p h e t
( p e a c e be on h im ), a n d th ro u g h co n sta n t s tr u g g le to p r o m o te g o o d a n d
forbid evil M a n m a y a tt a in n ea rn e ss to A llah . C o n t a c t w ith a n d g u i d ­
 ISLA M : T H E E SSEN T IA LS 25

a n c e fro m th ose w h o a t t a i n this n e a r n e ss h elp the rest o f m a n k in d to

a t t a i n this n e a r n e ss or to be alive in sp irit a n d h ence to p erform in d i­
v id u a l a n d co llectiv e a c tio n not m e c h a n ic a lly b u t w ith w h ole-h earted
d e v o tio n a n d for the sak e o f A lla h alo n e . T h i s r e a liz a tio n is the b a s is o f
piety. T h i s p ie ty is the so u r c e o f righteousness w h ich is r e g a r d e d by I slam
a s th e c o r e o f ju st a c t i o n . P e r so n s w h o , th r o u g h Iman, 'am al arid ihsan
b e c o m e livin g s y m b o l s o f truth represent the reform m o v e m e n t e s t a ­
blish ed by th e P r o p h e t ( p e a c e be u p o n h im ) to re con stru ct h u m a n life
a n d b r in g it in a c c o r d with D iv in e G u id a n c e . S u c h p e rson s c o n stan tly
r e m in d the rest o f M a n k i n d o f the tru e sig n ific an ce o f M a n ’s s u b m i s ­
sion to the W ill o f A lla h . A n d a society w h ich realises these v a lu e s in its
collectiv e life w o u ld be the ideal society w hich Islam w a n t s to estab lish
for the u l t i m a t e w e lfa re [F atah ) o f M a n .

M AN AS T H E R E P R E SE N T A T IV E O F G O D O N EA RTH
A c c o r d in g to I s l a m , w h en fa ith , a c t i o n a n d r e a liz a tio n a re in p erfect
h a r m o n y , M a n m a n i fe s t s the fa c t th a t he is the v ice ge ren t o f G o d on
E a r t h . T h o u g h M a n d e r i v e s e v e r y t h i n g fr o m A l l a h , he is the m o s t
c o m p l e t e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f th e a t t r i b u t e s o f A ll a h a n d a s s u c h he is
A l l a h ’s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o n E a r t h . The e n t ir e c r e a t i o n is p o t e n t i a l l y
u n d e r his d o m in i o n . T h e r e f o r e I s la m d o e s not set a n y lim it to M a n ’s
k n o w le d g e , a u t h o r i t y a n d p o w e r e x c e p t the f u n d a m e n t a l lim it th a t
they a r c all d e r iv e d a n d h cn ce M a n is n ot self-sufficient. A lla h m a y
take a w a y his p ow e r w h en e v e r H e w ishes. I sla m , therefore, te a ch es the
san c tity o f h u m a n p e rso n a lity , co n fers e q u a l righ ts on all w itho ut a n y
d istin ctio n o f c o lo u r , sex or l a n g u a g e a n d su b je c ts the highest a n d the
h u m b le s t, the richest a n d the poo rest, the kin g a n d the c o m m o n e r to
the so v e r e ig n t y o f A lla h a n d at the s a m e tim e g ives M a n the h igh est
i m a g i n a b le in itiative to p roc ee d in the p a th o f self-realization , h ence
the w ie ld in g o f G o d ’s a u t h o r ity on the C r e a tio n .

G O D , P R O P H E T H O O D , T H E Q U R ’A N A N D T H E S U N N A H
I sla m therefore e n jo in s M a n to:

( 1 ) b e l i e v e t h a t G o d is O n e , O m n i s c i e n t a n d O m n i p r e s e n t ; H e
b e g ette th not, n o r is H e b e g o tte n ;
(2 ) b elieve fu rth er th a t M a n is the vicegeren t o f G o d on E a r th a n d
h as fr e e d o m o f ch o ice ;
(3) b elieve a ls o th a t a s he h as fr e e d o m o f ch o ice he m a y g o a s t r a y
a n d t h c r e f o i c n e e d s g u i d a n c e fr o m t i m e to t i m e s o t h a t h e m a y
26 ISL A M : I I S M E A NIN G AND M E SSA G E

know how to realize his ow n true g rea tn e ss a n d th at is w hy G o d sent

H is m essen g ers from A d a m to M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be on th e m ) a n d
c o m p le t e d this process d u r in g the life o f M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be on
h im );
( 4 ) a c t o n this m e s s a g e w h ich is p r e s e r v e d in p u r i t y w it h o u t a n y
a d u l t e r a t io n in the Q u r ’a n w h ich a sk s M a n to follow the P r o p h e t
(p e a c e b e on h im ) a s his s u p r e m e ideal;
(5 ) know a n d a c t u p o n th at ideal preserved in collection o f say in gs
o f the P r o p h e t ( p e a c e be on h im ) a n d the reports o f his a c tio n s — the
Sunnah or the tr a d itio n s o f the Prophet.

ISLA M A N D O T H E R R E L IG IO N S
Islam d oes not d e n y T r u t h to o th er religions bu t says that later fol­
lowers a d u l t e r a t e d th at T r u t h by th eir ow n in v en tio n s a n d th a t w as
why G o d sent P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d (p e a c e be on h im ) to p u rify G o d ’s
religion. E a c h religion m a n ife s t s s o m e a sp e c t o f the s a m e T r u t h , b u t
the e m p h a s i s m a y differ a c c o r d in g to the need o f M a n o f th at p e rio d or
a g e or race. I sla m is the religion for all a n d a s it is the m ost c o m p r e ­
hensive m a n ife s ta tio n o f th a t T r u t h , it provides a c o m p le t e w ay a n d a
perfect e q u ilib r iu m .
T h e s e c o n d fa c t a b o u t this r e la tio n s h ip with o t h e r r e lig io n s is the
c h r o n o lo g y s t a t e d in the Q u r ’a n . I s la m is in th e lin e o f all re lig io n s
whose P ro p h e ts be lon g ed to the fa m ily o f A b r a h a m . T h e J u d a i c t r a ­
d itio n th a t s t a r t e d with A b r a h a m ’s son I sh a q ( I s a a c ) c a m e to a n e n d
w ith J e s u s w h o w a s the last P rop h et in th at fa m ily tree. M u h a m m a d
( p e a c e b e on h i m ) w a s th e d e s c e n d a n t o f the o t h e r s o n o f I b r a h i m
( A b r a h a m ) , I s m a ' f l ( I s h m a e l ) . P r o p h e t s in o t h e r lin es a m o n g th e
d e s c e n d a n t s o f A d a m h ave been hinted a t bu t not referred to except
N u h ( N o a h ) a s e x a m p l e s in the Q u r ’an. B u t, a s the Q u r ’a n clearly
s t a t e s th a t there is n o t a sin gle h u m a n h a b i t a t i o n on the face o f this
e a r t h w h ere a P ro p h e t h as not e m e r g e d a n d w here G o d h a s not sent
H is m essen g er to g u id e p eople, a M u s l im c a n n o t d e n y T r u t h to reli­
g io n s n ot b e lo n g in g to this tra d itio n . All th a t he c a n p o in t o u t is the
a d u l t e r a t io n o f th at T r u t h , the m ix in g u p o f the W o rd o f G o d a n d the
w o rd o f m a n , its n o n -p reservation in its o rigin al form.
 2

Islam: Basic Principles and

Characteristics'
K h u rsh id A h m ad

I S L A M is the religion o f truth. It is the embodiment o f the code o f life

which G od, the C reator an d the Lord of the universe, has revealed for
the guidance o f mankind.
For the proper development o f hum an life man needs two kinds o f
things, viz.: (a) resources to m aintain life and fulfil the material needs
of the individual an d society, an d (b) knowledge o f the principles o f
individual a n d social behaviour to enable m an to have self-fulfilment
and to m ain tain justice an d tranquility in hum an life. T h e Lord o f the
universe has provided for both o f these in full measure. T o cater for the
material needs o f m an H e has provided nature with all kinds of re­
sources, which lie a t the disposal of man. T o provide for his spiritual,
social an d cultural needs He raised His prophets from am o n g men and
revealed to them the code of life which can guide m a n ’s steps to the
Right Path. T h is code o f life is known as Islam, the religion preached
by all the prophets o f G o d .1
Allah said: ‘Say , we believe in God, and in the revelation given to us,
and to A b r a h a m , Ishmael, Isaac, J a c o b and the Tribes. We believe in
the revelation th at w as sent to M oses, J e s u s an d all other Prophets
from their Lord. W e make no distinction between them, and unto Him
we surrender.’ (al-Q ur’an, 3: 83. See also 2: 136).
• This is a revised version of an earlier pamphlet published by the Islamic
Publications Ltd., 1-ahorc, Pakistan.
1. The Qur’an says: ‘He has ordained for you (O Muhammad) that faith which
He commended to Noah, and that which We commended to Abraham, Moses
and Jesus, saying: “ Establish the Faith, and be not divided therein.” ’ (al-
Qur’an, 42: 13).
. - -

ui i-uiicy Studies Librar. j

Islamabad

Acc. No,
28 I SL. vM! its m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

A lso : i le h a s r e v e a le d to you ( O M u h a m m a d ) th e sc r ip tu r e with

tn ith , c o n fir m in g th at w hich w as revealed before it even a s H e reveal­
ed the T o r a h a n d the G o s p e l , befo re a s a g u id e to m a n k in d a n d has
revealed the C rite r io n ( o f ju d g in g between right a n d w rong), (al-
Q u r 'a n , 3: 3-4).
All o f the p r o p h e ts called h u m a n ity to the w ay o f the L o r d , the w ay
o f su b m issio n to A lla h . All o f th e m g a v e the s a m e m essag e ; all o f them
stood for the s a m e ca u se , Islam .

THE MEANING OF ISLAM

Islam is a n A r a b ic w ord a n d d e n o te s su b m issio n , su rren d e r a n d o b e ­
dience. As a religion, Islam s ta n d s for co m p le te su b m issio n a n d o b e ­
d ie n c e to A l l a h — th a t is w h y it is c a l l e d Islam . T h e o t h e r lite r a l
m e a n in g o f the w o r d I s la m is ‘p e a c e ’ a n d this s ig n ifie s th a t o n e c a n
ach ieve real p e ac e o f b o d y a n d o f m in d only th rou g h su b m issio n a n d
o b cd ic n cc to A lla h . ‘ S u c h a life o f o b e d ien c e brin gs p e ac e o f the heart
a n d e stab lish e s real p e ac e in society a t large.

‘T h o s e w h o b e lie v e a n d w h o se h e a r t s find rest in th e r e m e m ­

b ra n ce o f A llah — indeed it is in the th o ugh t o f A lla h a lo n e th at the
h e a r t o f m a n r e a l l y fi n d s re st — th o s e w h o b e l ie v e a n d a c t
righteously, j o y is for th em , a n d a blissful h om e to return to.’ (al-
Q u r ’a n , 13: 28-29).

T h is m e ssag e w as p rea ch e d by all the p rop h e ts o f G o d , w h o g u id e d

m a n to the righ t p a th . Bu t m a n not only veered a w a y fro m the right
p a th a g a i n a n d a g a i n , b u t a ls o lost or disto rte d the c o d e o f g u id a n c e
w h ich th e p r o p h e t s h a d b e q u e a t h e d . T h a t w a s w hy o t h e r p r o p h e ts
were sent to re-state the o rigin al m e ssag e a n d g u id e m a n to the right
p a th . T h e last o f these p ro p h e ts w as M u h a m m a d (p e a c e be u p o n h im ),
2. I'he word Islam is from the root S L M (pronounced silm) which means (a) to
surrender, to subm it, to yield, to give one’s self over, thus aslama amrahu ila
A llafi, means ‘he committed his cause to G od’ or ‘he resigned himself to the will
of G o d ’. A slama alone would b e ‘he committed himself to the will of G o d ’, o r ‘he
became a M uslim ’. The other major shade of meaning in the root is (b) ‘to
become reconciled with one another’, ‘to make peace’. Salm means peace. So
docs silm, which also m ean s‘the religion of Islam’. S^e Hans Wehr, A Dictionary
oj Modern Written Arabic, Wiesbaden: O tto Harrassowitz, 1971, p. 424-425.
Imam R a g h ib says in al-Mu/ridat f l Gharib al Qur’an: ‘Islam in law is of two
kinds; one is a simple confession with the tongue . . . the other that along with
confession, there is belief in the heart and a fulfilment in practice, and resig­
nation to God in whatever He brings to pass or dccrce’. R aghib further says:
‘Islam means entering into salm, amd salm and silm both signify peace.’
 IS L A M : B A SIC P R IN C IP L E S AND C H A R A C T E R IST IC S 29

who p resen ted G o d ’s g u id a n c e in its final form a n d a r r a n g e d to p r e ­

serve it for all tim e. It is this g u id a n c e w h ich is n ow kn ow n a s al-Islam
a n d is en sh rin e d in the Q u r ’a n a n d the life-exam pie o f the Prophet.
T h e b a sic I sla m ic c o n ce p t is that the en tire universe w as c r e a te d by
G o d , w h o m Islam ca lls A lla h a n d w h o is the L o r d a n d the S o v e re ig n o f
the U n iv erse. H e is the L o r d o f the universe which H e a lo n e sustains.
H e c r e a te d m a n a n d a p p o in t e d for e ach h u m a n b e in g a fixed p e rio d o f
life w hich he is to s p e n d u p o n the earth. A llah h as p re scrib e d a certain
c o d e o f life a s the c o rre ct o n e for h im , b u t h as a t the s a m e tim e co n fe r ­
red on m a n fr e e d o m o f choice a s to w h ether or not he a d o p t s this code
as the a c t u a l b a sis o f his life. O n e w h o ch ooses to follow the c o d e re­
v e a le d b y G o d b e c o m e s a M uslim ( b e lie v e r ) a n d o n e w h o refuses to
follow it b e c o m e s a K afir (non-believer).
A m a n jo in s the fold o f Islam by honestly b e lie v in g in a n d professing
faith in the u n ity o f G o d a n d the P ro p h c th o o d o f M u h a m m a d (p e a c e
be u p o n h im ). B o th these beliefs are e p ito m ise d in the Kalirna:
I.a ilaha illallahu Muhammad ur-Rasulullah.
(‘T h e r e is no G o d e xc ep t A lla h ; M u h a m m a d is H is P ro p h e t'.)
T h e first p a r t o f this K ahm a prese n ts the c o n ce p t o f Taw hid (un ity o f
G o d ) a n d its s e c o n d p a r t a ffir m s th e P r o p h e t h o o d o f M u h a m m a d
( p e a c e be u p o n him ).

TAVVH I'D T H E B E D -R O C K O F ISLA M

T aw h id is a r e v o lu tio n a ry c o n ce p t a n d co n stitu tes the essence o f the
te a c h in g s o f Islam . It m e a n s th at there is only O n e S u p r e m e L o rd o f
the universe. H e is O m n ip o t e n t , O m n ip r e s e n t a n d the S u s t a i n e r o f the
world a n d o f m an k in d .
H o w c a n o n e o b s e r v e th e i n e x h a u s t i b l e c r e a t i v i t y o f n a t u r e , its
p u r p o s e f u l n e s s , its p r e s e r v a t io n o f th a t w h ic h is m o r a ll y u se fu l a n d
d e stru ctio n o f th at w hich is socially injurious, a n d yet fail to d ra w the
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t b e h i n d n a t u r e th e re is a n A l l - P e r v a d i n g M i n d o f
w h o se in c e s sa n t c r e a t iv e a c t i v it y the p ro c e sse s o f n a t u r e a r e b u t a n
o u t w a r d m a n i f e s t a t i o n ? T h e s t a r s s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h th e a l m o s t
infinite s p a c e , the vast p a n o r a m a o f n a tu r e with its c h a r m a n d b e a u ty ,
the p la n n e d w a x in g a n d w a n in g o f the m o o n , the a sto n ish in g h a r ­
m o n y o f the s e a s o n s — all point to w a rd s on e fact: there is a G o d , the
C r e a t o r , the G o v e r n o r . W e w itness a s u p e rb , flawless p lan in the u n i­
verse — c a n it be w ith o u t a P la n n e r ? W e see great e n c h a n tin g b e a u ty
a n d h a r m o n y in its w o r k in g c a n they be w ith o u t a C r e a t o r ? W e
30 I S L A M : IT S m e a n in g a n d m e ssa g e

o b se rv e w o n d e rfu l d e sig n in n a tu r e — c a n it be w ith o u t a D e sig n e r?

W e feel a lofty p u r p o se in ph ysical a n d h u m a n existence — ca n it be
w ith o u t a W ill w o rk in g b e h in d it? W e find th at the un iverse is like a
s u p e r b l y w ritte n f a s c i n a t i n g n o v el — c a n it be w ith o u t a n A u t h o r ?
T r u ly , A lla h said :

O, M a n k i n d : w o r s h ip y o u r L o r d , w h o c r e a t e d y o u a n d th o se
before y o u, so th a t you m a y w a r d o f f evil. W h o h as a p p o in t e d the
e a r t h a r e s t in g p l a c e fo r y o u , th e sky a c a n o p y ? a n d w h o c a u s e s
w ate r to p o u r d o w n from the heavens, th ereby p r o d u c in g fruits a s
fo o d fo r y o u ? S o , d o n ot set u p r iv a l s to A l l a h , w h e n y o u kn o w
better.’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 21-22).

T h i s is the b a sic tenet to w hich M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be u p o n h im )

a sk ed h u m a n ity to adhere.
It is a n im p o r t a n t m e ta p h y sic a l c o n ce p t a n d a n sw e rs the riddles o f
the universe. It p o in ts to the s u p r e m a c y o f the law in th e co sm os, the all
p e r v a d in g u n ity beh in d the m an ifest diversity.
It p r e s e n ts a u n ifie d view o f the w orld a n d offers th e vision o f an
in te g ra te d un iverse. It is a m ig h ty c o n tr a st to the p ie c e m e a l view s o f
the s c ie n tis ts a n d th e p h il o s o p h e r s a n d u n v e ils the tr u th b e fo re the
h u m a n eye. A fte r ce n tu ries o f g r o p in g in the d a rk , m a n is now c o m in g
to re a lise th e tru th o f this c o n c e p t a n d m o d e r n scie n tific t h o u g h t is
m o v in g in this direction . '
Bu t it is not m ere ly a m e ta p h y s ic a l c o n c e p t. It is a d y n a m i c be lie f
a n d a re v o lu tio n a ry doctrin e. It m e a n s th at all m en a r e the cr e a tu re s o f
one G o d — they are all e q u a l. D isc rim in a tio n b a s e d on c o lo u r , class,
race or territory is u n fo u n d e d a n d illusory. It is a r e m n a n t o f the d a y s o f
ig n o r a n c e w h ich c h a in e d m en d o w n to s e r v itu d e . H u m a n i t y is one
sin gle fa m ily o f G o d a n d there c a n be no san ctio n for those barriers.
M e n a r e o n e — a n d n ot b o u r g e o i s o r p r o l e t a r i a n , w h ite or b l a c k ,
A ry a n or n on -A ryan , W estern er or E a stern er. Islam gives a re v o lu ­
tio n a r y c o n c e p t o f the unity o f m a n k in d . T h e P r o p h e t c a m e to un ite
h u m a n i t y o n the w o rd o f G o d a n d m a k e the d e a d live a g a i n . A lla h
says:

‘ H o ld lig h t to the ro p e o f G o d , a lto g eth er a n d never let go a g a in .

R e m e m b e r G o d ’s gifts a n d blessings u n to you all, w hen you were
e n e m ie s; r e m e m b e r how H e forged y o u r h earts to g eth e r in love, a n d
b y H is grace, you b e c a m e bre th re n .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 3: 103).

3. See Francis Mason (Ed.) The Great Design, London: Duckworth.

 ISLA M : BA SIC PR IN C IP LES AND C H A R A C TER ISTIC S 3 1

T h i s c o n c e p t a ls o d efin es the true position o f m a n in the universe. It

says th at G o d is the C r e a to r , the S o v e r e ig n ; a n d that m a n is H is vice­
gerent on the e a r t h .4 T h i s e x a lts m a n to the n oble a n d dign ified posi­
tion o f b e in g G o d ’s d e p u t y o n e a r th a n d e n d o w s his life with a lofty
p u r p o se ; to fulfil the W ill o f G o d on earth. T h i s will solve all the p e r­
p l e x i n g p r o b l e m s o f h u m a n s o c i e t y a n d e s t a b l i s h a n ew o r d e r
w h e r e in e q u i t y a n d j u s t i c e a n d p e a c e a n d p r o s p e r i t y w ill r e ig n
su p rem e .
T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f I s l a m is th is b e l i e f in th e U n i t y o f G o d
{T a w hid).

P R O P H E T H O O D A N D LIFE A F T E R D EA TH
T h e seco n d p a rt o f the Kalim a, on the o th er h a n d , signifies th at G o d has
not left m a n w itho ut a n y g u id a n c e for the c o n d u c t o f his life. H e has
revealed H is G u i d a n c e th rou g h H is p ro p h e ts a n d M u h a m m a d (p e a c e
be u p o n h im ) w a s th e last P ro p h e t. A n d to believe in a pro p h e t m e a n s
to believe in his m e ssa g e , to a c c e p t the L a w which he g a v e a n d to follow
the C o d e o f C o n d u c t w hich he ta u g h t.
Thus the seco n d b a sic p o s tu la te o f l s l a m is to believe in the P r o p h e t­
h oo d o f M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be u p o n h im ), to a c c e p t the religion which
he p rese n te d a n d to follow his c o m m a n d s.
E v e r y p r o p h e t o f G o d , a c c o r d i n g to th e Q u r ’ a n , s t r o v e to b u i l d
m a n ’s re la tio n sh ip with G o d on the p rin cip le o f G o d ’s sovereignty a n d
th e a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f th e a u t h o r i t y o f th e p r o p h e t a s s o u r c e o f
d iv in e g u id a n c e . E v e r y o n e o f th e m s a id : ‘I a m to yo u G o d ’s a p o s tle ,
w orthy o f all trust. S o be c o m m it te d to G o d , fear H i m , a n d o b e y m e .’ 5
T h e G u i d a n c e is r e v e aled th rou g h the p roph ets. It is a p a r t o f their
m is sio n to t r a n s l a t e t h a t in to p r a c t i c e , in th e ir o w n lives a n d in the
society they try to reform . All the p ro p h e ts a r e re pre sen tative s o f G o d ,
b u t th e y a r e h u m a n b e in g s a n d th eir lives are m o d e ls for m a n k in d .
M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e b e u p o n h im ) is the last p r o p h e t a n d a s such the
final m o d e l for m a n k in d . T o believe in him m e a n s to a c c e p t his
a u t h o r i t y a s r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f th e S u p r e m e R u l e r a n d to fo llow his
e x a m p l e in t h o u g h t a n d b e h a v io u r . T h e c o d e o f b e h a v io u r , the law
w h ich is to d e c id e the rig h tn e ss o r otherw ise (halal a n d haram) o f things,
is g iv e n by G o d th ro u g h the p r o p h e t a n d is known a s the SharVah. B e lie f
in th e p r o p h e t in v o lv e s a c c e p t a n c e o f th e Sh ari'ah , th e P a t h , he h a s

4. al-Qur’an, 2: 30-39.

5. al-Qur’an, 26: 107-108; 110; 125-126; 121; 143-144; 150; 162-163; 178-179.
32 ISLAM: its m e a n in g a n d m essa g e

c o n v e y e d a n d to im p l e m e n t th a t in all w a lk s o f life. T h i s is h ow the

Will o f G o d is fulfilled on the e a r th .6 T h e Q u r ’a n said :

‘ E v e r y M e s s e n g e r w h o w a s sent by U s w as sent for the p u r p o se

th at he sh o u ld be ob e y e d u n d e r the san ctio n o f A l l a h .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n ,
4: 69).

A n d a b o u t the last p ro p h e t it is explicitly stated that:

‘N a y , O M u h a m m a d : by y o u r L o r d , they will not be believers

un til they a c c e p t yo u a s the final a r b it e r in all th eir d is p u t e s a n d
s u b m i t to y o u r d e cisio n w h o le -h e a r te d ly w ith o u t a n y h e a r ta c h e .'
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 4: 65).

T h e test o f a c c e p t a n c e o f G o d a n d H is p r o p h e t lies in c o n d u c t in g all

h u m a n a ffa irs in a c c o r d with the L a w revealed by them.

‘A n d those w h o d o not m a k e their d e cisio n s in a c c o r d a n c e with

t h a t r e v e a l e d b y A l l a h , th e y ( in f a c t ) a r e th e d i s b e l i e v e r s . ’
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 5: 44).

T h u s , b e lie f in G o d a n d H is p r o p h e t m e a n s c o m m i t m e n t to o b e y
them a n d to fa sh io n in d iv id u a l a n d co llec tiv e life in the light o f the
L a w a n d G u i d a n c e p ro v id e d by them.
T h is a u t o m a t ic a l ly raises the q u e stio n : W ou ld those w h o follow the
law a n d those w h o refuse to a c c e p t it or a b i d e by it be a t the s a m e level
o f e x i s t e n c e ? A r e th e y g o i n g to b e t r e a t e d in th e s a m e w a y or
differently? W h a t w o u ld be the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f d i f f e r in g a t t it u d e s a n d
b e h a v io u r s?
T h i s b r i n g s us to th e th ir d b a s i c p o s t u l a t e o f I s l a m : b e l ie f in th e
hereafter.
T h e w o r ld , a c c o r d in g to I sla m , is a p la c e o f trial a n d m a n is be in g
j u d g e d in it. H e will h av e to give a c c o u n t o f all that he d o e s herein. Life
on the e arth will, on e d a y , c o m e to a n e n d , a n d afte r (hat a new world
will be resurrected. It will be in this Life-after-death th at m a n will be
r e w a r d e d or p u n ish e d for his d e e d s a n d m isd ee d s. T h o s e w h o live in
the present w orld a life o f o b e d ie n c e to the L o r d will e n jo y e te rn a l bliss
in th e h e r e a ft e r a n d th ose w h o d is o b e y H is c o m m a n d s will h a v e to
g a rn e r the bitter fruits o f th eir d iso b ed ien c e. A c c o r d in g to the Q u r ’a n :

‘A n d every m a n ’s d e e d s h ave W e fastened a r o u n d his neck, a n d

6. Jesus, like other prophets, presented the same message. This is what he aims
at when he says: ‘Thy K in gdom come. Thy Will be done in earth, as it is in
heaven.’ New Testament, St. Matthew, 6: 10.
 ISL A M : BA SIC P R IN C IP L E S AND C H A R A C T E R IST IC S 33

on the d a y o f R e su rre ctio n will W e b r in g forth a b o ok w h ich sh all be

p r o ff e r e d to h im w id e o p e n : “ R e a d y o u r r e c o r d : T h i s d a y th ere
n eed b e n on e b u t y o u r s e lf to m a k e o u t a n a c c o u n t a g a in s t y o u . ” ’
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 17: 13-14).
‘ W h o so ev er will c o m e with a g o o d d e ed , for him there sh all be the
like o f it te n fo ld , w h ile w h o s o e v e r will c o m c w ith a n ill-d ee d , he
shall b e re q u ite d with o n ly on e like it, a n d they shall not be treated
u n ju stly .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 6: 160).

T h u s the b a sic article s o f I sla m ic faith a r e three, viz.:

(a) B e lie f in the U n it y o f G o d ;
(b) B e lief in the P ro p h e th o o d o f M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be u p o n h im )
a n d in the g u id a n c e w hich he b e q u e a t h e d ; a n d
(c) B e lie f in the L ife-after-d eath a n d in m a n ’s a c c o u n ta b ility b e ­
fore G o d on the D a y o f J u d g e m e n t .

W h o e v e r professes these beliefs is a M u slim . A n d all these c o n cep ts

are e p ito m ise d in the K alim a: ‘T h e r e is no G o d b u t A lla h ; M u h a m m a d
is H is P r o p h e t .’

I ll

S o m e B a s ic C h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f I sla m ic Id eo lo g y

G e o r g e B e r n a r d S h a w is repo rted to h av e s a i d :

‘I h av e a lw a y s held the religion o f M u h a m m a d in high e s t im a ­

tion b e c a u s e o f its w o n d e rfu l vitality. It is the only religion w hich
a p p e a r s to m e to possess th at a ss im ila tin g c a p a c it y to the c h a n g i n g
p h ase o f existen ce w hich c a n m a k e itself a p p e a l to every age . I h ave
stu d ie d h im — the w on derful m a n — a n d in m y o p in io n far from
be in g a n a n ti-C h rist, he m u st be called the S a v io u r o f I l u m a n ity . I
believe th a t if a m a n like h im were to a ss u m e the d ic ta to rs h ip o f the
m o d e r n w o rld , he w o u ld su cceed in solvin g its p r o b le m s in a w ay
that w ou ld b r in g it the m u c h n eed ed p e ac e a n d h a p p in e s s: I h ave
p ro p h e sied a b o u t the faith o f M u h a m m a d th at it w o u ld be a c c e p t ­
a b le to the E u r o p e o f to m orrow a s it is b e g in n in g to be a c c e p ta b l e to
the E u r o p e o f t o d a y .’ '

T h e q u e stio n is w h at are those ch a rac te ristics o f Islam w h ich h ave

7. G. B. Shaw, The Genuine Islam, Singapore, Vol. I, No. 8, 1936.

34 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G AND M E SSA G E

w o n m illio n s o f follow ers to the faith in the p a st a n d w hich m a k e it so

a p p e a l i n g to th e m o d e r n a g e ? S o m e o f the m a j o r c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f
I sla m a r e given in the fo llow in g page s.

1. S im p lic it y , R a t io n a li s m a n d P r a c tic a lism

I slam is a religion w ith o u t a n y m y th o lo g y . Its te a ch in g s a r e s im p le a n d
i n t e llig ib le . It is fre e fr o m s u p e r s t i t i o n s a n d ir r a t i o n a l b e lie fs. T h e
u n ity o f G o d , the p r o p h e th o o d o f M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be u p o n h im )
a n d th e c o n c e p t o f life - a fte r - d e a t h a r e the b a s ic a r t ic le s o f its fa ith .
T h e y a r e b a s e d on reason a n d s o u n d logic. All the te a ch in g s o f Islam
fo llow fr o m th o se b a s ic b e lie fs a n d a r e s im p le a n d s t r a ig h t f o r w a r d .
T h e r e is n o h ierarch y o f priests, n o far-fetched a b s tr a c tio n s , no c o m ­
p lic a te d rites a n d rituals. E v e r y b o d y m a y a p p r o a c h the Book o f G o d
directly a n d tra n s la te its d ic ta te s into practice.
I sla m a w a k e n s in m a n the fa cu lty o f reason a n d exh o rts him to use
his in telle ct. It e n jo i n s h im to see th in g s in th e lig h t o f re ality . T h e
Q u r ’a n a d v is e d m a n to p r a y : ‘O , m y L o r d ! A d v a n c e m e in k n o w le d g e ’
(20: 114). It asserts th a t those w h o h av e no k n o w le d ge a r e not e q u a l to
those w h o h av e (3 9 : 9); th a t those w h o d o not observe a n d u n d e r sta n d
are worse th a n ca ttle (7: P 179); th a t the m e a n in g s o f revelation b e co m e
m an ifest to those ‘w h o h av e k n o w le d g e ’ (6: 97) a n d ‘w h o h av e u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g ’ (6 : 9 8 ) ; th a t ‘w h o s o e v e r h a s been given k n o w le d g e in deed
has been g iven a n a b u n d a n t g o o d ’ (2: 2 6 9 ); th at b a s ic q u a lific a t io n s
for l e a d e r s h i p a r e , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , k n o w l e d g e a n d p h y s i c a l
stre n g th (2: 2 4 7 ) a n d th a t o f all th ings it is by virtue o f k n o w le d ge that
m a n is s u p e r i o r to a n g e l s a n d h a s been m a d e v i c e g e r e n t o f G o d on
e a rth (2: 30). T h e P r o p h e t o f I s la m said:

‘ H e w h o leaves his h o m e in search o f k n o w ledge w alks in the p a th

of G o d .’
‘T o seek k n o w ledge is o b liga to r)' for every M u s l i m . ’
‘A c q u ir e kn o w ledge, b e ca u se he w h o a c q u ir e s it in the w a y o f the
L o r d p e rfo r m s a n a c t o f p ie ty ; he w h o d is s e m in a te s it bestow s a lm s
a n d he w h o i m p a r t s it to o t h e r s p e r f o r m s a n a c t o f d e v o t i o n to
A ll a h .’
T h i s is how I sla m b rin g s m a n o u t o f the w orld o f su p e rstitio n a n d
d a r k n e ss a n d in itiates him into th a t o f k n o w led ge a n d light.
I’h en , I s la m is a p r a c t i c a l re lig io n a n d d o c s not in d u lg e in e m p t y
a n d fu t il e t h e o r is in g s . It s a y s th a t fa it h is not a m e r e p r o fe s s io n o f
beliefs; it is the very m a i n s p r in g o f life. R ig h t e o u s c o n d u c t m ust follow
 ISLA M : BA SIC P R IN C IP L E S AND C H A R A C T ER IST IC S 35

b elief in A llah . R elig io n is s o m e th in g to be lived, a n d n ot a n o b je ct o f

mere lip-scrvicc. T h e Q u r ’a n says:

‘T h o s e w h o b e lie v e a n d a c t r ig h te o u s ly , j o y is for th e m , a n d a
blissful h o m e to return to .’ (al Q u r ’a n , 13: 29).

A n d the P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e b e u p o n h im ) said:

‘G o d d o e s not a c c e p t belief, if it is not e x p re sse d in deeds, a n d does

not a c c e p t d e e d s, i f they d o not co n fo rm to belief.’

T h u s , Islam is a sim p le , r a tio n a l a n d p ra c tic a l religion.

2. U n ity o f M a t t e r a n d S p ir it
A u n i q u e fe a tu r e o f Islam is th at it d oes not d iv id e life into w ater-tight
c o m p a r t m e n t s o f m a t te r a n d spirit. It s ta n d s not for life-denial, b u t for
life-fulfilment. I sla m d o e s not believe in asceticism . It does not ask m a n
to a v o i d t h i n g s m a t e r i a l . It h o l d s t h a t s p i r i t u a l e l e v a t i o n is to be
a ch ie v e d by living p io u sly in the r o u g h a n d tu m b le o f life a n d not by
r e n o u n c in g the w orld. T h e Q u r ’a n a d v ise s us to p ra y a s follows:

‘O u r L o r d ! G i v e us th e g o o d in th is w o rld a n d th e g o o d in the
h ere a fte r.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 2: 201).

A lla h stro n g ly ce n su res those w h o refuse to benefit from H is bles­

sings. T h e Q u r ’a n says:
‘S a y ( to t h e m ) : B y w h ose o r d e r h a v e you d e n ie d y o u r s e l f those
a m e n i t i e s w h ich G o d h a s c r e a t e d for H i s p e o p le a n d th o se g o o d
th in g s to ca t a n d use (w hich H e h as m a d e for y o u ) ? ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 7:
32).

I s l a m ’s in ju n ctio n is: ‘E a t a n d drin k, bu t d o not exceed (the lim its o f

m o d e r a tio n a n d d e c e n c y ) ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 7 :3 1 ) .
T h e H o ly P r o p h e t sa id :

‘ A M u s l i m w h o liv e s in th e m i d s t o f s o c i e t y a n d b e a r s w ith
p a tie n ce the affliction s th at c o m e to h im is b etter th a n the on e w h o
sh u n s society a n d c a n n o t b e a r a n y w ro n g d o n e to h im .’
H e said :
‘K e e p fast a n d bre a k it (at the p r o p e r tim e) a n d s ta n d in p ra y er
a n d d e v o tio n (in the n ig h t) a n d h av e sleep — for your b o d y h as its
rights ov er you, a n d y o u r eyes rights ov er you, a n d your wife h as a
c la im u p o n you, a n d the person who p a y s a visit to you has a claim
u p o n y o u .’
36 IS L A M : ITS M EA N IN G AN D M E S S A G E

O n a n o th e r o c c a sio n he s a id :

‘T h e s e three th in g s also are e n join ed u p o n the faithful:

( a ) to h elp others, even w h en on e is e co n o m ica lly h ard -p re sse d ;
(b ) to p r a y a r d e n tly for the p e ac e o f all m a n k in d ; a n d
(c) to a d m in is te r ju s t ic e to o n e ’s ow n self.’

Thus I s la m d o e s n ot a d m i t a n y s e p a r a tio n betw een ‘m a t e r i a l ’ a n d

‘m o r a l ’, ‘ m u n d a n e ’ a n d ‘s p ir it u a l ’ life a n d enjoins m a n to d e v o te all his
en erg ies to the recon structio n o f life on h ealth y m o r a l fo u n d a tio n s. It
teach es h im th a t m o r a l a n d m a te ria l pow ers m ust be w elded together
a n d sp ir itu a l sa lv a tio n c a n be a ch ie v e d by u sin g m a t e r ia l resources for
the g o o d o f m a n in the service o f j u s t e n d s , a n d not by living a life o f
asceticism o r by ru n n in g a w a y from the ch a llen g e s o f life.
T h e w orld h as suffered at the h a n d s o f t h e ‘ b r illia n t’ on e-sidedn ess o f
m a n y a religion a n d ideology. S o m e h av e laid e m p h a s i s on the spiri­
tu a l s id e o f life b u t h a v e ig n o r e d its m a t e r ia l a n d m u n d a n e a sp e c ts.
T h e y h av e looked u p o n the w orld a s a n illusion, a d e ce p tio n a n d a trap.
O n the oth er h a n d m aterialistic ideologies h av e to tally ig n ored the
s p ir itu a l a n d m o ra l side o f life a n d h av e d ism isse d it a s fictitious a n d
im a g in a r y . B o th these a tt itu d e s h av e spelt disaster. T h e y h a v e r o b b e d
m a n k in d o f p e a c e , c o n te n tm e n t a n d tran q u ility. E v e n to d a y the im ­
b a l a n c e is m a n i f e s t in on e o r th e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n . D r . D e B r o g b i , a
Fren ch s cien tist, righ tly says:

‘ l l i e d a n g e r inherent in to o intense a m a t e r ia l c iv iliz a tio n is to

th at civilizatio n itself; it is the d is e q u ilib r iu m which w ou ld result if
a p a ralle l d e v e lo p m e n t o f the s p iritu a l life were to fail to p ro v id e the
n eeded b a l a n c e .’

C h r is t i a n i t y e rre d on on e e x t r e m e ; the M o d e r n W estern C i v i liz a ­

tion, in both o f its v a r ia n t s o f secu la r c a p ita listic d e m o c r a c y a n d M a r ­
xist s o c ia lism , h as erred on the other. A c c o r d in g to L o r d S n e ll:
‘W e h a v e b u ilt a n o b ly p ro p o r tio n e d o u te r s tru c tu re , b u t we h ave
neglected the essen tial r e q u irem e n t o f a n inner ord e r; we h ave c a r e ­
fully d e sig n e d , d e c o r a te d a n d m a d e clean the o u ts id e o f the c u p ; but
the in s id e w a s fu ll o f e x t o r t i o n a n d e x c e s s ; w e u s e d o u r i n c r e a s e d
kn ow ledge a n d p o w e r to a d m in is te r to the c o m fo rts o f the b o d y , bu t we
left the spirit im p o v e r ish e d .’11
Isla m a i m s a t e sta b lish in g a n e q u ilib riu m between these tw o a sp e cts
o f life — the m a te r ia l a n d the s p iritu a l. It says th at e v e ry th in g in the
8. Lord Snell, The New World, London: Watts & Co., 1947, p. 11.
 ISLA M : BA SIC P R IN C IP L E S AND C H A R A C T ER IST IC S 37

w orld is for m a n — b u t m a n h im se lf is for the service o f a h igh er p u r ­

pose: the e st a b lish m e n t o f a m o ra l a n d j u s t o rd e r so a s to fulfil the Will
o f G o d . Its t e a c h i n g s c a t e r for th e s p i r i t u a l a s well a s th e t e m p o r a l
n eeds o f m a n . I sla m enjoins m a n to p urify his soul a n d a ls o to reform
his d a ily life — bo th in d iv id u a l a n d collective — a n d to estab lish the
s u p r e m a c y o f rig h t o v e r m i g h t a n d o f v ir tu e o v e r vice. T h u s I s la m
s ta n d s for the m id d le p a t h a n d the g o a l o f p r o d u c in g a m o ra l m a n in
the service o f a j u s t society.

3. A C o m p l e t e W a y o f L ife
I s l a m is n o t a r e lig io n in th e c o m m o n , d i s t o r t e d m e a n i n g o f the
w ord, co n fin in g its sco p e to the p r iv ate life o f m a n . It is a c o m p le te w ay
o f life, c a t e r i n g for all the fields o f h u m a n existen ce. I s la m p ro v id e s
g u i d a n c e fo r a ll w a lk s o f life — in d i v i d u a l a n d s o c ia l, m a t e r i a l a n d
m o ra l, e c o n o m ic a n d p olitical, legal a n d cu ltu r a l, n a tio n a l a n d inter­
n a tio n a l. T h e Q u r ’a n e n jo in s m a n to e n te r the fold o f I sla m w ith o u t
an y reservation a n d to follow G o d ’s g u id a n c e in all fields o f life .4
In fa c t it w a s a n u n f o r t u n a t e d a y w h en the s c o p e o f re lig io n w as
con fin ed to the p r iv a t e life o f m a n a n d its social a n d cu ltu ra l role w as
re d u ce d to n a u g h t . N o o th er fa cto r has, p e rh a p s, been m ore im p o rtan t
in c a u s in g the declin e o f religion in the m o d e rn a g e th a n its retreat into
the re alm o f the p riv ate life. In the w o rd s o f a m o d e rn ph ilosop h er:

‘ R e lig io n a sk s us to s e p a r a te th in g s o f G o d from those o f C a e sa r.

S u c h a ju d icial s e p a r a tio n betw een the two m e a n s the d e g r a d in g o f
both the s e c u la r a n d the sa c re d . . . T h a t religion is w orth little, if the
c o n s c i e n c e o f its fo llo w e r s is not d i s t u r b e d w h en w a r c l o u d s a r e
h a n g i n g o v e r us all a n d in d u st r ia l co n flicts a re th r e a t e n i n g social
p e ac e. R e l ig io n h as w e a k e n e d m a n ’s social c o n scien ce a n d m o ra l
sensitivity by s e p a r a t in g the th in g s o f G o d from those o f C a e s a r . ’

I s la m to ta lly d e n o u n c e s this c o n c e p t o f religion a n d cle a r ly s ta te s

th at its o b je c t iv e s a r e p u rifica tio n o f the soul a n d the reform a n d the
re con stru ctio n o f the society. S a y s the Q u r ’a n :

‘ W e verily se n t O u r m e sse n g e r s with c le a r p ro o fs a n d re vealed

with th e m the S c r ip tu r e a n d the B a la n c e (i.e. the a u th o r ity to e s t a ­
b lish j u s t i c e ) , t h a t m a n k i n d m a y o b s e r v e j u s t i c e a n d the r ig h t
m e a s u r e ; a n d H e r e v e a l e d iro n (i.e . c o e r c i v e p o w e r ) w h e re in is
m ig h ty p ow e r a n d m a n y uses for m a n k in d a n d th at A lla h m a y see

9. al-Qur’an, 2: 208.
38 IS L A M : ITS M EA N IN G AN D M E SSA G E

w h o h e lp s H i m a n d H is M e s s e n g e r th r o u g h u n se e n .' ( a l - Q u r ’an,
57: 25).
‘T h e c o m m a n d is for n o n e b u t A ll a h ; H e h a s c o m m a n d e d th a t
you o b e y non e bu t H i m ; th at is the right p a t h . ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 12: 40).
‘ ( M u s l i m s a r e ) th o s e w h o if W e g iv e th e m p o w e r in th e l a n d ,
e stab lish (th e system of) S alat (p ray e rs a n d w orship ) a n d Zakal (poo r
d u e ) a n d e n jo in virtu e a n d forbid vice a n d e v il.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 22: 41).

T h e H o ly P r o p h e t sa id :

‘E v e r y o n e o f you is a keeper or a sh ep h erd a n d will be qu e stion e d

a b o u t th e w e ll- b e in g o f his fold. S o , the H e a d o f th e S t a t e will be
q u e st io n e d a b o u t the w ell-bein g o f the p e o p le o f the S t a t e . E v ery
m a n is a s h e p h e r d to his fa m ily a n d will be a n sw e ra b le a b o u t every
m e m b e r o f it. E v e r y w o m a n is a s h e p h erd to the fa m ily o f her h u s­
b a n d a n d will b e a c c o u n t a b l e for e v e ry m e m b e r o f it. A n d every
se rv an t is a s h e p h e r d to his m a s te r a n d will be q u e stio n e d a b o u t the
p ro p e rty o f his m a s t e r .’

T h u s e ve n a cu rso ry s tu d y o f the te a ch in g s o f I sla m show s th at it is a n

a ll - e m b r a c i n g w a y o f life a n d d o e s not lea v e o u t a n y field o f h u m a n
e xistence to b e c o m e a p la y g r o u n d for s a ta n ic forces.1"

4. B a l a n c e b e tw e e n th e I n d i v id u a l a n d S o ciety
A n o t h e r u n i q u e f e a t u r e o f I s l a m is t h a t it e s t a b l i s h e s a b a l a n c e
b etw een in d i v id u a l is m a n d c o llec tiv ism . It believes in the in d iv id u a l
p e rso n a lity o f m a n a n d h o ld s ev e ry o n e p e rson ally a c c o u n t a b l e to G o d .
It g u a r a n t e e s th e f u n d a m e n t a l rig h ts o f the in d i v id u a l a n d d o e s not
p e rm it a n y one to t a m p e r with them . It m a k e s the p r o p e r d e v e lo p m e n t
o f th e p e rso n a lity o f m a n on e o f the p rim e ob je ctive s o f its e d u c a tio n a l
policy. It d o e s not su b sc r ib e to the view th a t m a n m u st lose his in d iv i­
d u a lity in society or in the state.
A c c o r d in g to the Q u r ’a n :

‘ M a n shall h av e n o th in g bu t w h at he strives fo r.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 53:

39).
10. Fora rnorc thorough study of different aspects of the Islamic way of life see:
Mawdudi, Abul A ‘la, Islamic Law and Constitution (Lahore: Islamic Publica­
tions L td., 1960); M aw d u d i, Islamic Way o f Life, Lah ore, 1967; Khurshid
A hm ad (editor), Studies in the Family Law of Islam, K arachi, i960; Khurshid
Ahmad, Family Life in Islam, Leicester: Islamic Foundation, 1974;Siddiqui, M.
iN., Some Aspects of the Islamic Economy, Lahore, 1970; Chapra, M. U., Economic
System of Islam, Karachi: University of Karachi, 1971.
 I S L A M ; BA SIC P R IN C IP L E S AND C H A R A C T ER IST IC S 39

‘A n d w h a t e v e r s u f f e r in g ye su ffe r, it is w h a t y o u r h a n d s h a v e
w r o u g h t.’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 42: 30).
‘G o d d o e s n ot c h a n g e th e c o n d itio n o f a p e o p le un less they first
c h a n g e th a t w hich is in their h e a rts.’ ( a l- Q u r 'a n , 13: 11).
‘F o r e a c h is th a t w hich he h as e a r n e d a n d a g a in s t e ac h is only that
w hich he h a s d e se r v e d .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 2: 286).
‘F o r us are o u r d e e d s a n d for yo u are yours.' ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 28: 55).

O n the oth er h a n d , it a ls o a w a k e n s a sense o f social respon sibility in

m a n , o r g a n ise s h u m a n bein gs in a society a n d a s ta te a n d e n jo in s the
in d iv id u al to su b sc r ib e to the social g oo d. P rayer, in I sla m , is offered in
c o n g r e g a t io n w h ich in c u lc a te s social d iscip lin e a m o n g the M u slim s .
E v e r y o n e is e n j o i n e d t o p a y Z ak at a n d it h a s b e e n la id d o w n in the
Q u r ’a n th a t: ‘T h e alm -seeker a n d the d e stitu te h ave their d u e righ ts in
their w e a lth .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 51: 19).
Jih a d h a s b e e n m a d e o b li g a t o r y , w h ich m e a n s th a t the in d iv id u a l
sh o u ld , w h en the occasion arises, offer even his life for the defen ce a n d
p rotection o f Islam a n d the Islam ic state. T h e H o ly P ro p h e t said:

‘All m a n k in d is a fold every m e m b e r o f w hich shall be a k e e p er or

s h e p h e rd u n t o every oth er, a n d he a c c o u n ta b le for th e entire fo ld .’
‘ L iv e together, d o not turn a g a in s t e a c h other, m a k e th ings e asy
for oth ers a n d d o not p u t o b sta c le s in e ach o t h e r ’s w a y .’
‘H e is not a believer w h o ta k e s his fill while his n e ig h b o u r sta rv e s.’
‘T h e b e l i e v e r in G o d is he w h o is n o t a d a n g e r to the life a n d
p ro p e rty o f a n y o th e r .’

In short, I sla m n eith e r n eglects the in d iv id u a l nor society — it e s t a ­

blishes a h a r m o n y a n d a b a la n c e betw een the tw o a n d a ssig n s to e ac h
its p r o p e r d u e . "

11. It might be worthwhile to recall here what the late Professor H. A. R. Gibb
said some time ago:
‘W ithin the Western world Islam still m ain tain s the balan ce between
e x a g g e r a te d o p p o site s. O p p o s e d e q u ally to the a n a r c h y o f E u ro p ea n
nationalism and the regimentation of R ussian comm unism , it has not yet
succumbed to that obsession with the economic side of life which is character­
istic of present-day Europe and present-day Russia alike. Its social ethic has
been admirably summed up by Professor Massignon: “ Islam has the merit of
standing for a very equalitarian conception of the contribution of each citizen
by the tithe to the resources o f the com m unity; it is hostile to unrestricted
exchange, to banking capital, to state loans, to indirect taxes on objects of
prime necessity, but it holds to the rights of the father and the husband, to
private property, and to commercial capital. Here again it occupies an inter-
40 ISL A M : ITS M EA N IN G AND M E SSA G E

5. U n iv e r s a lit y a n d H u m a n i s m
T h e m e s s a g e o f Islam is for the entire h u m a n race. G o d , in I sla m , is the
G o d o f all the w orld ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 1 : 1 ) a n d the P r o p h e t is a M esse n g er
for the w hole o f m a n k in d . In the w o rd s o f the Q u r ’a n :

‘O p e o p le ! I a m the M e s se n g e r o f G o d to you a ll.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 7:

158).
‘O n e w h o c o m e s a s a w a r n in g to all the n a tio n s.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 25:
1) a n d ‘W e h av e n ot sent thee bu t a s a (source o f ) m ercy for all the
n a tio n s ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 21: 107).

In Islam all m en a r e e q u a l, w h atev er b e their co lo ur, l a n g u a g e , race

o r n a tio n ality . I s la m a d d r e s se s itse lf to the con scien ce o f h u m a n ity a n d
b a n ish es all false b a rrie rs o f race, s ta tu s a n d w ealth. 'H iere c a n be no
d e n y in g the fact th a t su ch b a rrie rs h a v e a lw a y s e x isted , a n d d o exist
even t o d a y in this so-called e n lig h te n e d a g e . I sla m re m o v e s all these
im p e d im e n t s a n d p r o c la im s the id e a o f the w hole o f h u m a n i t y being
one fa m ily o f G o d .
T h e H o ly P r o p h e t said:

‘All c r e a t u r e s o f G o d fo rm the fa m il y o f G o d a n d he is th e best

loved o f G o d w h o loveth best H is c r e a tu re s.’
‘ O L o r d ! L o r d o f m y life a n d o f e v e r y t h i n g in th e u n i v e r s e ! I
affirm th at all h u m a n b e in g s a r e broth ers to on e a n o th e r .’
‘ R e s p e c t G o d a n d be affe ction a te to the fa m ily o f G o d . ’

I s l a m is i n t e r n a t i o n a l in its o u t l o o k a n d a p p r o a c h a n d d o e s n ot
a d m i t b a rriers a n d d istin ctio n s b a se d on co lo ur, c lan , bloo d or terri-

mediateposition between thedoctrinesofbourgcoiscapitalism and Bolshevist

communism.”
‘But Islam has a still further service to render to the cause of humanity. It
stands after all nearer to the real Last than Europe does, and it possesses a
magnificent tradition o f inter-racial understanding and co-operation. No
other society has such a record of success in uniting in an equality of status, of
opportunity, and of endeavour so many and so various races of mankind . . .
Islam has still the power to reconcile apparently irreconcilable elements of
race and tradition. If ever the opposition of the great societies of East and West
is to be replaced by co-operation, the mediation of Islam is an indispensable
condition. In its hands lies very largely the solution of the problem with which
Europe is faced in its relation with the East. If they unite, the hope of a peaceful
issue is immeasurably enhanced. But if Europe, by rejecting the co-operation
of Islam, throws it into the arms of its rivals, the issue can only be disastrous for
both.” ’ H. A. R. Gibb, Whither Islam, London, 1932, p. 379.
 ISL A M : BA SIC P R IN C IP L E S AND C H A R A C T E R IST IC S 41

lory su ch a s were prev a le n t before the a d v e n t o f M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be

u p o n h i m ) a n d w h ic h a r c r a m p a n t in d if f e r e n t f o r m s e v e n in this
m o d e rn age . It w a n ts to un ite the entire h u m a n ra ce u n d e r on e ban n er.
T o a w orld torn b y n a tio n a l rivalries a n d feuds, it presen ts a m e ssag e o f
life a n d h o p e a n d o f a glo riou s future.
H isto rian T o y n b e e h as s o m e interesting o b se r v a tio n s to m a k e in this
respect. In Civilization on T rial he writes:
‘T w o c o n s p ic u o u s s o u r c e s o f d a n g e r — o n e p s y c h o lo g ic a l a n d the
oth er m a t e r ia l in the presen t relation s o f this c o sm o p o lita n p role ­
ta ria t (i.e. w estern ised h u m a n i t y ) with the d o m i n a n t e le m e n t in o u r
m o d e rn W este rn society a r e race co n sciousn ess a n d a lco h o l; a n d in the
s tr u g g le with e a c h o f these evils the Islam ic spirit h a s a service to render
w hich m ig h t prove, if it were a c c e p te d , to be o f high m o ra l a n d social
v alue.
‘T h e e x tin ctio n o f race co n sciou sn ess a s betw een M u s l im s is on e o f
the o u t s t a n d i n g m o ra l a c h ie v e m e n ts o f Islam , a n d in the c o n t e m p o ­
rary w o rld there is, a s it h a p p e n s , a cry in g need for the p r o p a g a t io n o f
this I sla m ic virtue . . . It is c o n c e iv a b le th at the spirit o f I sla m m ig h t be
th e tim e ly r e in fo r c e m e n t w h ich w o u ld d e c id e this issue in fa v o u r o f
to le ra n c e a n d peace.
‘A s for the evil o f a lco h o l, it is at its worst a m o n g p rim itiv e p o p u l a ­
tion s in t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s w h ic h h a v e b e e n “ o p e n e d u p ” by W e ste rn
enterprise . . . the fact r e m a in s th a t even the m o st s ta te sm a n lik e p re ­
v e n t i v e m e a s u r e s i m p o s e d by e x t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y a r e i n c a p a b l e o f
lib e r a tin g a c o m m u n i t y from a social vice unless a desire for liberation
a n d a will to c a rry this desire into v o lu n ta ry actio n on its ow n p a r t are
a w a k e n e d in the h e a r ts o f the p e o p le c o n ccrn cd . N o w W estern a d m i ­
n is tr a to r s, a t a n y ra te those o f “ A n g l o - S a x o n ” o rig in , a r e spiritually-
isolated from their “ n a tiv e ” w a r d s by the p h y sical “ c o lo u r b a r ” which
their race-con scio u sn css sets u p ; the conversion o f the n a tiv e s ’ souls is a
task to w hich their c o m p e te n c e c a n h a r d ly be e x p e c t e d to e x t e n d ; a n d
it is a t this p o in t th at Islam m a y h av e a part to play.
‘In these recen tly a n d r a p id ly “ o p e n e d u p ” tro p ic a l territories, the
W estern civ iliz a tio n h as p r o d u c e d a n e c o n o m ic a n d p olitical p le n u m
a n d , in the s a m e b r e a th , a social a n d sp iritu a l void . . .
‘ H e r e , th e n in th e f o r e g r o u n d o f the f u t u r e , w e c a n r e m a r k tw o
v a l u a b l e in flu e n c e s w h ich I s la m m a y e x e r t u p o n th e c o s m o p o l i t a n
p ro le ta riat o f a W estern society th at h as ca st its net a r o u n d the world
a n d e m b r a c e d the w hole o f m a n k in d ; while in the m o r e d is ta n t future
42 ISL A M : ITS M EA N IN G AND M E SSA G E

we m a y s p e c u la te on the possible c o n trib u tio n s o f Islam to som e new

m a n ife s ta tio n o f relig io n .” 2

6. P e r m a n e n c e a n d C h a n g e
T h e e le m e n t s o f p e r m a n e n c e a n d c h a n g e co -ex ist in h u m a n society
a n d c u l t u r e a n d a r c b o u n d to r e m a i n so. D i ffe r e n t i d e o l o g ie s a n d
c u ltu ra l s y stem s h a v e e rred in lean in g heavily to w ard s a n y on e o f these
e n d s o f th e e q u a t io n . T o o m u c h e m p h a s i s on p e r m a n e n c e m ak es the
system rigid a n d rob s it o f flexibility a n d progress; while lack o f p e r ­
m a n e n t v a lu e s a n d u n c h a n g in g e le m e n ts g e n e r a te m o r a l re lativ ism ,
sh a p e le ssn e ss a n d a n a r c h y . W h a t is n ee d e d is a b a l a n c e betw een the
tw o — a sy ste m th a t c o u ld s im u l t a n e o u s ly c a t e r for the d e m a n d s o f
p e rm an en c e an d ch an ge. An A m eric an ju d g e M r. Ju s t ic e C a rd o z o
rightly says: ‘th at the greatest need o f o u r tim e is a p h ilo so p h y th a t will
m e d ia te betw een co n flictin g c la im s o f sta b ility a n d p rogress an d
s u p p l y a p r i n c i p l e o f g r o w t h . ” 3 I s l a m p r e s e n t s a n id e o l o g y w h ich
satisfies the d e m a n d s o f s ta b ility a s well a s o f ch an ge.
D e e p e r reflection reveals th at life h as within it e le m e n ts o f p e r m a n ­
ence a n d c h a n g e — n eith er is it so rigid a n d inflexible th a t it c a n n o t
a d m i t o f a n y c h a n g e even in m a tte r s o f d e ta il n o r is it so flexible a n d
fluid th a t e ve n its d is tin c tiv e tra its h a v e n o p e r m a n e n t c h a r a c t e r o f
their ow n. T h i s b e co m e s cle a r from o b se rvin g the process o f p h ysiolo­
g ic a l c h a n g e in the h u m a n b o d y : every tissue o f the b o d y c h a n g e s a
n u m b e r o f tim e s in o n e ’s life-tim e, b u t the person re m a in s the sam e .
L e a v e s, flowers, a n d fruits o f a tree c h a n g e , bu t the c h a r a c te r o f the tree
r e m a in s u n c h a n g e d . It is a law o f life th at e le m e n ts o f p e rm a n e n c e a n d
c h a n g e m ust co-exist in a h a r m o n io u s e q u a t io n . O n l y th a t sy stem o f
life c a n c a te r for all the c r a v in g s o f h u m a n n a tu re a n d all the n eeds o f
society w hich c a n p ro v id e for bo th these elem en ts. T h e b a sic p r o b le m s
o f life re m a in the s a m e in all a g e s a n d clim es, bu t the w ay s a n d m e a n s
to solve th e m a n d the te ch n iq u e s o f h a n d lin g the p h e n o m e n o n u n ­
d e r g o c h a n g e w ith the p a s s a g e o f tim e. I s la m b r i n g s to fo c u s a new
p ersp ective on this p r o b le m a n d tries to solve it in a realistic way.
T h e Q u r ’a n a n d the Sunnah co n ta in the e te rn a l g u id a n c e g iven by
the L o r d o f the universe. T h i s g u id a n c e c o m e s fro m G o d W'ho is free
from the lim ita tio n s o f ‘s p a c e ’ a n d ‘t i m e ’ a n d a s such the prin ciples o f

12. Arnold J . Toynbee, Civilization on Tnal, London, 1957, pp. 205-299 (See
also pp. 87-88).

13. Justice Cardozo, 37, Harvard Imw Review, p. 279.

 ISL A M : BA SIC P R IN C IP L E S AND C H A R A C T ER IST IC S 43

in d iv id u a l a n d social b e h a v io u r revealed b y H i m a r e b a se d on reality

a n d a r e e te r n a l. B u t G o d h a s r e v e aled o n ly b r o a d p r in c ip le s a n d h as
e n d o w e d m a n with the fre ed o m to a p p ly th e m in every a g e in the w ay
su ited to the sp irit a n d c o n d itio n s o f th a t age . It is th rou g h the Ijtihad
th a t p e o p le o f every a g e try to im p le m e n t a n d a p p ly div in e g u id a n c e to
the p r o b le m s o f th eir tim es. T h u s the b a sic g u id a n c e is o f a p e rm a n e n t
n a tu r e , while the m e th o d o f its a p p lic a t io n ca n c h a n g e in a c c o r d a n c e
with the p e c u l ia r n eeds o f every age . T h a t is why I sla m a lw a y s re m a in s
a s fresh a n d m o d e r n a s to m o r r o w ’s m orn.

7. C o m p l e t e R e c o r d o f T e a c h i n g s P r e se r v e d
L a s t , b u t n ot lea st, is th e fact th at the te a c h in g s o f I s la m h a v e been
p r e s e r v e d in t h e ir o r i g i n a l fo r m a n d G o d ’s G u i d a n c e is a v a i l a b l e
w itho ut a d u l t e r a t io n o f a n y kind. T h e Q u r ’a n is the revealed book o f
G o d w h ich h a s been in e xiste n c e for the last fo u rte e n h u n d r e d years
a n d t h e W o r d o f G o d is a v a i l a b l e in its o r i g i n a l f o r m . D e t a i l e d
a c c o u n ts o f the life o f the P ro p h e t o f Islam a n d his te a c h in g s a r c a v a i l ­
a b l e in th eir p ris tin e p u rity. T h e r e h as not been a n io ta o f c h a n g e in
this u n i q u e historic record. T h e say in g s a n d the entire record o f the life
o f the H o ly P r o p h e t h av e been h a n d e d d o w n to us with u n p r e c e d e n te d
precision a n d a u t h e n tic ity in works o f the Hadith a n d the Sirah. Ev en a
n u m b e r o f n o n - M u s lim critics a d m i t this e lo q u en t fact. Professor
R e y n o ld A . N ich o lso n in his Literary History o f the Arabs says:

‘T h e K o r a n is a n e x c e e d in g ly h u m a n d o c u m e n t , reflecting every
p h a s e o f M u h a m m a d ’s r e la t io n s h ip to th e o u t w a r d e v e n ts o f his
life; s o th a t there we h a v e m a t e r i a l s o f u n i q u e a n d in c o n te st a b le
a u t h o r i t y fo r t r a c i n g th e o r i g i n a n d e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t o f I s la m
s u c h m a t e r i a l s a s d o n ot e x ist in th e c a s e o f B u d d h i s m o r C h r i s t ­
ia n ity or a n y o th er an cien t re lig io n .’ 14

T h e se a r e s o m e o f th e u n i q u e f e a t u r e s o f I s l a m a n d e s t a b l i s h its
c r e d e n t i a l s a s th e r e lig io n o f m a n — th e r e lig io n o f t o d a y a n d th e
r e lig io n o f t o m o r r o w . T h e s e a s p e c t s h a v e a p p e a l e d to h u n d r e d s o f
t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p le in the p a st a n d the present a n d h av e m a d e them
affirm th at Islam is the religion o f truth a n d the right p a th for m a n ­
k in d ; a n d this will c o n tin u e to a p p e a l to th e m in the future. M e n with
p u re h ea rts a n d sincere lo n g in g for truth will a lw a y s c o n tin u e to say:

.14. Nicholson, R. A., Literary History of the Arabs, Cambridge, p. 143.

44 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G A N D M E S S A G E

‘I affirm th at there is n o n e w orth y o f w orship e xcept A lla h , that

H e is O n e , s h a r i n g H i s a u t h o r i t y w ith no o n e ; a n d I a ffir m th a t
M u h a m m a d is H is se r v an t a n d H is P r o p h e t.’
 3

The Spirit o f Isla m *

M u h a m m a d A sad

O N E o f the s lo g a n s m ost c h a rac te ristic o f the presen t a g e is ‘the c o n ­

qu e st o f s p a c e .’ M e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t io n h ave been d e v e lo p e d which
are fa r b e y o n d the d r e a m s o f fo rm e r g e n e r a tio n s; a n d these new m e a n s
h av e se t in m o t io n a f a r m o re r a p i d a n d e x t e n s iv e t r a n s fe r o f g o o d s
t h a n e v e r b e f o r e w it h in th e h is t o r y o f m a n k i n d . T h e r e s u lt o f this
d e v e lo p m e n t is a n e c o n o m i c in t e r - d e p e n d e n c e o f n a tio n s. N o sin gle
n a tio n or g r o u p c a n to d a y a ffo rd to r e m a in a l o o f fro m the rest o f the
w orld. E c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t h as ce ase d to be local. Its c h a r a c te r has
b e c o m e w orld-w ide. It ignores, at least in its ten dency, political b o u n ­
d a r ie s a n d g e o g r a p h ic a l dista n ce s. It carries with itself — a n d possibly
this is e ve n m o re im p o r t a n t th an the p urely m a te r ia l side o f the p r o ­
b lem the ev e r-in cre asin g necessity o f a tran sfer not only o f m e r­
c h a n d is e b u t a ls o o f th o u g h ts a n d c u ltu r a l values. Bu t w hile those two
forces, the e c o n o m ic a n d the cu ltu r a l, often go h a n d in h a n d , there is a
d ifferen ce in their d y n a m i c rules. T h e e le m e n ta r y law s o f e c o n o m ic s
r e q u ir e th a t the e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s betw een n a t io n s be m u t u a l ; this
m e a n s th a t n o n a t i o n c a n a c t a s b u y e r o n ly w h ile a n o t h e r n a tio n is
a l w a y s s e l le r in th e lo n g r u n , e a c h o f t h e m m u s t p l a y b o t h p a r t s
s im u lta n e o u s ly , g iv in g to, a n d ta k in g from , e ac h other, be it directly or
th ro u g h the m e d i u m o f o th er a c to r s in the p la y o f e c o n o m ic forces. But
in the c u lt u r a l field this iron rule o f e x c h a n g e is n ot a necessity, a t least
not a lw a y s a visible on e, th at is to say, the tran sfer o f id e a s a n d c u ltu ra l
influences is not n ecessarily b a se d on the p rin ciple o f g iv e a n d take. It
* This chapter is taken from M uh am m ad A sad’s Islam at the Crossroads, Lahore:
Arafat Publications, 1969, pp. 7-31.
46 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

lies in h u m a n n a tu r e th at n a tio n s a n d civilization s, w hich a re politi­

c a lly a n d e c o n o m ic a lly m o re virile, exert a stro n g fa s c in a tio n on the
w eaker or less activ e c o m m u n itie s a n d influence th e m in the intellec­
tual a n d social spheres w ith o u t be in g influenced them selves.
S u c h is the situ a tio n to d a y w ith regard to the relatio n s betw een the
W estern a n d the M u s l im worlds.
F r o m the view poin t o f the historical ob server the s tron g , one-sided
influence w hich W estern civilization at present exerts on the M u slim
w orld is n ot a t all su rp risin g , b e ca u se it is the o u tc o m e o f a lon g historic
process for w hich there a re several a n a lo g ie s elsewhere. B u t w hile the
h istorian m a y be satisfied, for us the p r o b le m r e m a in s unsettled. F o r us
w h o a r e n ot m e r e in t e r e st e d s p e c t a t o r s , b u t v e ry re al a c t o r s in this
d r a m a ; for us w h o re g a rd ourselves a s the follow ers o f P rop h et
M u h a m m a d (p e a c e a n d blessin gs be u p o n h im ) the p ro b le m in reality
b e g in s here. W e believe th at Isla m , unlike other religions, is n ot on ly a
s p iritu a l a t t it u d e o f m in d , a d ju s t a b le to different c u ltu r a l settin gs, but
a self-sufficin g o r b it o f c u lt u r e a n d a social sy ste m o f c le a rly defin ed
features. W h e n , a s is the c a se to d a y , a foreign civ iliz a tio n e x t e n d s its
r a d ia tio n s into o u r m idst a n d ca u s e s certain c h a n g e s in ou r ow n c u l ­
tu ral o r g a n is m , we a r e b o u n d to m a k e it clear to ourselves w h ether that
foreign influence ru n s in the direction o f o u r ow n c u ltu ra l possibilities
or a g a in s t th e m ; w h eth e r it a cts a s a n in v ig o ra tin g se ru m in the b o d y o f
I sla m ic cu ltu r e , or a s a poison.
A n a n sw e r to this q u e stio n can be fo u n d th rou g h a n aly sis only. Wre
h ave to d isco ve r the m o tiv e forces o f both civilizatio n s — the Islam ic
a n d t h a t o f th e m o d e r n W'est a n d th e n to i n v e s t i g a t e h o w f a r a
c o -o p e ra tio n is p o ssib le betw een th em . A n d a s I sla m ic c iv iliz a tio n is
essentially a religious one, we m u st, first o f all, try to define the gen eral
role o f religion in h u m a n life.

R e lig io n a n d H u m a n L ife
W h a t we c a ll the ‘re lig io u s a t t i t u d e ’ is the n a tu r a l o u tc o m e o f m a n ’s
in telle ctu a l a n d b io lo g ica l co n stitu tio n . M a n is u n a b l e to e x p la in to
h im se lf the m ystery o f life, the m ystery o f birth a n d d e a t h , the m ystery
o f infinity a n d eternity. H is re aso n in g sto p s before im p r e g n a b le walls.
H e c a n , t h e r e f o r e , d o tw o t h i n g s o n l y . T h e o n e is, to g iv e u p a ll
a t t e m p t s a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g life a s a totality. In this ca se , m a n will rely
u p o n th e e v id e n c e o f e x t e r n a l e x p e r ie n c e s a l o n e a n d will lim it his
co n clu sion s to their sphere. T h u s he will be a b le to u n d e r st a n d single
fr a g m e n ts o f life, w h ich m a y increase in n u m b e r a n d clarity a s r a p id ly
 T H E SP IR IT O F ISLA M 47

or a s slow ly a s h u m a n k n o w le d ge o f N a t u r e increases, b u t will, n o n e ­

theless, a lw a y s r e m a in o n ly fr a g m e n ts — the g r a s p o f the to tality itself
r e m a in in g b e y o n d the m e t h o d ic a l e q u ip m e n t o f h u m a n reason. T h i s is
the w a y the n a t u r a l scie n ce s go. T h e o th er p o s s ib ility — w h ich m a y
well exist side by side with the scientific on e — is the w a y o f religion. It
le a d s m a n , b y m e a n s o f a n in n er, m o stly in tu itive , e x p e rie n ce , to the
a c c e p ta n c e o f a u n ita r y e x p l a n a t io n o f life, g en e rally on the a s ­
s u m p t io n th a t th ere exists a s u p r e m e C r e a t iv e P o w e r w h ich gov ern s
the U n iv erse a c c o r d in g to s o m e prc-con ccivcd p la n a b o v e a n d b e yo n d
h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d in g . A s h a s ju s t been sa id , this co n ce p tio n does not
n e c e s s a r i l y p r e c l u d e m a n f r o m a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s u c h fa c t s a n d
f r a g m e n t s o f life a s offer th e m se lv es for e x t e r n a l o b se r v a t io n ; there is
no in h eren t a n t a g o n is m betw een the e x tern a l (scientific) a n d internal
( r e lig io u s ) p e r c e p t io n . B u t the l a t te r is, in fact, th e o n ly s p e c u la tiv e
possibility to co n ceiv e all life a s a u n ity o f essence a n d m otive p ow er; in
short, a s a w c ll-b a la n c c d , h a r m o n io u s totality. T h e term ‘ h a r m o ­
n io u s’, th o u g h so terribly m isu sed , is very im p o r t a n t in this co n n e c ­
tion, b e c a u s e it im p lies a c o r re s p o n d in g a tt itu d e in m a n himself. T h e
re lig io u s m a n k n o w s th a t w h a t e v e r h a p p e n s to h im a n d w ith in him
c a n never be the result o f a b lin d p la y o f forces w itho ut co n sciousn ess
a n d p u r p o s e ; he believes it to be the o u t c o m e o f G o d ’s c o n sc io u s will
alo n e , a n d , therefore, o r g a n ic a lly in teg ra te d with a un iversal p la n . In
this w a y m a n is e n a b l e d to solve the b itte r a n t a g o n i s m b e tw e e n the
h u m a n S e l f a n d the ob je ctiv e w orld o f facts a n d a p p e a r a n c e s w h ich is
called N a t u r e . T h e h u m a n bein g , with all the in tricate m c c h a n ism o f
his s ou l, with all his de sire s a n d fears, his feelings a n d his s p e c u la tiv e
u n c e r t a i n t i e s , se e s h i m s e l f f a c e d b y a N a t u r e in w h ic h b o u n t y a n d
c r u e lty , d a n g e r a n d s e c u r ity a r e m ix e d in a w o n d r o u s , in e x p l i c a b l e
w a y a n d a p p a r e n t l y w ork on lines entirely different from the m e th o d s
a n d the s t r u c t u r e o f the h u m a n m in d . N e v e r h a s p u re ly in telle ctu a l
p h il o s o p h y or e x p e r i m e n t a l s c ie n c e been a b l e to s olve this c o n flict.
T h i s e x a c t ly is the poin t w h ere religion ste p s in.
In th e lig h t o f r e l i g i o u s p e r c e p t i o n a n d e x p e r i e n c e , th e h u m a n ,
self-con sciou s S e l f a n d the m u te , s e e m in g ly irre sp o n sib le N a t u r e are
b r o u g h t into a relatio n o f sp ir itu a l h a r m o n y ; b e c a u s e both , the in d i­
v id u a l co n scio u sn e ss o f m a n a n d the N a t u r e th at s u r r o u n d s h im a n d is
w ithin h im , a re n o th in g b u t co -o rd in a te, if differen t, m a n ife s ta tio n s o f
on e a n d the s a m e C r e a tiv e Will. T h e im m e n se benefit which religion
thus co n fers u p o n m a n is the re alisation that he is, a n d never ca n ce ase
to be , a w e l l - p l a n n e d u n it in th e e t e r n a l m o v e m e n t o f C r e a t i o n : a
48 ISL A M : ITS M E A N IN G AND M E SSA G E

d efin ite p a r t in the infinite o r g a n is m o f un iversal destiny. T h e p sy ­

ch o lo g ic al c o n se q u e n c e o f this co n c e p tio n is a d e e p feeling o f spiritual
secu rity — th a t b a la n c e betw een h op e s a n d fears w hich distin gu ish es
the positively religious m a n , w h atev er his religion, from the irreligious.

T h e I s l a m ic A p p r o a c h
T h i s fu n d a m e n t a l position is c o m m o n to all g r e a t religions, w h atev er
th eir specific d o c tr in e s be; a n d e q u a lly c o m m o n to all o f th e m is the
m o ra l a p p e a l to m a n to su r r e n d e r h im se lf to the m an ifest W ill o f G o d .
B u t Isla m , a n d Islam alo n e , goes b e y o n d this theoretical e x p la n a t io n
a n d e x h o rta tio n . It not only teach es us th at all life is e ssen tially a unity
b e ca u se it p ro c ee d s from the D iv in e O n e n e ss — b u t it show s us also
the p ra c tic a l w a y h ow everyon e o f us c a n r e p ro d u ce , within the lim its
o f his in d iv id u a l, e a r th ly life, the unity o f Id e a a n d A ction bo th in his
e xistence a n d in his con sciousn ess. T o a t t a i n th at s u p r e m e g o a l o f life,
m a n is, in Isla m , not c o m p e lle d to ren o u n ce the w orld; no austerities
are r e q u ired to o p e n a secret d o o r to sp iritu a l p u rifica tio n ; no pressure
is e xe rte d u p o n the m in d to believe in co m p re h en sib le d o g m a s in order
th at sa lv a tio n be secured. S u c h th in g s a r e utterly foreign to I sla m : for
it is n eith er a m y stic al d o c trin e n o r a p h ilosop h y. It is s im p ly a p r o ­
g r a m m e o f life a c c o r d in g to the rules o f N a t u r e w hich G o d h as d ccre cd
u p o n H is c r e a tio n ; a n d its s u p r e m e a ch ie v e m e n t is the c o m p le t e c o ­
o r d in a tio n o f the sp ir it u a l a n d the m a t e r ia l a s p e c t s o f h u m a n life. In
the te a c h in g s o f I s l a m , bo th these a s p e c t s are n ot o n ly ‘re c o n c ile d ’ to
e a c h o t h e r in th e s e n s e o f l e a v i n g n o in h e re n t c o n flic t b e tw e e n the
b o d ily a n d the m o ra l existence o f m a n , b u t the fact o f their c o ­
existen ce a n d a c tu a l in s e p a r a b ility is insisted u p o n a s the n a tu r a l basis
o f life.
T h i s , I think, is the reason for the p e c u lia r form o f the Islam ic p ra y er
in w h ich s p ir it u a l c o n c e n t r a t io n a n d c e r ta in b o d ily m o v e m e n t s a re
co -o rd in a te d with e ac h other. In im ical critics o f Islam often select this
w ay o f p r a y in g a s a p r o o f o f their a lle g a tio n that Islam is a religion o f
f o r m a li s m a n d o u t w a r d n e s s . A n d , in fa c t , p e o p le o f o t h e r r e lig io n s,
w h o are a c c u s t o m e d to n eatly s e p a r a te the ‘s p ir it u a l’ fro m the ‘b o d ily ’
a lm o s t in the s a m e w a y a s the d a ir y m a n s e p a ra te s the c r e a m from the
milk, c a n n o t e asily u n d e r s t a n d th at in the u n s k im m e d milk o f Islam
both these in gredien ts, th o u g h distin ct in their respective c o n stitu ­
tio n s, h a r m o n i o u s l y live a n d e x p r e s s th e m s e lv e s to g e t h e r . In o t h e r
w ords, the I sla m ic p r a y e r consists o f m en tal c o n c en tratio n a n d bodily
m o v e m e n t s b e c a u s e h u m a n life it s e lf is o f su ch a c o m p o s i t io n , a n d
 T H E S P I R I T O F IS L A M 49

b c c a u s e we art* s u p p o s e d to a p p r o a c h G o d th rou gh the su m -to ta l o f all

the fa cu lties H e h a s bestow ed u p o n us.
A fu rth er illu stratio n o f this a t t it u d e c a n be seen in the institution o f
the taw af, the ce r e m o n y o f w alk in g rou n d the K a ‘bah in M a k k a . 1As it is
a n in d isp e n sa b le o b lig a t io n for everyon e w h o enters the H o ly C i ty to
go seven tim e s rou n d the Ka'bah, a n d a s the o b se r v a n c e o f this in­
ju n c tio n is on e o f th e three m ost essen tial poin ts o f the p ilg r im a g e , we
h av e the righ t to a sk ou rselves: W h a t is the m e a n in g o f this? Is it
n ecessary to e x p re ss d e v o tio n in such a fo r m a l w ay ?
T h e a n s w e r is q u i t e o b v i o u s . I f we m o v e in a c irc le a r o u n d so m e
o b je c t w e t h e r e b y e s t a b l i s h t h a t o b j e c t a s th e c e n t r a l p o i n t o f o u r
a c t i o n . T h e K a ‘bah, t o w a r d s w h ic h e v e r y M u s l i m t u r n s h is fa c e in
p r a y e r , s y m b o lis e s the O n e n e s s o f G o d . T h e b o d ily m o v e m e n t o f the
p ilg r im s in the ta w a f sy m b o lise s the activity o f h u m a n life. C o n s e ­
q u e n tly , the ta w a f im p lie s th a t not only o u r d e v o t io n a l th o u g h ts but
also o u r p r a c tic a l life, o u r a c tio n s a n d e n d e a v o u r s , m u st h ave the idea
o f G o d a n d H is O n e n e s s fo r th e ir c e n tr e — in a c c o r d a n c e w ith the
w ords o f th e H o ly Q u r ’a n :

‘ I h av e not cre ate d J i n n a n d M a n b u t that they sh o u ld w orship

M e ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 51: 56).

T h u s , the co n ce p tio n o f ‘w o r s h ip ’ in Islam is differ^Vit from th at in

a n y o t h e r re lig io n . H e r e it is not r e stric te d to th e p u r e ly d e v o t io n a l
p ractices, for e x a m p le , p ra y ers or fastin g , b u t e x te n d s ov er the w hole o f
m a n ’s p r a c tic a l life a s well. I f the o b je ct o f o u r life a s a w hole is to be the
w o rsh ip o f G o d , we n ecessarily m u st re g a rd this life, in the to tality o f all
its a sp e c ts, a s one c o m p le x m o ra l responsibility. T h u s , all o u r action s
even the see m in g ly trivial ones, m u st be p e rfo rm ed a s a cts o f w orship;
th at is, p e rfo r m e d consciously a s c o n stitu tin g a p a r t o f G o d ’s universal
p la n . S u c h a s t a t e o f th in g s is, fo r th e m a n o f a v e r a g e c a p a b i l i t y , a
d is ta n t id e a l; bu t is it not the p u r p o se o f religion to b r in g id e a ls into
real existen ce?
T h e p osition o f I sla m in this respect is u n m is ta k a b le . It teach es us,
firstly, th a t th e p e rm a n e n t w orsh ip o f G o d in all the m an ifo ld a ction s
o f h u m a n life is the very m e a n in g o f this life; a n d , seco n dly, th a t the
a c h ie v e m e n t o f this p u r p o s e r e m a in s im p o ssib le so lo n g a s we d iv id e
o u r life in to tw o p a r t s , th e s p ir it u a l a n d th e m a t e r i a l : th e y m u s t be
b o u n d together, in o u r co n sciou sn ess a n d o u r a c tio n , into on e h arm o -
1. Makka is usually written as Mecca. In this book, the word has been spelled
uniformly as M ak ka.—Editor.
50 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

n io u s entity. O u r n otion o f G o d ’s O n e n e s s m ust be reflected in o u r own

striv in g to w a r d s a co -o rd in a tio n a n d un ification o f the v a r io u s a sp e cts
o f o u r life.
A lo g ica l co n se q u e n c e o f this a tt itu d e is a fu rth er difference between
I sla m a n d all o th er kn ow n religious system s. It is to be fo u n d in the fact
th at I sla m , a s a te a ch in g , u n d e rta k e s to define not on ly the m e t a p h y ­
s ic a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n m a n a n d h is C r e a t o r b u t a l s o — a n d w ith
sca rc ely less insistence — the e arth ly relatio n s betw een the in d iv id u a l
a n d his social su r ro u n d in g s . T h e w orldly life is not r e g a rd e d a s a m ere
e m p t y shell, a s a m e a n in g le ss s h a d o w o f the H e r e a fte r th a t is to co m e ,
bu t a s a self-co n tain e d , positive entity. G o d H i m s e l f is a U n it y not only
in essence b u t also in p u r p o se ; a n d therefore, H is cre a tio n is a U n ity ,
p ossib ly in essence, bu t certain ly in purpose.

P e r fe c tio n : The I s l a m ic Id ea l
W o r s h ip o f G o d in the w ide sense j u s t e x p la in e d co n stitu tes, a c c o r d in g
to I s l a m , the m e a n i n g o f h u m a n life. A n d it is this c o n c e p t io n a lo n e
th a t sh o w s us the p o ssib ility o f m a n ’s r e a c h in g p e rfe c tio n w ith in his
in d iv id u a l, e a r t h ly life. O f a ll religio us system s, I sla m a lo n e d e cla re s
th a t in d i v i d u a l p e rfe c tio n is p o ssib le in o u r e a r t h ly e x isten ce . I sla m
d o e s not p o s tp o n e this fulfilm ent un til a fte r a su p p r e ssio n o f the so-
c a lle d ‘ b o d i l y ’ desires, a s the C h r is t i a n te a c h in g d o e s ; nor d o e s I sla m
p ro m ise a c o n tin u o u s ch a in o f rebirths on a progressively h ig h er p la n e ,
a s is the c a s e with H i n d u i s m ; n o r d o e s I sla m a g r e e w ith B u d d h i s m ,
a c c o r d i n g to w h ic h p e r f e c t io n a n d s a l v a t i o n c a n o n ly be o b t a i n e d
th ro u g h a n a n n ih ila tio n o f the in d iv id u a l S e l f a n d its e m o tio n a l links
with the w orld. N O : Islam is e m p h a t i c in the assertion th a t m a n can
re ach perfectio n in the earth ly , in d iv id u a l life a n d b y m a k in g full use
o f a ll the w orldly possibilities o f his life.

T o a v o id m is u n d e r s t a n d in g s , the term ‘p e rfe c tio n ’ will h a v e to be

d e f in e d in t h e s e n s e it is u s e d h ere . A s lo n g a s w e h a v e t o d o w ith
h u m a n , b io l o g ic a l ly lim ite d b e in g s, we c a n n o t p o s s ib ly c o n s id e r the
id e a o f ‘a b s o l u t e ’ p e rfec tio n , b e c a u s e e v e r y th in g a b s o l u t e b e lo n g s to
th e r e a l m o f D i v in e a t t r i b u t e s a lo n e . H u m a n p e r f e c t io n , in its tru e
p s y c h o lo g ic a l a n d m o r a l sen se, m u s t n ec essarily h a v e a r e la tiv e a n d
p u r e l y i n d i v i d u a l b e a r i n g . It d o e s n o t i m p l y th e p o s s e s s i o n o f all
i m a g i n a b le g o o d q u a litie s, n or even the progressive a c q u isitio n o f new
q u a l i t i e s fr o m o u t s i d e , b u t s o l e l y th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e a l r e a d y
 T H E SP IR IT O F ISLAM 51

ex istin g , p ositive q u a litie s o f the in d iv id u a l in such a w ay a s to rouse his

in n a te b u t otherw ise d o r m a n t powers. O w in g to the n a tu r a l v a rie ty o f
the life -p h e n o m e n a, the in b orn q u a litie s o f m a n differ in e a c h in divi­
d u a l c a se. It w o u ld b e a b s u r d , th e refo re, to s u p p o s e th a t a ll h u m a n
bein gs sh o u ld , or even c o u ld , strive to w ard s one a n d the s a m e ‘ ty p e ’ o f
perfection — j u s t a s it w o u ld be a b s u r d to e x p e c t a perfect race-horse
a n d a perfect h e a v y d r a u g h t horse to possess e x a c tly the s a m e qualities.
B o th m a y be i n d i v i d u a l l y p e rfe c t a n d s a t is f a c t o r y , b u t they will be
different, b e c a u s e their o r ig in a l c h a r a c te r s a r e different. W ith h u m a n
b e in g s th e c a s e is s im il a r . I f p e rfe c tio n w ere to b e s t a n d a r d i s e d in a
certain ‘t y p e ’ — a s C h r is tia n ity d oes in the type o f the ascetic saint
m en w o u ld h a v e to g iv e u p , or c h a n g e , o r s u p p r e s s , th eir in d i v id u a l
d ifferen tiation . B u t this w o u ld clea rly v iolate the div in e law o f in d ivi­
d u a l v a r ie ty w h ich d o m i n a t e s all life on this e a r th . T h e r e f o r e Isla m ,
w hich is not a religion o f repression, allow s to m a n a very w ide m a rg in
in his p erson al a n d social existence, so th at the v a rio u s q u a litie s, te m ­
p e r a m e n t s a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n c l i n a t i o n s o f d if fe r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s
sh o u ld find their w a y to p ositive d e v e lo p m e n t a c c o r d in g to their in d i­
v id u a l p red isp o sitio n . T h u s a m a n m a y be a n ascetic, or he m a y enjoy
the full m e a s u r e o f his se n su a l possibilities w ithin the law ful lim its; he
m a y b e a n o m a d r o a m i n g t h r o u g h th e d e s e r t s , w i t h o u t f o o d for
to m o rro w , o r a rich m e rc h a n t s u r r o u n d e d by his goods. A s lo n g a s he
sincerely a n d co n sciou sly s u b m i t s to the law s decreed by G o d , he is free
to s h a p e his p e rso n a l life to w h atev er form his n a tu r e d irects him . H is
d u t y is to m a k e the best o f h im se lf so th at he m ig h t h o n o u r the life-gift
w hich H is C r e a t o r h as b esto w ed u p o n h im ; a n d to h elp his fellow-
b cin g s, by m e a n s o f his ow n d e v e lo p m e n t, in their sp iritu a l, social a n d
m a t e r ia l e n d e a v o u r s . B u t th e fo rm o f his in d iv id u a l life is in n o w ay
fixed by a s t a n d a r d . H e is free to m a k e his ch oice from a m o n g all the
lim itless law fu l possibilities o p e n to him.

T h e b a s is o f t h i s ‘lib e r a lis m ’ in I sla m , is to b e fo u n d in the co n ception

t h a t m a n ’s o r i g i n a l n a t u r e is e s s e n t i a l l y g o o d . C o n t r a r y to th e
C h r is tia n id e a th a t m a n is born sin ful, or the te a c h in g s o f H in d u is m ,
t h a t h e is o r i g i n a l l y low a n d i m p u r e a n d m u s t p a i n f u l l y s t a g g e r
th rou g h a lo n g c h a in o f tr a n s m ig r a tio n s to w a r d s the u ltim a te g o a l o f
Perfection , the I sla m ic te a c h in g co n te n d s th at m a n is born p u r e a n d —
in th e se n se e x p l a i n e d a b o v e — p o t e n t ia ll y p erfec t. It is s a i d in the
H o ly Q u r ’a n :

‘S u re ly W e cre ate d m a n in the best str u c tu re .’

52 ISI-AM : IT S M EA N IN G AND M E SSA G E

Bu t in the s a m e b r e a th the verse con tin ues:

\ . . a n d a fte r w a r d s W e re d u ce d h im to the lowest o f low: with the

e x c ep tio n o f those w h o h av e faith a n d d o g o o d w orks.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n ,
95: 4, 5 ).
In this verse is e x p re sse d the d o c trin e th at m a n is orig in ally g o o d a n d
p u r e ; a n d , fu rth erm o re , th at d is b e lie f in G o d a n d lack o f g o o d a ction s
m a y d e s t r o y h is o r i g i n a l p e r f e c t io n . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , m a n m a y
retain , or re ga in , th at origin al, in d iv id u a l p erfectio n if he consciously
r e alises G o d ’s O n e n e s s a n d s u b m i t s to H is law s. T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to
I s l a m , evil is n ev e r e sse n tia l or e ve n o r i g i n a l ; it is a n a c q u i s i t i o n o f
m a n ’s later life, a n d is d u e to a m isuse o f the in n ate , positive q u a litie s
with w h ich G o d h as e n d o w e d every h u m a n being. T h o s e q u a litie s are,
a s h a s b e e n s a i d b e f o r e , d iffe r e n t in e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l , b u t a l w a y s
p o te n tia lly p e rfec t in th em selves; a n d their full d e v e lo p m e n t is p os­
sible w ithin the period o f m a n ’s in d iv id u a l life on earth. W e take it for
g r a n t e d th at the life a fte r d e a t h , o w in g to its entirely c h a n g e d c o n d i­
tions o f fe elin g a n d p e rc e p tio n , will c o n fe r u p o n us oth er, q u it e new,
q u a litie s a n d fa c u ltie s w h ich will m a k e a still fu rth er p r o g r e ss o f the
h u m a n sou l p o s s ib le ; b u t this c o n c e r n s o u r fu tu r e life a lo n e . In this
e a r th ly life a lso, the Islam ic te a c h in g definitely asserts, w e— every-one
o f us — c a n reach a full m e a su r e o f p erfectio n by d e v e lo p in g the p o si­
tive, a lr e a d y e x istin g traits o f w hich o u r in d iv id u alitie s are c o m p o se d .
O f all religion s, I sla m a lo n e m a k e s it p o ssib le for m a n to e n jo y the
full r a n g e o f his e a r t h ly life w ith o u t for a m o m e n t losing its sp iritu a l
o r i e n t a t i o n . H o w e n t i r e l y d if f e r e n t is th is fr o m th e C h r i s t i a n
c o n c e p t i o n ! A c c o r d i n g to th e C h r i s t i a n d o g m a , m a n k i n d s t u m b l e s
u n d e r a h ere d itary sin c o m m it te d b y A d a m a n d E v e, a n d co n se ­
q u e n tly the w hole life is looked u p o n — in d o g m a t i c theory a t least -
as a g lo o m y vale o f sorrows. It is the b attlefield o f two o p p o s in g forces:
the e v il, r e p r e s e n t e d by S a t a n , a n d th e g o o d , r e p r e s e n t e d b y J e s u s
Christ. S a t a n tries, b y m e a n s o f b o d ily te m p ta tio n s, to b a r the p rogress
o f the h u m a n soul to w a r d s the light e te r n a l; the soul belon gs to C h rist,
w h ile th e b o d y is th e p l a y g r o u n d o f s a t a n i c in flu e n c e s. O n e c o u l d
e xp ress it differen tly: the w orld o f M a t t e r is e ssen tially s a ta n ic , while
th e w o rld o f S p i r i t is d iv in e a n d g o o d . E v e r y t h i n g in h u m a n n a tu r e
th a t is m a t e r ia l, o r ‘c a r n a l ’, a s C h r is tia n th eology prefers to call it, is a
direct result o f A d a m ’s s u c c u m b in g to the a d v ic e o f the hellish Prince
o f D a r k n e s s a n d M a t t e r . T h e r e f o r e , to o b t a i n s a l v a t i o n , m a n m u s t
tu rn his h e a r t a w a y fro m this w o rld o f th e flesh t o w a r d s th e fu tu r e ,
 T H E S P I R I T O F ISL AM 53

sp iritu a l w orld , w here the ‘sin o f m a n k i n d ’ is re d e e m e d b y the sacrifice

o f C h r is t o n the cross.
E v e n if this d o g m a is not — a n d n ever w a s — ob e yed in p ra ctice , the
very existen ce o f su ch a te a ch in g ten d s to p r o d u c e a p e r m a n e n t feeling
o f b a d c o n sc ie n c e in the religiously inclined m a n . H e is tossed a b o u t
betw een the p e re m p to r y call to neglect the w orld a n d the n a tu ra l urge
o f his heart to live a n d to e n joy this life. T h e very id e a o f a n u n a v o id ­
a b le , b e c a u s e in h erited, sin, a n d o f its m ystical — to the a v e r a g e in tel­
lect in c o m p re h e n sib le — r e d e m p tio n th rou gh the sufferin g o f J e s u s on
th e c r o ss , e r e c t s a b a r r i e r b e tw e e n m a n ’s s p i r i t u a l l o n g i n g a n d his
leg itim ate desire to live.
In I s l a m , we know n oth in g o f O rig in a l S in ; we re g a rd it a s incon-
g r u e n t w ith th e id e a o f G o d ’s j u s t i c e ; G o d d o c s n ot m a k e the c h ild
re sp on sib le for the d o i n g s o f his fath er: a n d how c o u ld H e h ave m a d e
a ll th o se n u m b e r l e s s g e n e r a t io n s o f m a n k in d re sp o n s ib le for a sin o f
d is o b e d ie n c e c o m m it te d by a re m o te an cesto r? It is no d o u b t possible
to c o n s t r u c t p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f this s t r a n g e a s s u m p t i o n ,
but for the u n s o p h is tic a te d intellect it will a lw a y s re m a in a s artificial
a n d a s u n sa tisfa c to r y a s the co n c e p tio n o f T rin ity itself. A n d a s there is
n o h ere d itary sin, there is a ls o n o universal r e d e m p tio n o f m a n k in d in
the t e a c h in g s o f I s l a m . R e d e m p t i o n a n d d a m n a t i o n a r e in d iv id u a l.
Every M u s l im is his ow n re d ee m er; he b e a r s all possibilities o f sp iritual
s u c c e s s a n d f a i l u r e w it h in h is h e a r t . It is s a i d in th e Q u r ’ a n o f the
h u m a n p e rso n a lity :

‘ In its f a v o u r is th a t w h ich it h a s e a r n e d a n d a g a i n s t it is th at
which it h as b e c o m e g u ilty o f.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 2: 286).

A n o th e r verse says:

‘ N o t h i n g shall be reckoned to m a n b u t that w hich he h as striven

for.’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 53: 39).

T h e M id d le W ay
B u t if I s la m d o e s not s h a r e the g lo o m y a s p e c t o f life a s e x p r e sse d in
C h r is tia n ity , it te a ch es us, nonetheless, not to a tt r ib u te to e arth ly life
that e x a g g e r a t e d v a lu e which m o d e rn W estern civilisation a ttrib u te s
to it. W h ile the C h r i s t i a n o u t l o o k im p l ie s th a t e a r t h l y life is a b a d
business, the m o d e r n W est a s d istin ct from C h r is ti a n i ty — a d o re s
life in e x a c tly the s a m e w ay a s the g lu tto n a d o r e s his food : he d e v o u rs
it, bu t h as no respect for it. Islam on the oth er h a n d , looks u p o n earthly
54 IS L A M : ITS M EA NIN G AND M E SSA G E

life with c a lm a n d respect. It does not w orsh ip it, b u t r e g a r d s it a s a n

o r g a n ic s t a g e on o u r w a y to a h ig h er existence. B u t j u s t b e c a u s e it is a
s t a g e a n d a n ecessary sta ge , too, m a n has n o right to d e sp ise o r even to
u n d e r r a t e the v a lu e o f his e arth ly life. O u r travel th ro u g h this w orld is
a n e c e s s a r y p o s it iv e p a r t in G o d ’s p la n . H u m a n life, th e re fo r e , is o f
tr e m e n d o u s v a lu e ; b u t we m ust n ever forget that it is a p urely in stru ­
m e n ta l v a lu e . In Islam there is no roo m for the m ate r ialistic o p tim is m
o f o f the m o d e r n W est w hich say s: ‘\ l y K i n g d o m is o f this w orld a lo n e .’
— n o r for the life -co n tem p t o f the C h r is tia n sa y in g : ‘M y K i n g d o m is
not o f this w o r ld .’ Islam goes the m id d le w ay. T h e Q u r ’a n teach es us to
p ra y :

‘O u r L o r d , g iv e us th e g o o d in th is w o rld a n d th e g o o d in the
H e r e a ft e r .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 201).

T h u s , the full a p p r e c i a t io n o f this world a n d its g o o d s is in no w ay a

h a n d i c a p for o u r sp ir itu a l e n d e a v o u rs. M a t e r ia l p ro sp erity is d e sir­
a b le, th o u g h not a g o a l in itself. T h e g oal o f all o u r p ra c tic a l a ctivities
a lw a y s o u g h t to be the cre atio n a n d the m a in te n a n c e o f su ch person al
a n d social c o n d itio n s a s m ig h t be helpful for the d e v e lo p m e n t o f m oral
s t a m i n a in m en . In a c c o r d a n c e w ith this p r in c ip le , I sla m le a d s m a n
to w a r d s a co n scio u sn e ss o f m o ra l respon sibility in e v e r y th in g he d oes,
w h e t h e r g r e a t o r s m a l l . T h e w ell-kn ow n in ju n c t io n o f th e G o s p e l s :
‘G iv e C a e s a r t h a t w h ich b e lo n g s to C a e s a r , a n d g iv e G o d th at w hich
b e lo n g s to G o d ’ — h as no roo m in the th e o lo g ica l s tr u c tu r e o f I sla m ,
b e c a u s e I sla m d o e s not a d m i t the e xisten ce o f a con flict betw een the
m o r a l a n d th e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c r e q u i r e m e n t s o f o u r e x i s t e n c e . In
e v e r y th in g there c a n be o n ly on e ch oice: the choice betw een R i g h t a n d
W r o n g — a n d n o t h i n g in -b etw ee n . H e n c e the in ten se in sisten ce on
a c tio n a s a n in d isp e n sa b le ele m e n t o f m orality.
E v ery in d iv id u a l M u s l im h as to re g a rd h im se lf a s p e rso n a lly res­
p o n sib le for all h a p p e n in g s a r o u n d h im , a n d to strive for the e s t a ­
b lis h m e n t o f R i g h t a n d the a b o lit io n o f W ro n g a t every tim e a n d in
every d irection . A s a n ctio n for this a tt itu d e is to be fo u n d in the verse o f
the Q u r ’a n :

‘Y o u a r e the best c o m m u n i t y th at has been sent forth to m a n ­

k in d : Y o u e n jo in th e R i g h t a n d fo r b id the Wrr o n g ; a n d yo u h a v e
faith in G o d . ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 3: 110).

T h i s is th e m o r a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f the h e a lth y a c t i v is m o f I s l a m , a
ju s t ific a tio n o f th e e a r ly I s l a m ic c o n q u e sts. It h a s m e a n t , a s it m e a n s
 T H E SPIRIT OF ISLAM 55

to d a y , the co n stru ctio n o f a w orldly fr a m e for the best possible sp iri­

t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a n . F o r, a c c o r d i n g to th e t e a c h in g s o f I s l a m ,
m o ra l k n o w le d g e a u t o m a t ic a l ly forces m o r a l responsibility u p o n m an .
A m e re P la to n ic d isce rn m e n t betw een R ig h t a n d W ro n g, w itho ut the
urge to p r o m o te R ig h t a n d to de stroy W ro n g, is a gross im m o r a lity in
itself. In I sla m , m o r a lity lives a n d dies with the h u m a n e n d e a v o u r to
estab lish its victory u p o n earth.
 P A R T II

The Prophet and the Qur

 4

The L ife o f the Prophet

M uham m ad*
‘A b d - a l - R a h m a n ‘A z z am

L o ! M y w o r s h i p a n d m y p r a y e r s a n d m y life a n d m y d e a t h a r e for
A lla h , Ix>rd o f the w orlds. H e h ath n o p a rtn er. T h i s I a m c o m m a n d e d ,
a n d 1 a m the first o f the M u s l i m s (th ose w h o s u r r e n d e r ( u n t o H im )).
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 6 : 163-164).

T H E M u s l im s form a n atio n ov er thirteen ce n tu ries o ld , a n d co m p rise

a t prese n t m o re th a n six h u n d r e d m illion h u m a n b e in g s in all p a r ts o f
the w orld. T h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d w as the first citizen o f this n atio n ,
its t e a c h e r a n d its g u i d e . H e liv e d a n d d ie d in th e fu ll m e m o r y o f
history. T h e e v o lu tio n o f his p e rson ality , religion, a n d n atio n a ss u m e d
the force o f a h u m a n d r a m a o f the g r e a te st m a g n it u d e , w itnessed not
o n ly by his c o n te m p o r a r ie s b u t a ls o b y the rest o f the w orld in s u b s e ­
q u e n t times.
T h e hero o f this d r a m a d id not d ie until his M e s s a g e w as delivered
a n d a M u s l im n a tio n e sta b lish e d in the A r a b i a n p e n in su la . S a y s B e r­
n a rd L e w is, ‘In a n essay on M u h a m m a d a n d the origin o f I sla m E rnest
R e n a n r e m a r k s t h a t , u n lik e o t h e r r e lig io n s w h ic h w e re c r a d l e d in
m y ste ry , I s l a m w a s b o rn in th e full lig h t o f history . “ Its roo ts a r e at
su rfa ce level, the life o f its fo u n d e r is a s well known to us a s those o f the
R e fo r m e r s o f the sixteen th century'” ’ 1

* This chaptcr is reproduced from Abd-al-Rahman A zzam ’s book The Eternal

Message of Muhammad. Ix>ndon: The New English Library, 1964. Translated
from Arabic by Caesar E. Farah.

1. Bernard I^ewis, 'The Arabs in / / istoiy’ (2nd ed., reprinted; New York: Harper
& Brothers, 1960), p. 36.
60 islam : its m e a n i n g a n d m e s s a g e

D u r in g th e h alf-c en tu ry fo llow in g the d e a th o f the Proph et (in A .D .

63 2 ), his M e s s a g e w as ca rrie d forth by five o f his C o m p a n i o n s , ' who
a d h e r e d closely to the p rec ed e n ts w h ich he h a d e stab lish e d for ruling
his n atio n . F o u r o f th e m ’ were in tim a te , reliab le friends a n d stu d e n ts
w h o h a d follow ed him from the earliest d a y s o f his ca ll, th rou g h p er­
secution a n d u ltim a te t riu m p h . T h e fifth C a l i p h 4 w a s M u ‘a w i y a h ,s o n
o f A b u - S u f y a n , the fo r m id a b le leader o f the o p p o sitio n to M u h a m ­
m a d . M u ‘a w i y a h ’s ca ree r a s C a l ip h w as lo n g e r th a n th at o f his p re d e ­
cessors. H e p resid e d ov er the affairs o f the Islam ic c o m m u n i t y for forty
y e ars a s go v ern o r o f S y r ia , then caliph.
Yet in sp ite o f the w ealth o f historical facts a v a il a b le to us, p e rh a p s
n o p r o p h e t a n d r e lig io n a r e so little k n o w n or u n d e r s t o o d b y the
W estern w orld a s M u h a m m a d a n d Islam . T h e W est, which h as m a i n ­
ta in e d now for sev eral ce n tu ries a tra d itio n o f fr e e d o m o f th o u g h t , a
high g r a d e o f literacy, a n d b o u n d less k n o w led ge in all sp h e res of
h u m a n learn in g, know s far less a b o u t M u h a m m a d both a s a p r o ­
ph et a n d a s a le a d e r o f m en w h o e x e rcise d a d ire ct in fluen ce on the
course o f h u m a n even ts th a n a b o u t A l e x a n d e r o r C a e s a r , w h ose
influences h av e been less th an those o f M u h a m m a d a n d I sla m .5
W h a t is th e c a u s e o f such in d ifferen ce in a w orld so e a g e r to learn
a n d to u n d e r s t a n d ? T w o e x p la n a t io n s m erit co n sid e ra tio n . T h e first is
from the pen o f a d istin g u ish e d S w e d ish sch olar, w h o writes:
T h e c a u s e . . . m a y p e rh a p s be best expressed by the p ro v erb : R e l a ­
tives u n d e r st a n d c a c h o th er least o f all. A C h ristia n secs m u ch in Islam
w hich r e m in d s him o f his ow n religion, b u t he sees it in a n extrem e ly
d isto rte d fo rm . H e finds id e a s a n d s ta te m e n ts o f b elief clearly related
to th o s e o f h is o w n r e lig io n , b u t w h ic h , n e v e r t h e le s s , tu r n o f f in to
s tra n g e ly differen t p ath s. Islam is so fa m ilia r to us that we p a ss it by
2. The principal C o m pan ion s o f the Prophet, called the Sahabah (singular:
Sahib) might be compared to the apostles and disciples of Jesus.
3. A bu -Bakr, ‘ U m ar, ‘L'thm an and ‘AIT — the ‘Orthodox C a lip h s’ (A.D.
632-661). In the A rabic, the word orthodox in this phrase actually means
mature, well-guided, correct; the usage in this book follows that of Western
scholars, who have long written of the ‘Orthodox Caliphs’. The reason these
four Caliphs are considered thus by Muslims is that, having known the Pro­
phet personally and lived so closely according to his principles, they are looked
to as great authorities and their decisions are considered precedents.
4. From the Arabic Khalijah, successor.
5. Indeed, it would seem that a conspiracy of silence has replaced the old
enmity in the West concerning the Message, which is diametrically opposed to
so many injustices perpetrated in the name of God and an enlightened pro­
gress.
 I HF. I . I E E O F T H E P R O P H E T M U H A M M A D 61

w ith th e c a r e l e s s in d i ffe r e n c e w ith w h ic h we ig n o r e th a t w h ich we

know a n d know only too well. A n d yet it is not fa m il ia r e n o u g h to us to
e n a b le us really to u n d e r s t a n d its u n iq u e n e ss, a n d the spirit by which it
h as w on its o w n p la c e in the s p h e r e o f relig io n , a p la c e w h ich is still
rightly o c c u p ie s by v irtu e o f its very existence. W e find it m u c h easier to
u n d e r s t a n d religion s th a t a r e co m p le te ly new a n d s tr a n g e to us — as,
for e x a m p l e , th e r e lig io n s o f I n d i a a n d C h i n a . A g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f
insight a n d o f sp ir itu a l freedo m is re qu ired o f h im w h o w ou ld u n d e r ­
s ta n d the A r a b ia n P r o p h e t a n d his bo ok .0
A seco n d e x p l a n a t io n is presen ted by a n o th e r sch olar:
H i s t o r y h a s b e e n s u c h th a t th e W e s t ’s r e la t io n s w ith th e I s l a m ic
w orld h a v e fro m the first been ra d ica lly different from those with an y
o t h e r c i v i l i z a t i o n . . . E u r o p e h a s k n o w n I s l a m t h ir t e e n c e n t u r i e s ,
m ostly a s a n e n e m y a n d a threat. It is no w o n d e r th at M u h a m m a d
m o re th a n a n y o t h e r o f th e w o r ld 's r e lig io u s lea d ers h as h a d a ‘p oo r
p ress’ in the W est, a n d th at Islam is the least a p p r e c ia t e d there o f a n y o f
the w o r l d ’s o t h e r faiths. U n til K a r l M a r x a n d the rise o f c o m m u n i s m ,
the P r o p h e t h a d o r g a n is e d a n d la u n c h e d the only serious ch a lle n g e to
W estern civilizatio n th at it h as fa ce d in the whole course o f its history
. . . T h e a t t a c k w a s d ir e c t, b o th m ilita ry a n d id e o lo g ic a l. A n d it w a s
very p o w e r f u l .1
T h e P r o p h e t w as born in M a k k a . T h e e xact d a t e o f his birth is d is ­
p u te d , bu t it is a g r e e d to be a r o u n d A .D . 570. T h is u n ce rta in ty is u sual
in A r a b i a , ‘ th e c o u n t r y o f illite r a t e p e o p l e , ’ a s th e Q u r ’a n c a ll e d it.
E v e n t o d a y it is d if fic u lt to e s t a b l i s h th e e x a c t b i r t h d a t e s o f o t h e r
f a m o u s m e n ; fo r in s ta n c e , it is h a r d to d a t e the b ir th o f th e f a m o u s
‘A b d - a l - ‘A z iz i b n - S u ‘u d (or ib n - S a ‘ u d ) , the c o n q u e r o r a n d unifier o f
A r a b i a , a m a n w h o ru led for m o r e th a n fifty y e ars (h e d ie d in 1953),
a n d w h o se p e r s o n a l it y , c o n d u c t a n d b i o g r a p h y a r e k n o w n in g r e a t
detail.
T h e u n d is p u te d sou rce for M u h a m m a d ’s life is the Q u r ’a n ; there are
also m a n y siyar (sin g u la r : sirah) or b io g r a p h ic a l stu d ies o f the P ro p h e t,
w ritte n fr o m th e a c c o u n t s o f th o se w h o kn ew h im p e r s o n a l ly or to
w h om his m e m o r y w as q u it e vivid.
6. l or Andrae, Mohammed: The Man and His Faith, tr. Theophil Men/el (Lon­
don: George Allen Unwin Ltd., 1936), p. 11 (reprinted: New York: Barnes and
Noble, 1957). It will surprise Western readers to learn that the Muslim world
always has been far more familiar with Christianity and Ju d a ism than the
West with Islam. Muslims have always regarded Christian and Ju d a ic tenets
and beliefs with the greatest respect and interest.
7. Wilfred C an tw ell S m ith , Islam in Modern History (New York: The New
American Library, 1957), p. 109:
62 i s i .a m : its m e a n in g a n d m essa g e

B o th his p a r e n t s d ie d y o u n g , h is f a th e r , ‘A b d - A U a h , first a n d his

m oth er, A m in a h , shortly after. It is said th at he w a s a b o u t six years o f
a g e at the tim e o f his m o t h e r ’s d e ath . H is g r a n d fa t h e r ‘A bd-al-
M u t t a l ib , a p ro m in e n t lead er in M a k k a , then took c h a r g e o f him . It is
related th at ‘A b d - a l - M u t t a l ib loved the boy d e a r ly a n d often kept him
c l o s e b e s i d e h im , e v e n in m e e t i n g s w h e r e i m p o r t a n t a f f a i r s w ere
d iscu ssed , u su ally in the s h a d e o f the K a ‘b a h .8 W h en his un cles w ou ld
try' to re m o ve the ch ild , the g r a n d fa t h e r w ou ld prev ent th em , say in g,
‘ Let him be; m y ch ild will be leader o f his p e o p le .’
U p o n th e d e a t h o f h is g r a n d f a t h e r , M u h a m m a d ’s g u a r d i a n s h i p
p assed to his un cle A b u - T a l ib , a no less d e v o ted p a tr o n , w hose love for
a n d p rotectio n o f M u h a m m a d persisted lon g afte r the P ro p h e t p r o ­
c l a i m e d his m issio n a n d the new fa ith . E v e n th o u g h A b u - T a l i b w as
n ever c o n v e r t e d to the new religion , he c o n tin u e d to show love a n d
p r o t e c tio n fo r h is n e p h e w , d e s p i t e e x t r e m e h a r d s h i p s a n d d a n g e r s ,
until his d e a t h , w hen M u h a m m a d w as fifty years old.
M a k k a w a s the t r a d i t i o n a l c e n tre o f A r a b i a in b o th re lig io n a n d
t r a d e ; it w a s th e c r o s s r o a d o f c o m m e r c i a l tr a n s it b e t w e e n e a s t a n d
west, n o rth a n d so u th . A b u - T a l i b ’s c l a n , the B a n u ‘A b d M a n a f , the
m ost influential in all A r a b ia , w as a p a rt o f the g reat Q u r a y s h tribe,9
a n d fo rm e d an im p o r t a n t elem en t in the o lig a rch y th a t ruled M a k k a
a n d its s u r r o u n d in g tribes. T h e P r o p h e t’s y o uth w as th at o f the n o rm a l
y o u n g Q u r a y s h f — he fought the battles, jo in e d the p e ac e n ego­
tiatio n s, a n d s h a r e d in the d u tie s a n d rig h ts o f his s o c ie t y 10 except

8. The Ka'bah is a simple cube-like structure towards which Muslims all over
the world face in their prayers. It is the first place of worship man had built on
the earth. The present building was erected by the Prophets A braham and
Ishmacl.
9. M u h am m a d ’s immediate family on his father’s side were the Banu-Hashim
or Hashimitcs, so named for M u h am m ad’s great-grandfather Hashim. (Banu
means son of, and is the plural of ibn.)Onc of Hashim ’s brothers, al-Muttalib,
gave his name to the Banu-Muttalibites, and the son, Um ayyah, of another
founded the Umayyads. These three families, which will figure prominently in
this chapter, were in turn subgroups within the Quraysh of the clan Banu-
‘Abd-Manaf. T o clarify relationships further, note that ‘Abd-al-Muttalib was
the son of Hashim (and hence a Hashimite, not a Muttalibite) and the father
of Abu-Talib and of M u h am m a d ’s father, ‘Abd-Allah.
10. O f these obligations, one remained extremely dear to him, even after his
prophetic call, when he severed all his tics with his tribe. This was his mem­
bership in the league called H ilf al-Fudul, which originated to protect the
defenceless and guarantee the safety of strangers in Makka. The league came
about because a stranger from the Yemen sold goods in Makka to an influen-
 T H E L IF E OF T H E PR O PH ET M LH A M M A I) 63

th a t he m a n ife s t e d from e a rly years a revulsion to the w orsh ip o f idols.

O n c e w hen he w a s b e so u g h t to act in the n a m e o f the g o d s a l- L a t a n d
a l- U z z a , he replied w ith the sta r tlin g a n sw e r, ‘D o not a sk m e a n y th in g
for th e sak e o f these idols. I h a v e never h ated a n y th in g m o re .’
B u t s u c h s t r o n g e x p r e s s io n s o f d is b e l i e f in th e g o d s o r id o ls o f his
tribe d id n ot a lie n a te his k in sm e n a n d frie n d s fro m h im or close him
o u t fr o m th e ir fr ie n d ly s o c ie ty , for h e w as loved by all for his n ob le
c h a r a c t e r a n d g r e a t k in d n e s s a n d h o n e sty . It w a s o n ly a t th e a g e o f
forty, w h en his d u t y t o the on e G o d c o m p e lle d him to p rea ch a g a in s t
idol w orship, th at his p e o p le b e g a n to p ersecute him.
M u h a m m a d , like the rest o f the y o u n g m en in A b u - T a l i b ’s fam ily,
h ad to w ork a n d h elp preserve the d ig n ity o f a g en e ratio n o f H a sh i-
m ites w h o , th o u g h they were less p ro s p e r o u s th a n their p redecessors,
still r e m a in e d p r o u d a n d pow erful. H e a c te d a s a sh e p h erd , a n d later,
w h ile p a r t i c i p a t i n g in b u sin e s s, his r e la tio n s with his p e o p le g a in e d
him th e n a m e o f a l- A m fn (trustw orth y).
A t th e a g e o f tw enty-five, he m a r r ie d a la d y o f forty, his first wife,
K h a d f j a h , a r e la tiv e a n d a rich w idow . They lived tw enty-five ye a rs
to g eth e r in p ro sp e rity a n d h a p p in e ss, a n d h a d fo ur d a u g h t e r s a n d two
son s, b u t o f th e d a u g h t e r s w h o lived a n d m a r r ie d , o n ly F a t i m a h h ad
d e s c e n d a n t s .11 M u h a m m a d w a s a d e v o te d , lovin g father, a n d w as kind
to c h ild r e n in gen eral. In his tw enty-five y e ars o f life with K h a d f j a h , h e
w a s t h e id e a l h u s b a n d . W h e n sh e d i e d , he r e m a i n e d s e v e r a l y e a r s
w ith o u t a wife, a n d even a fte r he m a r rie d — for a n u m b e r o f reason s —
several wives, he a lw a y s r e m e m b e r e d K h a d f j a h . ‘W h e n I w as p oo r, she
enrich ed m e; w h en they ca lle d m e a liar, she a lo n e re m a in e d tru e.’ It is
a n u n d i s p u t e d fa ct th at K h a d f j a h w a s the first to believe in M u h a m ­
m a d ’s m ission.

11. Fatim ah was the mother o f Hasan and Husain. Her husband ‘AIT was a
cousin and the fourth Caliph.

tial member of a powerful local clan who subsequently refused either to pay
the price or to return the goods, whereupon the aggrieved seller stood up in the
vicinity o f the K a ‘bah and implored aid for himself as a stranger in the city.
Several m em bers o f the Q uraysh aristocracy rallied to his assistance and
secured the return o f his goods. M eeting next in the house o f ‘Abd-Allah
ibn-Jud‘an, they pledged henceforth to com bat oppressive acts and uphold
justice. M u h a m m a d , then only twenty-five years old, w as present at this
gathering, and was so impressed with the merits of the pledge that when he
commenced his mission, he legalised it in Islam. As the years went by, even
after his mission had become a success, the Prophet continued to express both
his high regard for the league and his willingness to abide by its provisions.
64 ISI.A M I I T S M E A N IN G A N D M E S S A G E

W h en he received his first revelation while on a retreat in the c o u n ­

tryside, he re tu rn e d h om e frigh ten ed a n d shivering. K h a d f j a h receiv­
e d h im with the c o m fo r tin g words, ‘N o , you h ave n oth in g to fear. G o d
will never let you d o w n ; you are kind to y o u r relatives, you are astute
a n d p a tie n t, you give to the needy, you arc gen erous to guests, a n d you
never fail to relieve p e o p le from distress.’ 12
S o w a s M u h a m m a d de scrib e d by the one w h o knew him best before
the call a n d the p ro p h e tic revelation. L e t us now follow his role in the
g reat d r a m a th a t w a s destin ed to tra n sfo rm his lan d , his p e o p le a n d the
world.
M u h a m m a d , a t the a g e o f forty, w as inclined to w orsh ip in solitude
in a ca v e on M o u n t H i r a o u tsid e the city. It w as while p r a y in g , d u r in g
the sa c re d m on th o f his p e o p le , th at he h eard a voice c o m m a n d him ,
‘ R e a d . ’ ‘ I c a n n o t r e a d , ’ he replie d . B u t th e vo ice a g a i n c o m m a n d e d
h im , ‘ R e a d : in the n a m e o f the L o r d W h o creates . . . m a n from a clot.
R e a d : A n d y o u r L o r d is the M o s t B o u n te o u s. W h o te a ch es (w ritin g)
by the p e n , te a ch es m a n th a t w hich he knew n o t.’ 15
T r e m b l in g , M u h a m m a d rush ed h om e to K h a d i j a h a n d told h er o f
his exp e rie n ce . S h e c o m fo rte d him a n d e n c o u ra g e d him . A fte r a short
in terlude, he a g a i n h e a r d the voice ca llin g to h im : ‘ Y o u a r e the m e s ­
sen g er o f G o d , a n d I a m G a b r ie l.’ R u s h i n g b a ck to K h a d i j a h in a state
o f c o m p le te e x h a u s tio n , he a sk ed th a t she co ve r him with a cloak. T h e n
he h eard the c a l l : ‘O you cn vc lo p ed in y o u r cloak, arise a n d w a r n ! your
L o r d m a g n i f y , y o u r r a i m e n t p u r i fy , p o llu tio n s h u n ! A n d sh o w not
fa v o u r, seekin g w orldly g a in ! F o r the sake o f the L o r d , be p a t ie n t ! ’ 14
It w as then M u h a m m a d realised w h at his m ission to his p e o p le w as
to b e , a n d t h a t w a s h ow it b e g a n . It is this m issio n w h ich fo r m s the
s u b je c t o f this book — this m ission which c o n q u e re d the h earts o f m en ,
a n d c o n t in u e s to d o so w ith s o a r i n g v ita lity o v e r th irtee n c e n tu r ie s
later.
M u h a m m a d ’s sincerity w as never d o u b t e d by those w h o knew him
well — his wife, his a tte n d a n t-s e c r e ta r y , a n d his y o u n g co u sin ‘AITwho
lived with h im ; these were his first converts. A n d 'th o u g h to his g rie f he
c o u ld not con vert his uncle A b u - T a l ib , the ofd m a n never ce ase d to
show faith in the sincerity o f his n ep h ew : when ‘All", h is son, co n ve rted ,
he told h im , ‘G o , m y son: he will n ever call you b u t to w h a t is g o o d .’

12. A. R. ‘Azzain, Batal at-Abtal Muhammad (2nd cd. Cairo: T he House of

Arabic Books, 1954), p. 16.
13. al-Qur’an, 96: 1-5.
14. Ibid., 74: 1-7.
 T H E L IFE OF TH E PRO PH ET MUHAMMAD 65

W a s M u h a m m a d ’s in sp ira tio n g en u in e? D id he sp e a k in entirely

g o o d fa ith ? T h e M u s lim s , o f course, h a d no d o u b t ; b u t this w as a ls o the
a t t it u d e o f k n o w l e d g e a b l e m en a n d serio u s sch olars. S u c h m en were
a n d still a re co n v in c e d o f M u h a m m a d ’s e arn estn ess, faithfulness a n d
sincerity.
S o m e th irty y e a rs a g o , I a sk e d S i r D e n is o n R o s s , then d e a n o f the
L o n d o n S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l S t u d i e s , if he be lie ve d th a t M u h a m m a d
h a d been sincere a n d faithful. H e a n sw e re d , i a m sure o f th a t; he never
lied or d e c e iv e d ; he w a s sincere a n d tr u th fu l.’ I a sk e d further, ‘ D o you
b elieve th a t he w a s the P r o p h e t o f G o d ? ’ T o this he r e p lie d , ‘T h a t is
a n o th e r m a t t e r .’ M o d e r n sch o la rs n o lon ger q u e stio n his truthfulness.
A c c o r d in g to T o r A n d r a e :

F o r m e r l y , m e n t h o u g h t t h a t h is c h a r a c t e r r e v e a l e d a c e r t a i n
p r e m e d it a t io n , a c a l c u l a t i n g c l e v e r n e s s . . .T h a t M u h a m m a d a cted
in g o o d f a it h c a n h a r d l y b e d i s p u t e d by a n y o n e w h o k n o w s the
p s y c h o lo g y o f in sp ira tio n . T h a t the m e s s a g e w hich he p r o c la im e d
d id not c o m e fro m h im se lf n or fro m his o w n id e a s a n d o p in io n , is
not o n ly a tenet o f his fa ith , b u t also a n e xp e rie n ce whose reality he
never q u e stio n e d . P o ssib ly he w a s in d o u b t a t first a s to the iden tity
o f the h id d e n voice a s to w h eth er it really c a m e from the
h eave n ly m essen g er w h o m he h a d seen in the m o u n t a in s o f M e c c a
or fro m a n o r d in a r y j i n n i . . , 15

M u h a m m a d q u ie tly p r e a c h e d his faith in O n e G o d for so m e time.

H e w on a few co n v e rts: his best frien d, A b u - B a k r , a wise, respected a n d
rich m e r c h a n t; later ‘U t h m a n a n d T a l h a h , e q u a lly im p o r t a n t a n d
w e ll- to - d o M a k k a n Q u r a v s h i s ; a n d a n u m b e r o f p o o r c itiz e n s a n d
slaves. T h e n he received the c o m m a n d to p re a c h in p u b lic : ‘T h u s W'c
send you ( O M u h a m m a d ) to a n a tio n , before w h o m o ih e r n a tio n s h ave
p a ss e d a w a y , th a t you m a y recite to th e m th at w hich W e h av e inspired
in you . . . T h u s h a v e W e revealed it, a d ecisive u tte ran c e ( Q u r ’a n ) in
A r a b i c . . .” 6
W ith this c o m m a n d fr o m G o d , the P ro p h e t w ent fo rw a rd to w arn
his p e o p le a g a in s t idol w o r s h i p a n d to tell th e m to e x p e c t a resurrection
an d a d a y o f ju d gem en t.
H e s to o d for the first tim e on the Hill o f S a f a o p p o site the K a ‘bah ,
where the M a k k a n idols w ere glorified, a n d said to the p e op le : ‘S u p ­
p o sin g I now told you th a t j u s t b e h in d the slo pes o f this hill there w as
15. Andrae, op. at., p. 47.
16. al-Qur’an, 13:30,37.
66 isla m : its m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

a n e n e m y c a v a lr y force c h a r g i n g on y ou. W ou ld yo u b e lie v e ?’

‘W e never knew th at you lied,’ they replied.
Then he s a id , ‘ 1 w a r n y o u I h av e a M e s s a g e from G o d , a n d 1 h av e
c o m e to y o u a s a w a r n e r a n d a s th e f o r e r u n n e r o f a d r e a d f u l
p u n ish m e n t . I c a n n o t protect you in this w orld, nor c a n I p r o m ise you
a n y th in g in the next life, unless you d e c la re th at there is no G o d bu t the
on e G o d . " 7
T h e y m o c k e d h im a n d went a w a y . T h u s b e g a n his ten-year ca ree r o f
a c t i v e s t r u g g l e a n d p e r s e c u t io n in M a k k a . l i e d i d n ot d e s is t fro m
p r e a c h i n g to his p e o p le o f a p u n i s h m e n t th a t w o u ld c o m e u p o n the
u n b e l i e v i n g c i ty . H e to ld t h e m , in th e fiery l a n g u a g e o f th e e a r l y
Surahs, 18 how G o d h a d p u n ish e d the old tribes o f the A r a b s w h o w ou ld
not believe in H is m essen g ers h ow the flood h a d sw allo w e d u p the
p e o p le w h o w o u ld not h ark en to N oah .
I le s w o r e u n t o th e m b y th e w o n d e r f u l s ig h t s o f n a t u r e , b y the
n o o n d a y b rig h tn e ss, by the n igh t when it s p r e a d s its view, by the d a y
w h en it a p p e a r s in g lo r y — th a t a like d e s t r u c t io n w o u ld a s s u r e d ly
co m e u p o n th e m if they d id not turn a w a y from their idols a n d serve
G o d alo n e . H e lired his M e s s a g e with every resource o f l a n g u a g e a n d
m e t a p h o r until it se a re d the e ars o f his p eople. A n d then he told them
o f the last d a y w h en a ju s t re ck o n in g w o u ld be m a d e o f the d e e d s they
h a d d o n e , a n d he s p o k e o f P a r a d i s e a n d H e ll w ith all th e g lo w o f
E a s t e r n im a g e r y . T h e p e o p le were m o v e d a n d terrified; c o n v e rs io n s
in creased.
It w a s tim e for the Q u r a y s h is to take a ction . I f the idols were d e s ­
troyed, w h a t w o u ld b e c o m e o f th e m , the keepers o f the idols, a n d their
ren o w n th r o u g h o u t the l a n d ? H o w w o u ld they retain the a lle g ia n c e o f
the n e ig h b o u r in g tribes w h o c a m e to w orsh ip their several divin ities at
the K a ‘ b a h ? T h a t a few s h o u ld fo llow th e r a v in g s o f a m a d m a n or
m a g ic ia n w h o p referre d o n e G o d a b o v e the b e a u tifu l deities o f M a k k a
w as o f sm a ll c o n cern ; bu t th a t so m e le a d in g m en o f the city sh o u ld join
th e s e c t , a n d th a t th e m a g i c i a n s h o u l d te rr ify th e p e o p l e in b r o a d
d a y lig h t with his d e n u n c ia tio n o f the w orship which they s u p e rin ­
te n d e d , w a s intolerable.
The c h ie fs w ere s e r io u s ly a l a r m e d , a n d reso lved on a m o re a c tiv e
p o licy . H i t h e r t o th e y h a d m e re ly r id ic u le d th e p r e a c h e r o f this new
faith : n ow they w o u ld take stron g e r m ea su re s. M u h a m m a d they d a r e d
not to uch d ire c tly , for he b e lo n g e d to a n ob le fa m ily w hich, th o u g h
17. ‘Azzam,©^. cit., p. 16.
18. Surah means chapter of the Q u r’an.
 T H E LIFE OF TH E PRO PH ET MUHAMMAD 67

r e d u c e d a n d i m p o v e r i s h e d , d e s e r v e d w ell o f th e c i t y a n d w h ic h ,
m o r e o v e r , w a s n ow h e a d e d b y a m a n w h o w a s r e v e r e d t h r o u g h o u t
M a k k a a n d w as non e o th er th a n the a d o p t iv e fath e r a n d p r o tec to r o f
M u h a m m a d h im s e lf. N o r w a s it s a f e to a t t a c k th e o t h e r c h i e f m e n
a m o n g the M u s l im s , for b lo o d revenge w as no light risk.1'1T h e y were
thus c o m p e lle d to c o n te n t th em selves with the in v id io u s satisfa ctio n o f
to rtu rin g the b la c k slaves w h o h a d jo in e d the ‘o b n o x io u s fa c t io n 1.
The s tr u g g le grew in intensity. T h e M a k k a n o lig a rc h y w a s seriously
d is tu r b e d . M u h a m m a d w as in e arn e st: he w a s the M e s se n g e r o f G o d ,
a n d w as u n d e r H i s orders. T h e idols o f M a k k a were n ot g o d s or p a r t n ­
ers with the A lm ig h t y ; they were helpless a n d useless, a n d there w as no
g o d b u t A llah . T h i s p urest form o f m o n o th eism , w hich is the essence o f
M u h a m m a d ’s fa it h , w a s a n im p o s s ib le d o c tr in e for th e Q u r a y s h is to
a c c e p t . T h e p o l y t h e i s m o f M a k k a h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d fr o m tim e
i m m e m o r i a l . It w a s n ot o n ly th e r e lig io n o f th e ir a n c e s t o r s b u t the
s o u rc e o f th e ir d is tin c tio n in all A r a b i a . I f it w en t, w ith it w o u ld go
th eir h o n o u r , p o w e r a n d w ealth . M u h a m m a d w a s the d e s c e n d a n t o f
‘A b d - M a n a f , H a s h i m , a n d ‘A b d a l - M u U a l i b , w h o , g e n e r a t io n a fte r
g e n e r a tio n , h a d been the le a d in g m e n o f the Q u r a y s h a n d h a d h a d its
interest a t h e a r t; so w hy not try to settle with h im , on w h atev er m igh t
satisfy his d r e a m o f p o w e r a n d a m b it io n ?
A p r o m in e n t le a d e r o f the M a k k a n o l i g a r c h y ,‘U t b a h i b n - R a b f ‘ah,
w a s a u t h o r iz e d to n eg o tia te with M u h a m m a d . ‘ U t b a h called
M u h a m m a d to the K a ‘b a h a n d there s ta te d his p r o p o s a ls : ‘O son o f
m y b ro th er, you know y o u r p la c e a m o n g us Q u r a y s h is . Y o u r a n cesto rs
a r e h igh in o u r p e d ig r e e , a n d y o u r c la n is fo r e m o st a n d s tr o n g . Y o u
h ave s h o c k e d a n d d is tu r b e d y o u r people. Y o u h av e broken their un ity;
yo u h a v e r id i c u l e d th e ir w is d o m ; you h a v e in su lte d th eir g o d s ; you
h a v e d e g r a d e d their relig io n ; a n d you h av e even d e n ie d piety a n d pure
faith to their a n c e s to r s .’
M u h a m m a d then sa id , ‘ I a m listen in g.’
‘ U t b a h c o n tin u e d , s a y i n g , ‘ I f you w an t w ealth , we will all co n trib u te
to m a k e yo u the richest o f us all. I f y o u r o b je ct is h o n o u r a n d p ow er, we
will m a k e you o u r lea d er a n d p rom ise to d e cid e n o th in g w ith o u t you.
If, even, you think o f roy alty, we will elect you o u r king. I f th at which
you e x p e rie n ce a n d see' — m e a n in g the revelation a n d the visitation o f
G a b r i e l — ‘ is b e y o n d y o u r c o n tr o l a n d yo u c a n n o t d e f e n d y o u r s e l f

19. Stanley Lane-Poole, The Speeches and Table-Talk of the Prophet Mohammad,
(London: Macmillan & Co., 1882), p. xxxiii.
68 ISL A M ! ITS M EA NING AND M E SSA G E

a g a in s t it, we sh all h elp cu re you by s p e n d in g m o n e y for m e d ic a l care.

It is p o ssib le for a m a n to be o v e rc o m e by the force o f a n unseen p ow e r
until he finds a w a y to a c u r e .’
M u h a m m a d ’s a n sw e r w a s fru stra tin g to the g reat rep re sen tative o f
the M a k k a n leaders. H e s a id , with respect, ‘A b u a l-W a lfd , listen to me,
p le a se ,’ w h e re u p o n he b e g a n to recite from the Q u r ’an the b a sic tenets
o f his new c re e d .20
T h e n e g o tia tio n w as b ro k en ; a c o m p ro m ise w as im p o ssib le.
M u h a m m a d w a n t e d n o t h in g less th a n a c o m p l e t e s u b m is s io n to the
new faith. H e h im se lf w as o n ly a M e sse n g e r, a n d he h a d t o c a r r y o u t his
ord e rs from G o d a n d fulfill H is m ission faithfully.
ITie situ a t io n b e c a m e m o re serious. T h e M a k k a n o lig a rc h y resorted
to violen ce a g a in s t the g r o w in g h u m b le e le m e n t o f the new c o n g r e g a ­
tion. T h e y a p p e a l e d to M u h a m m a d ’s d ig n it y a n d to his a r is to c r a t ic
b lo o d , r e b u k in g him for b e in g the le a d e r o f the sla v e s a n d the u n ­
w o rth y in the c ity : ‘ Y o u a re fo llow ed o n ly b y th e c o n t e m p t ib l e a n d
d e g r a d e d p e o p le w h o d o not th in k .’?l
But M u h a m m a d w as not sent to the a risto c ra ts a lo n e ; he w as a
M e s s e n g e r to all p e o p le . H e w a s p r e a c h i n g w h a t G o d o r d e r e d : ‘O
M a n k i n d ! L o ! W e . . . h ave m a d e you n a tio n s a n d tribes th at ye m a y
know on e a n o th e r ( a n d be friends). L o ! the noblest o f you, in the sight
o f A lla h , is the best in c o n d u c t .’^
T h e pe rse cu tion o f those w h o listened to the A p o stle o f G o d co n ti­
n u e d . A t last the M a k k a n lead ers a p p e a l e d to M u h a m m a d ’s sense o f
tribal solidarity. T h e y e x p l a in e d the d a n g e r to w hich the Q u r a y s h a n d
the city were e x p o se d by the h u m ilia tio n o f their idols a n d the d isso ­
lution o f A r a b religious tra d itio n . T h e y s a id , ‘I f we w ere to follow the
r i g h t p a t h w it h y o u , w e w o u l d b e to r n o u t o f o u r l a n d ( a n d
d i s p e r s e d ) . ’23 T h e y m e a n t th a t th e y w o u ld be n o differe n t fr o m the
n o m a d s o f A r a b i a a n d w o u ld not be secure in their homes.
F o r M u h a m m a d th at d a n g e r d id not exist. G o d W h o c o m m a n d e d
h im w o u ld p r o v id e for the d e fe n s e o f the fa ith fu l a n d the v ic to r y o f
those w h o a b i d e d by H is L a w . T h e y s h o u ld know a n d re co g n iz e the
truth that the idols w ere h elpless stones, a n d that there w as no G o d but
the A lm ig h ty A lla h , the C r e a t o r o f all, w h o h a d no p artn ers. T h e y

20. ‘A zzam ,op. at. p. 16. H ccallcd Utbah by the name Abu al-Walfd, Father
of Walfd, who was his son; this was a customary sign of respect.
21. al-Qur'an, 11: 27. This was also said to Noah by his people.
22. Ibid.,49: 13.
23. Ibid., 28 :57.
 TH E L IF E OF TH E PRO PH ET MUHAMMAD 69

s h o u ld recogn ize th a t there w o u ld be a resurrection a n d a d a y o f j u d ­

g e m e n t in w hich n o th in g w ou ld a v a il b u t d e votio n to G o d .
Bu t they h a t e d th at m e n a c e o f a j u d g e m e n t , a n d d id not believe in a
resurrection . A p r o m in e n t leader, U m a y y a h ib n - K h a l a f , took a d e ­
c a y e d h u m a n bo n e fro m its g ra v e a n d b r o u g h t it to the P ro p h e t, a s k ­
in g, ‘Y o u s a y th at this will c o m e to life a g a i n ? ’
‘H e W h o h a s c r e a te d it in the first in sta n ce c a n m a k e it r e tu rn ,’ the
P r o p h e t replied.
T h e a r g u m e n t s a n d d is p u t e s w ent on , a c c o m p a n ie d by a n intensive
p e rse cu tion o f the P r o p h e t’s followers. M u h a m m a d then a d v ise d them
to m ig r a t e to the o p p o site side o f the R e d S e a , to C h r is tia n A by ssin ia
( E t h i o p i a ) . They w ere received there by the N e g u s (e m p e r o r ), w hose
p ro tec tio n they a sk ed . A c c o r d in g to tra d itio n , they a p p e a l e d to h im in
these w ords: ‘O K i n g , we lived in ign o ra n ce , id o la tr y a n d im p u r ity ; the
stro n g o p p r e sse d the w ea k ; we spoke u n tr u th s; we v io la te d the duties
o f h o s p i t a l i t y . T h e n a P r o p h e t a r o s e , o n e w h o m we k n ew fr o m o u r
y o u th , w h ose d ecen t c o n d u c t , g o o d faith , a n d m o r a lity is well known
to all o f us. H e told us to w orsh ip on e G o d , to s p e a k the truth , to keep
g o o d fa ith , to assist o u r relatio n s, to fulfill the d u tie s o f h osp itality , a n d
to a b s t a in from all th in g s im p u r e a n d u n r ig h te o u s; a n d he o r d e red us
to offer p ra y ers, to give a lm s , a n d to fast. W e believed in h im , a n d we
fo llo w e d h im . B u t o u r c o u n t r y m e n p e r s e c u t e d us, to r tu r e d us, a n d
tried to c a u s c us to fo rsake o u r religion. A n d n ow we throw ourselves
u p o n y o u r p rotectio n . W ill you not p rotect u s?’
T h e M u s l im refugees recited p a r ts o f the Q u r ’an w hich praise J e s u s
a n d the V ir g in M a r y . It is s a id th at the N e g u s a n d b ish o p s th o u g h t
th eir b e lie f to b e d e r iv e d from the s a m e sources a s those o f C h ristian ity.
M e a n w h i le , the M a k k a n s d id not r e m a in idle. T h e y s en t e m iss a r ie s
with presen ts to the A b y ss in ia n s a n d p e titio n e d them for the su rren der
o f their e sc a p e d sla v e s a n d the o th er e m ig r a n ts ; b u t they w ere refused.
In M a k k a , the P rop h et a n d a few o f his con verts, who th rou g h tribal
c u s t o m s a n d c la n u s a g e s co u ld p rotect them selves, r e m a in e d a s a d a ­
m a n t a n d a s d e v o t e d a s e v e r in p r e a c h i n g the fa it h a n d in p r a y i n g
p u b licly a t the K a ‘b a h a g a in s t its gods.
The l e a d e r s o f th e Q u r a y s h h a d a l r e a d y t r i e d to n e g o t i a t e
with M u h a m m a d ’s k in sm e n , the B a n u - H a s h im , for the P r o p h e t ’s
d e a t h , o ffe r in g p a y m e n t o f b lo o d m o n e y in return, bu t the tribe h ad
refused the offer. F in a lly , the M a k k a n o lig a r c h y d e c id e d in d e s p e r a ­
tion to take ste p s a g a in s t A b u - T a l ib . In their o p in io n , he w as the real
p r o tec to r o f the b la s p h e m y , a lt h o u g h still a revered u p h o ld e r of M a k -
70 ISLA M : ITS M E A NIN G AND M ESSA G E

k an in stitu tio n s a n d u n co n v e rte d to M u h a m m a d ’s faith. T h e y a g r e e d

to sen d h im a n u l t i m a t u m . W h en he received th eir w a r n in g , th e old
m a n w as d is tu r b e d . H e called in his n ep h ew a n d told him th a t h r h a d
been w a r n e d b y his tribe. ‘I a m a f r a i d th a t the m a s s e s o f A r a b s will
rally a g a in s t m e. S a v e y o u r s e lf a n d m e, a n d b u rd en m e n ot b e yo n d the
p o ssib le .’
M u h a m m a d w ept, a n d a n sw e re d , ‘M a y G o d be m y w itness, if they
were to p la c e the sun in m y right h a n d a n d the m o o n in m y left, I w ou ld
not re n o u n c e m y M e s s a g e bu t w o u ld r a th e r perish in s t e a d .’ T h e n he
d e p a r t e d , b u t his u n c le c a ll e d h im b a c k a n d s a i d , ‘G o , m y son . S a y
w h a t you b elieve; I shall n ever, u n d e r a n y c irc u m st a n c e , let yo u d o w n .’
T h i s s t a n d taken by the uncle, w h o w a s never co n v e rted to the new
faith a n d w h o r e m a in e d a le a d e r in M a k k a with its p a g a n tr a d itio n s
a n d c o d e s o f h o n o u r , c o n s t i t u t e s a r e m a r k a b l e e p i s o d e in h isto r y .
A b u - T a l ib , th o u g h strictly a tra d itio n a list a n d un w illin g to p a r t with
his a n c e s t o r s ’ r e lig io n , h a d fo u n d it j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t o r e v e n m o r e
im p o r t a n t not to su r re n d e r to g r o w in g pressures or p e rse cu te his p r o t­
ege, o f w h ose sincerity a n d rig h te o u sn e ss he h a d no d o u b t.
T h e M a k k a n lea d ers were perp le xe d . A b u - T a l i b ’s refusal to act
m e a n t war. T h e A r a b s were used to feud s a n d w ars, b u t they c o u ld not
a c c e p t this c h a lle n g e , for it w o u ld h a v e involved fra tric id a l s la u g h te r
in w h ich M u h a m m a d ’s fo llow ers w o u ld be n e g lig ib le . T h e s ta u n c h
tr a d itio n a lists like th e m se lv es, in c lu d in g a m ajo rity o f the H a s h im ite s,
M u t t a l ib it e s , a n d others, w o u ld light for the P r o p h e t ’s c a u s e for fam ily
r e ason s w hile s h a r in g the M a k k a n s ’ religion ; a n d those w h o sh a re d his
faith ( A b u - B a k r , ‘ U t h m a n , T a l h a h , ‘U m a r , a n d oth ers) w o u ld b e on
the o th er sid e a g a in s t their kin sm en. The lea d ers b a c k e d d o w n , w a it­
in g for M u h a m m a d to r e aliz e the d a n g e r o u s s itu a t io n to w ard which
he w a s l e a d in g his cla n , its s u p p o rte r s a n d those w h o believed in him .
M u h a m m a d w as n ot to seek a n y co n ciliatio n . 1le w a s in the h a n d s o f
G o d . H e w a s sure th a t a n o th e r , h ig h er will w as d ir e c t in g his d estin y,
a n d th a t th e o n ly w a y o u t w a s fo r the Q u r a y s h to see, d e s p ite all its
p r id e a n d v e ste d in terests, th a t its s h a m e lay in w o r s h i p p in g useless
id o ls th at c o u ld n ot direct m en to p ie ty a n d rig h teousn ess in this world
or s a v e th e m in the n ex t on the g r e a t d a y o f j u d g e m e n t . H e w a s sent
th rou g h the m erc y o f G o d to m a k e the A r a b s a w orthy p eop le d e d i ­
c a te d to the c a u s e o f serv in g m a n k in d a n d their C r e a to r.
The Q u r a y s h a n d its m a s s s u p p o r t e r s h e a p e d ridicu le a n d c o n te m p t
u p o n the P r o p h e t a n d his m ission, a n d threw dirt on h im w h erever he
w e n t , b u t to n o a v a i l . H e still p r e a c h e d p u b l i c l y , a n d w e n t to the
 T H E I IFE O F T H E P R O P H E T M U H A M M AD 71

K a ‘b a h to p r a y in his ow n w ay. U l tim a te ly , they d e c id e d to ta k e e x ­

tr e m e m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t h is fa m il y , the H a s h i m i t e s : th e y r e fu se d to
h av e a n y c o n ta c t with th em , to m arry'w ith th em , or even to tra d e with
them . T h e y p le d g e d th e m se lv es to th a t e n d in a p r o c la m a t io n w hich
they p la c e d in the sa c re d K a ‘b a h .
A b u - T a l i b wisely a n d q u ie tly took stock o f the situ atio n , a n d d e c i d ­
ed to w ith d r a w to a valley o n the easte rn outskirts o f M a k k a , w here he
a n d the loyal H a s h im ite s e n tren c h e d them selves. H e w a n te d to a v o id
b lo o d sh e d , a n d all H a s h i m i t e su p p o r te r s , e x c e p t A b u - L a h a b , felt the
s a m e w ay. T h e M u t ta lib c la n , co u sin s o f the H a s h im ite s, follow ed suit,
a n d a l s o e n t r e n c h e d t h e m s e lv e s in the shi'b ( a s h o r t, c lo s e d v a lle y ).
D e p r iv e d o f e v e r y th in g for m o r e th a n tw o years, the H a s h i m i t e s a n d
th e ir s u p p o r t e r s e n d u r e d e x t r e m e h a r d s h ip s . F o o d w as s c a r c e ; there
w as n ot e n o u g h to m eet their needs. S o m e o f the m erciful p e o p le o f the
city w o u ld now a n d then s m u g g le a c a m e l-lo a d o f food a n d su p p lie s to
them.
H a r d l y a n y new c o n v e r t s w ere m a d e d u r i n g th is p e rio d . M o s t o f
those co n v e rts w h o r e m a in e d o u tsid e the shi'b took refuge in A by ssin ia.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e P r o p h e t ’s d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d c o u r a g e n e v e r
w ea k e n e d . I le c o n tin u e d to go to the K a ' b a h a n d to p r a y p ub licly . IIc
u sed e v e ry o p p o r t u n i t y to p r e a c h to o u tsid e r s w h o v isited M a k k a for
bu sin ess o r o n p il g r i m a g e d u r i n g th e sa c re d m on th s. H e n ev e r d o u b t e d
G o d ’s u ltim a t e victory.
In the third ye a r o f b o y co tt a n d siege, m a n y Q u r a y s h leaders b e g a n
to feel g u ilty a b o u t isolatin g their kinsm en to perish in the sh i‘b. A fter
all, the m a jo r ity o f th ose b o y c o tte d a n d besie ge d were not even c o n ­
verts; they were idol w o rsh ip p ers, like th em selves, bu t they were g o in g
th rou g h these trials just the s a m e , in k e e p in g with their c o d e o f honour,
for th e p ro te c tio n o f a k in sm a n w h o h a d a lw a y s been a tru th ful a n d
honest person.
I he m o d e r a t e s fo u n d a n e xc u se in that the p r o c la m a t io n su sp e n d e d
in the K a ‘b a h u n d e r the w a t c h fu l eyes o f the idol g o d s w a s e a te n by-
w o r m s . T h e m e r c i f u l p a r t y t h u s took c o u r a g e ; th e ir l e a d e r s p u t on
th eir a r m s a n d w e n t to the shi'b, w h ere the e xiles h a d been sufferin g,
a n d e xtr ic a te d them .
A n d so, in th e e ig h th y e a r o f the P r o p h e t’s m ission, the con verts, his
un cle A b u T a l ib , a n d the clan th at h a d h o n o u re d its tribal tra d itio n in
givin g protection to a fa ith fu l son w ent b a c k to their hom es.
T h a t w a s not th e e n d o f the b a d tim es a n d suffering. M u h a m m a d
soon lost his u n cle, the ve te ra n S h e ik o f B a n u - H a s h im . A b u T a l i b w as
72 ISLA M : ITS M E A NIN G AND M E SSA G E

soon follow ed by the fa ith fu l K h a d i j a h , the first con vert o f the P ro ­

p h e t , his b e lo v e d wife, a d v is e r a n d co m fo rte r. H e a r i n g o f the respite
from s ie ge a n d b o y co tt, m a n y o f the e m ig r a n ts to A b y ss in ia c a m e back,
b u t th e y s o o n m et a n in te n s ifie d p e r s e c u t io n a n d w ere s u b j e c t e d to
en d le ss suffering.
T o p r e a c h in M a k k a s ee m ed h opeless, a n d to p rov ok e the Q u r a y s h f s
w as not the best o f w isd o m . T h e P ro p h e t then tu rn ed his hopes a w a y
fr o m h is t r i b e a n d c i t y to o t h e r c i t ie s a n d tr ib e s . T h e n e a r e s t a n d
s t r o n g e s t c o m p e t i t o r o f M a k k a w a s th e c i t y o f a l - T a ‘ if, fifty m iles
s o u th ea st o f M a k k a . W ith his se r v an t Z a y d the P ro p h e t w alked u p the
r u g g e d m o u n t a i n s to th a t c ity . H e v is ite d th e t r i b a l l e a d e r s , a n d
q u ie tly a sk e d their help. H e w a s refused a n d b a d ly treated. D ism issed ,
a n d follow ed by v a g a b o n d s a n d street u rc h in s w h o d ro v e h im on a n d
w ou ld not a llo w h im to rest, he b e c a m e e x h a u ste d . H is feet b leed in g ,
he s a t a n d a p p e a l e d to the A lm ig h t y for H is m ercy. T h e p r a y e r that
e n su e d h as b e c o m e o n e o f the c h e rish e d le g a c ie s o f the fa ith fu l
a p p e a l i n g to G o d in d e s p e r a t e c irc u m sta n c e s.
H e g a t h e r e d s t r e n g t h a n d c o n t i n u e d o n his w a y b a c k to M a k k a ,
r e ach in g it three d a y s later. Z a y d w as c o n cern e d , a n d a sk ed the P r o ­
p het w h e t h e r he d i d n ot fe a r t h r u s t i n g h im s e l f in to the h a n d s o f the
Q u r a y s h f s , w h o c o n t i n u e d to p lot a g a i n s t the p o w e r le ss in th e city.
‘G o d will p ro te c t H i s re lig io n a n d I lis P r o p h e t , ' w a s th e r e p ly . T h e
M a k k a n s h a d l e a r n e d o f the P r o p h e t ’s reverses a t a l - T a ’i f a n d were
p r e p a r in g a d e g r a d i n g recep tion for him . N on e o f the M a k k a n ch ie f­
tains from w h o m M u h a m m a d re q u este d p rotection for safe e n try into
th e c i t y w o u l d e x t e n d h im h e l p ; b u t a g o o d - h e a r t e d p a g a n c h ie f ,
a l - M u t ‘ im ib n -‘A d f, took h im u n d e r his p ro tec tio n a n d b r o u g h t h im
h om e. T h u s d id M u h a m m a d re-enter M a k k a g u a r d e d by a p o ly ­
th e is t, s c o ffe d a t by h is fe llo w c itiz e n s , a n d p it ie d for his lot by his
helpless followers.
In th a t s a d y e a r o f r e c u r r in g c a l a m i t i e s a n d g lo o m , w h en t r a g e d y
s ee m ed a b o u t to e n g u l f M u h a m m a d ’s m ission , a g le a m o f h o p e c a m e
to su s ta in h im . D u r in g the p ilg r im a g e season a n d the sa c re d m o n th s,
when the tr a d it io n a l law s fo r b a d e violence, the P ro p h e t h a d by h a p p y
c h a n c e c o n v e rte d a few p e o p le from Y a t h r ib , w h o sw ore a lle g ia n c e to
him. T h e y r e tu rn e d to ‘A q a b a h in the s p rin g o f A .C . 621 w ith the g o o d
news th a t his faith w a s b e in g a c c e p te d b y m a n y in Y a th r ib . T h e y were
a c c o m p a n i e d b y tw e lv e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f the tw o p r i n c i p a l trib e s,
A w s a n d K h a z r a j , w h o in M u s l im history la te r b e c a m e kn ow n a s Ansar
(helpers). T h e Y a t h r i b it e d e le g a tio n told the P rop h et th at their p e o p le
 T H E LIFE O F T H E PR O PH ET MUHAMMAD 73

were w illin g to a c c e p t I s la m a n d p le d g e d , ‘W e will n ot w o rsh ip save

on e G o d ; we will not steal nor c o m m it a d u lte r y n o r kill o u r ch ild ren ;
we will in n o wise s la n d e r , n o r will we d iso b ey the P ro p h e t in a n y th in g
th a t is r i g h t . ’ T h i s p le d g e w a s la t e r c a ll e d th e first B a y ‘a t al- 'Aqabah
( P l e d g e o f A l-‘A q a b a h ) . T h e s e c o n d c a m e a y e a r later, fo llow in g the
p ilg r im s ’ s eason , w h en sev en ty o f the Y a t h r ib it e s c a m e a g a i n to ‘A q a -
b a h , a n d secre tly p le d g e d th e m se lv es a n d their p e o p le to d e fe n d the
P ro p h e t a s they w o u ld d e fe n d their ow n w ives a n d children.
M a k k a w as n o lo n ge r a safe p la c e for the M u s l im s to reside in. T h e
P r o p h e t th en d ir e c t e d th o se w h o h a d r e tu r n e d fr o m A b y s s in ia a n d
o th er co n v e rts to e m i g r a t e a n d h e a d for Y a t h r ib . Q u ie t ly they started
to m o v e ou t. In a few m o n th s, m o re th a n a h u n d r e d fam ilies left their
h o m e s a n d m ig r a t e d to Y a t h r ib . T h e Q u r a y s h is w ere on their g u a r d .
T h e m ig r a t io n o f the P ro p h e t to a rival city w as h a r m fu l to th e m a n d
they w ere d e t e r m i n e d to p r e v e n t it a t a ll costs. I’hey d e c id e d to kill
h im , b u t collectively — re p re sen ta tiv e s o f all c lan s w o u ld p lu n g e their
sw o rd s into him — so th at the H a s h im ite s, faced with this jo in t res­
p o n s ib ili t y , w o u ld be p r e v e n t e d fro m t a k i n g v e n g e a n c e on a s in g le
clan .
T h e T r u s t e d A b u - B a k r a n d ‘A IT sta y e d b e h in d in M a k k a with the
P ro p h e t. ‘A l f s o u g h t to d e ceiv e the sp ies o f the o lig a rc h y by o c c u p y in g
the P r o p h e t ’s b e d , w hile the P ro p h e t a n d A b u - B a k r went to hide o u t in
a n eg lecte d c a v e a few m iles sou th o f M a k k a , on M o u n t T h a w r . W hen
the M a k k a n s d isco v e re d th at the P r o p h e t h a d e lu d e d th em , they i m ­
m e d ia te ly in s tig a te d a s ea rch , b u t they failed to ca tc h h im , a n d afte r
c o n c e a lin g h im se lf in the c a v e for three d a y s , M u h a m m a d rode o ff to
Y a t h r i b .21 W ith his a r r iv a l, a new e r a d a w n e d . C o n s c io u s o f this fact,
the M u s l i m s d a t e d their new e r a from this y e a r o f the m ig r atio n c o m ­
m o n ly ca lle d the H i jr a h (o r H e g ira ). It b e g a n on J u n e 16, A .C . 6 2 2 .25
W h e n th e P r o p h e t e n t e r e d Y a t h r i b in the s u m m e r o f t h a t y e a r,
m a n y l e a d in g Ansar a n d a few h u n d re d others w ere a lr e a d y co n verted,
'l'here w ere a ls o the Muhdjirun (th e M a k k a n M u slim e m ig r a n ts ) , w ho
g reeted h im o n the o u tsk ir ts o f the city. T h e p a g a n s a n d J e w s g a v e him
a g o o d r e c e p tio n a s well, e a c h for a d ifferen t re aso n . T h e A r a b J e w s
were m o n o th e ists they co n stitu te d three tribes, living a s n eig h b o u rs
o f the A r a b p a g a n tribes w h o h a d o r ig in a lly c o m e fro m the Y e m e n a n d

24. This city was later callcd Madinat al-Rasul (the City of the Prophet), or
simply al-Madinah (the City); it is modern Medina.
25. Hijrah means literally emigration. T he Muslim calendar dates from the
Hijrah; that is A.C. 622 is 1 Anno Hegirae (A.H.).
74 IS L A M : ITS M EA N IN G AND M E SSA G E

h a d g r a d u a l l y g a i n e d s u p r e m a c y in Y a t h r i b . T h e J e w s h o p e d th a t
M u h a m m a d , a s a m o n o t h e i s t , m ig h t b e c o m e th e ir a lly a g a i n s t the
p a g a n A r a b s a n d e ve n a g a i n s t the C h r is tia n s in n orthern A r a b ia . As
for the p a g a n s , their reason for receivin g M u h a m m a d w as not religion
but ra th e r the c o m p e titio n betw een M a k k a a n d Y a th r ib . F u r th e r ­
m o r e , th e P r o p h e t w a s r e la t e d to th e m on his m a t e r n a l s id e — his
g r e a t - g r a n d m o t h e r w a s a m e m b e r o f K h a z r a j , th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
tribe in Y a t h r i b — a n d ‘the e n e m y o f m y e n e m y ’ w as a s g o o d a reason
as any!
M e m b e r s o f e a c h g r o u p tried to direct M u h a m m a d ’s c a m e l tow ard
their q u a r te r s so th a t he w o u ld b e c o m e their guest. H e asked them to
let the a n im a l g o freely a n d s to p w here it w ou ld be best for e ve ryb o d y.
W h e re it s t o p p e d , he ch ose his a b o d e . T o d a y , it is the f a m o u s shrine
where the P r o p h e t’s t o m b sta n d s, a n d it is visited yearly by th o u s a n d s
o f M u s l im pilgrim s.
O n th at sp o t he lived, d irected the a ffa irs o f the new nation a n d built
the first m asjid o r m o s q u e o f I sla m ; a n d on that spot he died.
A fte r thirteen y e ars o f intensive s tr u g g le to survive, the P roph et had
at last fo u n d a frien dly city w h ere he co u ld d e fen d h im se lf a n d b a se his
fu tu re o p e ra tio n .
T h e Q u r a y s h i s in M a k k a w ere d is t u r b e d . T h e y w ere p o w e r fu l a s
ow n e rs o f in terests in all p a r ts o f A r a b ia , a s g u a r d i a n s o f p olyth e ism
a n d the idol g o d s o f the tribes, a n d a s lea d ers o f the A r a b ia n pilg ri­
m ag e . T h e ir city w a s a centre bo th o f A r a b i a n tr a d e a n d o f a b a n k in g
s y s t e m w h o se m o n e y - l e n d e r s g r a n t e d u s u r io u s lo a n s to the v a r io u s
tribes. M u h a m m a d , their rebelliou s k in sm a n , h a d n ow taken refuge in
a rival tow n, a n d h a d c re a te d a rival base a strid e their im p o r t a n t tra d e
rou te s to S y r ia a n d the north. M o r e o v e r, m a n y o f their son s an d
d a u g h t e r s h a d m ig r a t e d w ith him to the e n e m y c a m p . T h e y knew that
M u h a m m a d w o u ld n ev e r c o m p r o m ise in his religion, a n d th at peace
w ou ld be im p o ssib le with him.
M u h a m m a d , h ow ever, w as not to seek refuge for safety. H e w as the
M e s se n g e r o f G o d in the w orld, a n d idol w o rsh ip in his tribe a n d
h o m e la n d m u st c o m e to a n e n d . H is new n atio n w o u ld h av e to divorce
itself from id o latry , usury, im m o r a lity , a lco h o lism a n d vain a n d s a n ­
g uin e p rid e in tr ib a lism , a n d a b o v e all it w ou ld h a v e to b e c o m e m us-
l im , t h a t is, s u b m i s s i v e to G o d . th e a l m i g h t y O n e , W h o h a s n o
p a rtn ers, a n d to W h o m all will return to be ju d g e d for w h atev er they
h av e been.
H is first co n cern in Y a t h r i b w a s to b u ild h is s im p lc p la ce o f w orship,
 T H E I .I F E O F T H E P R O P H E T M U H A M M A D 75

the m asjid, w h ere the fa ith fu l c o u ld a ls o m eet to d is c u ss the a ffa irs o f

th eir w orld. W e m u st r e m e m b e r th at Isla m , unlike o th er g r e a t reli­
gions, such a s B u d d h i s m , H i n d u is m a n d C h r is tia n ity , su b s c r ib e s to a
p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l o r d e r w h ic h is to b e c a r e f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d a n d
o b s e r v e d in t h e h e r e a n d n o w a s a r o a d to th e a f t e r w o r l d . T h e
K i n g d o m o f G o d in H e a v e n is a c h ie v e d th rou g h p iety a n d th rou g h a
s y ste m o f s o c i a l a n d p o lit ic a l o r d e r , n a m e ly , a K i n g d o m o f G o d on
earth .
T h e life o f the P r o p h e t in M a k k a h a d been p rim a rily co n cern e d with
the f u n d a m e n t a ls o f his fa ith : the unity o f G o d , resurrection, the d a y o f
j u d g e m e n t , w o r s h i p a n d th e p u r i f ic a t i o n o f th e sou l. T h i s c o n c e r n
c o n tin u e d in Y a t h r i b . w here the ummah — c o n g r e g a tio n or n atio n —
c o u l d be o r g a n i z e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t e n tity . A c o n s t it u t io n a n d a
sy ste m o f d e f e n s e w ere n e e d e d . T h e new s o c i e t y h a d to e n g e n d e r a
social o r d e r a n d a sta te . T h e P ro p h e t, g u id e d by rev e la tio n , w a s a b l e to
im p le m e n t the p o litica l a n d social stru c tu re o f the new ummah, d espite
e x p o su r e to a w ar o f a n n ih ila tio n .
In m e e tin g this c h a ll e n g e , th e P r o p h e t , w ith the g u i d a n c e o f G o d
a n d his o w n p e r s o n a l a p t i t u d e , f u s e d th e M u s l i m c o n g r e g a t i o n o f
v a r i o u s c l a n s in t o a s o lid n a t io n w ith o n e l o y a lt y , I s l a m , a n d on e
b r o t h e r h o o d t r a n s c e n d i n g t r i b a l c u s t o m s . T h e s e c o n d task w a s an
a llia n c e w ith the n e ig h b o u r in g J e w s a n d p a g a n A r a b s for a c o m m o n
d e fen se a n d for secu rity a n d p e ac e in Y a th r ib . T h i s w a s a c c o m p lis h e d
th ro u g h treaty. T h i s w a s the f a m o u s C o v e n a n t o f Y a t h r i b , re se m b lin g
in c e r t a i n a s p e c t s t h a t o f th e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s o r o f th e U n it e d
N a t i o n s , w h ic h a i m e d a t th e m a i n t e n a n c e o f p e a c e a n d s e c u r i t y
a m o n g th e v a r i o u s t r i b e s a n d th e c r e a t i o n o f a c o m m o n s y s t e m o f
secu rity a s a co n se q u e n c e o f c o m m o n responsibility.
The next p r o b l e m w a s w h a t kin d o f d e fe n s e to e re c t, a m o b i l e or
sta tic one. In n o m a d ic A r a b i a , sta tic defen se w a s but the final resort in
e x t r e m e n ecessity , a s it m e a n t iso la tio n a c c o m p a n i e d b y h a r d s h ip s .
M o r e im p o r t a n t , it w o u ld also m e a n a halt in the e x p a n s io n o f the new
fa ith a n d in the g ro w th o f the new ummah. M u h a m m a d w as essentially
th e P r o p h e t o f G o d to m a n k i n d a n d th e c h o s e n in s t r u m e n t o f the
p r o p a g a t io n o f Isla m , a n d w h eth e r in M a k k a or Y a t h r i b , the faith w as
his f u n d a m e n t a l o b je c tiv e ; therefore, he d e c id e d a g a in s t sta tic d e ­
fense.
In the seco n d y e a r o f the H ijr a h , the P ro p h e t in itia te d m o b ile d e ­
fense, w h ich led in the third ye a r to the fa m o u s B a ttle ol B a d r , lo ca te d
s o u th w e st o f Y a t h r i b . H is forces w ere so m e three h u n d r e d in fa n tr y ­
76 ISL A M : ITS M EA NING AND M ESSA G E

m e n a n d th ree c a v a l r y m e n , with no a r m o u r b u t s w o r d s a n d lim ite d

su p p lies. H i s e n e m y , Q u r a y s h , h a d three tim es his in fan try , a h u n d re d
c a v a lr y m e n a n d a larg e s u p p ly c a r a v a n . T h e P r o p h e t’s force n ever­
theless d e f e a t e d th e m . T h e c a u s e s o f the victory lay in their su p e rio r
d is c i p l in e a n d l e a d e r s h i p a n d th e h ig h m o r a le w h ich r e su lte d fro m
their g reat faith in G o d a n d the p r o m ise o f afterlife.
T h e B a ttle o f B a d r w a s a g r e a t victory, especially b e ca u se it e s t a ­
b lish e d the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y a s a s e p a r a t e p o lit ic a l a n d so c ia l a s
well a s religious en tity a n d c o n firm ed the p ow e r o f the P ro p h e t, b u t it
w a s not decisive. M u h a m m a d treated his Q u r a y s h prisoners in a c h i­
v a lr o u s a n d h u m a n e w ay. H is prestige in the eyes o f the p a g a n
b e d o u i n s 26 a r o u n d Y a t h r i b rose c o n s id e r a b l y . D u r i n g th e B a t t l e o f
B a d r , these n o m a d s w aited like poised vultures, r e ad y to sw eep dow n
on th e d e f e a t e d a n d c a r r y o f f th e loot. A s th e Q u r a y s h i s w ere well
e stab lish e d in A r a b ia , they w o u ld h av e been af r a id to e x p lo it them in
ad v e rsity ; how ever, the P r o p h e t ’s p a r ty still lack ed roots firm e n o u g h
to s u rv iv e m is fo r t u n e a n d th e A r a b n o m a d ’s g re e d for p lu n d e r . But
G o d s a v e d H is follow ers, w h o n ever b o a ste d o f their victory — it w as
G o d ’s victory, they all a g r e e d ; even the a n g e ls were reinforcing them
a g a in s t the p a g a n s .
T h e first M u s l im a r m y c a m e b a ck to Y a t h r i b with M a k k a n p rison ­
ers w h o were m ostly o f the s a m e tribe a s the P ro p h e t, w h o tre a te d them
with m ercy a n d sent th e m hom e.
In th e t h ir d y e a r o f th e H i j r a h , w h ile th e P r o p h e t w a s a s u s u a l
a b s o r b e d in h is w o r s h i p a n d in h is p r e a c h i n g , he c o n s o l i d a t e d the
p osition o f his ummah a n d looked a fte r the defense o f his city. N eith er
w ere h is e n e m i e s id le . O n e y e a r l a t e r th e y w ere r e a d y , a n d a g a i n
m a r c h e d on Y a t h r i b with a force three tim es a s larg e a s the on e d e ­
feated a t B a d r . T h e P r o p h e t m o v e d to e n g a g e th em , a n d they met on
the slo pes o f M o u n t U h u d . T h e fierce b a ttle e n d e d with the retreat o f
the M u s l im forces a n d the w o u n d in g o f the P r o p h e t; but th rou g h his
e n d u r a n c e a n d his resourceful a n d c o u r a g e o u s le a d e rsh ip , he m a n a g ­
ed to save his s m a ll a r m y . A b u S u f y a n , w h o w as le a d in g the M a k k a n s,
called from the top o f the hill, sa y in g , ‘ U h u d for B a d r ; we call it even.
W e will m e e t a g a i n n e x t y e a r . ’ B o t h fo rces r e tir e d to th e ir o r i g i n a l
bases. B u t th at w a s not the e n d ; U h u d , like B a d r , w as not decisive.
T w o years later, Q u r a y s h built u p a m u c h larg er force, allie d itself to
m a n y tribes, a n d w a s a b le to m ob ilize a n a r m y o f t e n th o u s a n d m en . It

26. The English word comes from the Arabic tarfait'f (singular: badu), meaning
nomads, as distinguished from settled population.
 T H E LIFE O F TH E PRO PH ET MUHAMMAD 77

w as well a r m e d a n d e q u i p p e d , a n d thus fa r g re a te r th a n a n y force th at

the P r o p h e t c o u ld m uster. T h e a tt a c k e r s laid siege o n Y a t h r ib , a n d for
tw o w eeks p ressed to bre a k th r o u g h ; b u t they failed. T h e P roph et h a d
in tro d u c ed new defen se tactics — d ig g in g trenches a n d raisin g b a r r i­
c a d e s, at w h ich he h im se lf l a b o u r e d with the m e n d a y a n d nigh t. T h e
P r o p h e t ’s faith in G o d a n d the g r e a t zeal o f his followers, p a r tic u la r ly
the M uhajirun a n d Ansar, b a la n c e d the e n e m y ’s su periority in a r m s a n d
n u m b e r s . A s e v e r e w in d b le w , a c c o m p a n i e d b y a d u s t s t o r m . T h e
m o r a le o f the A h zab2 fa lt e r e d w ith the e v e n in g ; they a r g u e d a m o n g
th e m s e lv e s , a n d u l t i m a t e l y b r o k e c a m p a n d re tir e d . T h e M u s l i m s
follow ed th e m a c e rta in dista n ce . T h a t w a s the last Q u r a y s h a t t e m p t
to destroy its e n e m y ’s b a se in Y a th r ib .
A y e a r l a t e r , t h a t is, in th e s ix th y e a r o f th e H i j r a h , th e P r o p h e t
m o v e d in force t o w a r d his h o m e city, M a k k a . H e w a n t e d to m a k e his
lesser p i l g r i m a g e ( ‘umrah) to the K.a‘ b a h , w h ich , a l t h o u g h it h o u se d
p a g a n id o ls, w a s still r e g a r d e d by M u s l i m s a s s a c r e d , b e c a u s e in the
v i e w o f th e P r o p h e t th e K a ‘ b a h h a d b e e n b u i l t by th e P a t r i a r c h
A b r a h a m for the w o rsh ip o f G o d . It w as in the vicin ity o f the K a ' b a h ,
n ear the well o f Z a m z a m , t h a t A b r a h a m h a d settled his E g y p t i a n wife
H a g a r with her son Ish m ae l. T h e Q u r a y s h is a n d oth er n orthern A r a b
tribes were the d e s c e n d a n ts o f A b r a h a m th rou g h his son Ish m ael. T h e
M u s l i m s th e r e f o r e b e l ie v e d t h a t th e y h a d th e rig h t to p e r f o r m the
p il g r i m a g e in itia te d b y their g reat fath e r, A b r a h a m , the first A r a b to
w orship A lla h , the only G o d .
B u t th e M a k k a n s d i s a g r e e d w ith t h e m , a n d s o u g h t to b a r th e ir
entry. F in ally , a ten -year tru ce 211w a s c o n c lu d e d w ith Q u r a y s h w h ereby
the P r o p h e t a g r e e d , a m o n g oth er things, to p o stp o n e his p il g r i m a g e to
the fo llow in g season.
T h e m a r c h on M a k k a a n d the truce th a t resulted therefrom co n sti­
tu te a t u r n in g p o in t in M u s l i m history: for the first tim e , the right o f
every person to p r e a c h a n d p ra ctice his faith freely w a s recogn ized by a
fo rm a l treaty. A ye a r a fte r the co n clu sion o f the truce, the P r o p h e t a n d
tw o t h o u s a n d m e n e n t e r e d M a k k a , w h ic h , a c c o r d i n g to p r e v io u s
a g r e e m e n t, w as e v a c u a t e d te m p o r a rily o f its in h a b ita n ts. T h e M u s ­
lim s c o m p le t e d their p ilg r im a g e in a n a d m i r a b le m a n n e r , a n d im ­
p ressed th e M a k k a n s to su ch a n e x te n t th at co n v e rsio n s to I sla m in-
27. Literally, leagues, that is, a group banded in a general alliancc against the
Prophet and his men.
28. Known as the Truce of ai-Hudaybiyah (a place near Makka). The date was
A.D. 628.
78 ISL A M : ITS M EA N IN G A N D M E SSA G E

cre ase d by le a p s a n d b o u n d s. D e le g a tio n s were sent b y A r a b ia n tribes

fr o m t h e f o u r c o r n e r s o f t h e p e n i n s u l a to p l e d g e t h e ir l o y a l t y to
M u h a m m a d in Y a th r ib .
W h en tw o y e ars later the Q u r a y s h is violated their treaty o b lig a tio n s
a n d a tt a c k e d the K h u z a 'a h tribe, w hich w as allied with the M u slim s ,
th e P r o p h e t le d a m a r c h on M a k k a on W e d n e s d a y , th e t e n t h o f
R a m a d a n (in th e e ig h t h y e a r o f th e H i j r a h — A .D . 6 3 0 ) , w ith ten
th o u s a n d m en . O n th a t m e m o r a b le d a y , the P ro p h e t a sk ed the M a k -
kan s, ‘W'hat d o you think I will d o to y o u ? ’ T h e y a n sw e re d , ‘Y o u a r e a
gen erous b ro th e r a n d the son o f a gen erous b ro th e r.’ ‘G o , ’ the P roph et
rejoin ed, ‘you a r e fre ed .’
L a n c -P o o le writes:
. . . T h e d a y o f M u h a m m a d ’s greatest triu m p h o v er his e n e m ie s w a s
a ls o th e d a y o f the g r a n d e s t v icto ry o v e r him self. H e freely fo r g a v e
Q u r a y s h all the y e a rs o f sorrow a n d cruel scorn with w hich they h ad
afflicted him , a n d g a v e a n a m n e s ty to the whole p o p u la tio n o f M ecc a.
F o u r c r im in a ls w h o m J u s t i c e c o n d e m n e d m a d e u p M u h a m m a d ’s
proscription list, when a s a c o n q u e r o r he entered the city o f his bitterest
e nem ies. T h e a r m y follow ed in his e x a m p le , a n d e ntered q u ie tly a n d
p e a c e a b ly ; n o h ou se w as r o b b e d , n o w o m a n insulted. O n e th in g a lo n e
suffered d e stru c tio n . G o i n g to the K a ' b a h , M u h a m m a d sto o d before
e ac h o f th e three h u n d r e d a n d sixty idols, a n d p o in te d to th e m with his
s t a f f s a y in g , ‘T r u t h is c o m e , a n d fa lse h o o d is fled a w a y ! ’ a n d at these
w ords his a t t e n d a n t s hew ed them d ow n a n d all the idols a n d h o u se ­
hold g o d s o f M e c c a a n d rou n d a b o u t were d e str o y e d .’*"■
A fte r the co n q u e st o f M a k k a , M u h a m m a d h ad to m arc h on a n o th e r
s tu b b o r n e n e m y , a l - T a ’if, the im p o r t a n t d w ellin g p la c e o f the m uch -
e x a l t e d id o l g o d H u b a l . It w a s th e c i t y to w h ic h th e P r o p h e t h a d
jo u r n e y e d in his worst d a y s o f persecution , seeking re fu g e but receiving
h u m il ia t io n in s t e a d . T e n y e a r s h a d e l a p s e d sin ce th e n , a n d n o w he
believed th at the victory in M a k k a m ig h t p e r s u a d e the in h a b it a n t s o f
a l - T a ’ if to su e fo r p e a c e . O n the c o n t r a r y , th e y m o b ili z e d th e g re a t
H a w a z in c o n fe d e ra c y o f tribes a g a in s t h im , a n d rallied the city p eop le
for a decisive d a y with the e n e m y o f their god. T h e tw o forces m et at
H u n a y n . T h e M u s l i m s w ere th en c o m m a n d i n g th e l a r g e s t fo rce in
their history to d a t e , b u t they were b e in g ro u te d a n d were re trea tin g
when the P ro p h e t rallied the old Ansar a n d Xfuhajnun veterans. F i g h t ­
ing c o u r a g e o u s l y , th o u g h M u h a m m a d w as w o u n d e d , they w on the
d a y . Fhe P r o p h e t w a s s o g en e ro u s a n d forgivin g to his old e n e m ie s a n d
29. Lane-Poole, <>[>. cit. p. xlvii.
 T H E LIFE OF T H E PRO PH ET M UHAMM AD 79

p e rse c u to r s th a t s o m e o f his follow ers a m o n g the A nsar o b je c te d . B u t

the P ro p h e t so o th ed them with wise a n d fair e x h o rta tio n s, a n d p la y e d
u p o n their s y m p a t h i e s until they wept.
U p o n r e tu r n in g to Y a t h r i b , M u h a m m a d e n c o u n te r e d d e le g a t io n s
sent by tribes a n d settled p e o p le s o f A r a b ia . T h e y c a m e to p a y h o m a g e
to h im a n d to p ro fe ss the faith o f l s l a m . T h u s w a s A r a b ia won o v e r to
Islam .
B u t w h a t a b o u t the rest o f the w orld ? M u h a m m a d a lw a y s co n ceived
o f his m ission a s b e in g d irected to all p eople. A lr e a d y he h a d sent his
e m issa r ie s to A r a b i a ’s n e ig h b o u r in g e m p e r o r s , the P ersian a n d R o m a n
( B y z a n t i n e ) , w h o ig n o re d his M e s s a g e or h u m ilia te d the m essengers.
T h e o n ly c o u r te o u s re sp on se w as from the C o p t i c l e a d e r o f E g y p t.
In s o u t h e r n S y r i a ( m o d e r n J o r d a n ) , c e r ta in o f h is e m is s a r ie s were
b r u ta lly m u r d e r e d , w h ich o c c a sio n e d the b a ttle a t M u ’ta h later. For
s o m e y e a rs a fte r th eir a r m y 's d e fe a t a t M u ’tah , the M u s l im s were in a
s t a t e o f w a r w i t h the B y z a n tin e e m p e r o r , H e r a c liu s, w h o w a s said t o b e
g a t h e r i n g t o g e t h e r a l a r g e fo rce in S y r i a to d e a l w ith th e new A r a b
m e n a c e on his s o u th e r n fro n tier a n d to l iq u id a te the new A r a b ruler
w h o e n t e rt a in e d su ch serio u s pretensions.
F o r this a n d o th er re ason s, the P r o p h e t d e c id e d to p r e p a r e a large
a r m y a n d m a r c h north. T h i s w a s the last m ilita ry e xp e d itio n he w a s to
p la n . I le h a d p o in te d o u t the d ire ctio n . A short tim e a fte r his d e a t h , his
C o m p a n i o n s m a r c h e d north a n d four ye a rs later, they c o n q u e r e d both
m ig h ty e m p ire s, the E a s t R o m a n a n d the Persian.
In the ten th y e a r o f the H i jr a h , the Proph et m a d e his last p ilg r im a g e
to M a k k a , a n d d e liv ere d his F are w e ll S p e e c h at M i n a to a c o n g r e g a ­
tion o f forty t h o u s a n d M u slim s . H e c o m m e n c e d , ‘O p e o p le , listen to
m e; I m a y not e v e r m eet y o u a g a in h e r e a ft e r this y e a r .’ T h e n , in a great
s erm o n , he e x p r e sse d his fe a rs th at they m ig h t lose the w a y o f G o d a n d
return to a law less society a n d to tribal feuds. H e e n d e d a g reat law-
g iv in g s p e e c h b y a s k in g th e m if they th o u g h t th at he h a d fa ith fu lly
deliv ere d his m e s s a g e . T h e y a n sw e re d w ith on e vo ice, ‘Y e s !' H e then
sa id , ‘G o d , Y o u a r e m y w itness,’ a n d d e sc e n d e d from his cam el.
T h e M u s l i m s c a lle d th at serm o n the F are w e ll S p e e c h a n d th at p il­
g r im a g e the F are w e ll P ilg r im a g e . S in c e the P ro p h e t's first call by the
a n g e l G a b r i e l tw e n ty - th r e e y e a rs e a r lie r, r e v e la tio n a f t e r r e v e la tio n
h a d c o n tin u e d . H e h a d le a rn e d them b y heart a n d inscribed th em , a n d
so h a d his friends. T h ey fo r m e d to g eth e r th e glo riou s Book o f Islam , the
Q u r 'a n . A t the e n d o f this serm on , a n d a s a final w o rd , he recited in the
30. Sec pp. 159-1 GO.
80 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G AND M E SSA G E

n a m e o f G o d this r e v e la tio n : ‘T h i s d a y I (A lla h ) h a v e p e rfec te d y o u r

religion for you a n d c o m p le t e d M y fa v o u r u n to y o u, a n d h av e chosen
for you a s religion A L - I S L A M . ’31
H is d e a r frien ds then w ept. T h e y felt th a t his e n d w as n ear, th at the
P rop h et h a d fulfilled his m ission ; a n d it w as so.
T h e P ro p h e t d ie d o f fever in Y a t h r ib , w h ich th e reafter w as called
a l - M a d m a h . H is life, suffering, a n d triu m p h will re m a in for M u s lim s
a n d n o n - M u s li m s a lik e a s y m b o l o f m o d e st y , f a it h f u l d e v o t io n , a n d
d e d ic a te d service to G o d , a h igh e x a m p le o f m a n h o o d .

31. al-Qur’an, 5: 3.
 5

The Q ur’an and Its Impact on

H um an History
A llah b u k h sh . K . Brohi

T H E H o ly Q u r ' a n c l a i m s to be a Book o f Hidayah, i.e. G u i d a n c e , for

m a n . It is a B o o k t h a t is a v a i l a b l e to w h o le m a n k i n d — in d e e d it
a d d r e sse s itself, by a n d large, to the to tality o f m a n k in d . Its m e ssag e is
r e l e v a n t to d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e s l i v i n g in d iffe r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d .
Fu rth er, its m e s s a g e is v a lid for all tim es to c o m e in o t h e r w ords, it is
not a Book th at will e ve r be out o f d a te . S u c h a c l a im , in p rin cip le at
least, a s c a n I k : a p p r e c i a t e d , s h o u ld be c a p a b l e o f b e in g s u b s ta n tia te d
by a p p e a l to h isto rica l eviden ce. I f the Q u r 'a n is a t all a Book o f U n i ­
versal G u i d a n c e in the sense that its m essag e is relevan t to all p e op le s in
all a g e s a n d c lim e s , it m u st h av e h a d , in th e co u rse o f these fourteen
h u n d r e d y e ars o f its existen ce, a decisive im p a c t on h u m a n history
in p a r tic u la r , it m u st h av e h a d a lib e ra tin g a n d tr a n s fo r m in g influence
on the lives o f those w h o m a y h av e c o m e u n d e r its spell. I s u b m it that
c le a r h isto ric a l e v id e n c e in s u p p o r t o f th e c l a i m o f th e H o ly Q u r ' a n
exists a n d I sh all e n d e a v o u r to offer a b r o a d survey o f it in these pages.
B u t before I d o th a t, it is n ecessary to p oin t o ut th at over a n d a b o v e
the test o f h istorical e v id e n ce to w h ich a p p e a l co u ld be m a d e , there are
w ith in th e D i v in e B o ok it s e lf n u m e r o u s i n d i c a t io n s w h ic h o u g h t to
e n a b le a d is c e r n in g a n d p e rc ep tiv e stu d e n t to a p p r e c i a t e the truth o f
the c l a i m o f the Q u r ’a n , n a m e ly , th a t it presents a m e s s a g e o f un iversal
s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e s e ‘ i n t r i n s i c ’ te s ts , it m u s t be a d m i t t e d , a r c v a l id
w ithin the fr a m e w o r k o f religio us beliefs a n d p ra c tic e s s a n c tio n e d by
Islam a n d a re, therefore, a v a i l a b l e only to the faithful — th a t is to say,

• Taken from an address delivered on the occasion o f the fourteen hundredth

anniversary celebrations of the revelation of the Q ur'an.
82 i s i .a m : its m e a n in g a n d m e s sa g e

they a r e va lid only for those w h o believe in the D iv in e W o r d a n d hold

th at it h as been a u t h e n tic a lly r e v e aled to the P ro p h e t o f I sla m a n d has
b e e n p r e s e r v e d d o w n th e a g e s w it h o u t a n y a l t e r a t i o n h a v i n g been
e ffe c te d in its te x t. I'he ‘e x t r i n s i c ’ test o f h is to r y , h o w e v e r , w h ic h 1
p r o p o s e to a p p l y in a n e n d e a v o u r to o u tlin e the e x t e n t o f the im p a c t
w hich the H o ly Q u r ' a n h as m a d e u p o n h u m a n history, is a suijuris one,
a n d , in m y su b m iss io n , if prop e rly a p p r e c i a t e d , it is b o u n d to a p p e a l
e ve n to th o se w h o , n o t b e i n g th e m s e lv e s b e lie v e rs, a r e n e v e rth eless
o p e n to c o n v ic t io n u p o n th e p r e m i s e s o f a n a r g u m e n t b a s e d on the
u n i m p e a c h a b l e h is to r ic a l e v id e n c e th a t is fu r n ish e d to us w h en we
e x a m i n e i m p a r t i a l l y a n d c o n t e m p l a t e o b j e c t i v e l y th e r e m a r k a b l e
r e v o lu tio n th a t h a s been w r o u g h t in h u m a n h istory by the m e s s a g e
th at is c o n ta in e d in the H o ly Book.
F r o m this p e rs p e c tiv e , 1 s u b m i t the w hole p o s t - M u h a m m a d a n era
o f h u m a n h istory w o u ld a p p e a r to be a c o m m e n ta r y o n t h c c la im o f the
Q u r ’a n th at it is a B o o k o f G u i d a n c e for the w hole o f m a n k in d a n d that
its te a c h in g is r e le v a n t for all tim e to com e. A fter all, G o d is, a c c o r d in g
to th e H o l y Q u r ’a n , G o d b o th o f th e E a s t a n d o f th e W est a n d the
Truth r e v e aled by I lim h as p e rc o la te d d e e p into the w a r p a n d w o o f o f
the th o ugh t-life o f all the p e op le s o f the world — be they the in h a b i­
ta n ts o f the easte rn or the w estern regions. A n d the Q u r 'a n a ssu re s us
that w h ere the truth a p p e a r s the lie d is a p p e a r s for, verily it is in the
n a tu r e o f lie th a t, in its c o n fro n ta tio n with truth, it d is a p p e a r s.

( 1)
T h e b ir th p la c e o f the P rop h et a n d , therefore, the rise o f Islam , is s t r a ­
t e g ic a l ly p l a c e d in the ‘g e o g r a p h i c a l ’ m id d l e o f th e then p r e v a i l i n g
civ ilisatio n s o f the tim es — the G r a e c o - R o m a n civilisatio n o f the West
a n d the E g y p t i a n , B a b y lo n ia n , P h o e n ician a n d P e rsian civiliz atio n s o f
the N e a r E a s t a n d the I n d ia n a n d C h in e se civiliz atio n s o f the F a r East.
The e m e r g e n c e o f I s la m fro m the l a n d s c a p e o f A r a b i a in th e l a r g e r
v ista o f history is to be likened to the r a d ia n t light e m a n a t i n g fro m a
b rillian tly lit l a m p p la c e d in the m id d le o f a w orld th at h a d su n k into
thick a n d im p e n e t ra b le d arkn ess. The P ro p h e t o f I sla m , n o w o n d e r, is
d e sc r ib e d in the Q u r 'a n a s a shining lamp a n d in th a t im a g e is befit tingly
a d d r e s s e d a s ‘M e r c y ’ to all the p e op les. M a n k i n d c a n n o t be g r a te fu l
e n o u g h to him for w h at he h a d d o n e for it.
T h e g r e a te s t D iv in e fa v o u r to m a n is th a t he h as b e e n t a u g h t the
Q u r ' a n : in d e e d , the c la im th a t G o d is M erciful is a tte ste d by no other
c r e d e n t ia l th a n the on e w hich s a y s th at H e h as t a u g h t the Q u r ’a n to
 T H E Q U R ’A N A N D I T S I M P A C T ON H U M A N H I S T O R Y 83

m a n (see a l - Q u r ’a n , 5 5: 1 a n d 2). The whole Book, re g a r d e d from that

poin t o f view, is to be c o n stru ed a s a sort o f l n s t r u m c n t s o f ln s t r u c t io n s
w hich h as been issu e d to m a n in his c a p a c it y a s G o d ’s v icegeren t on
earth to e n a b le h im to c o n d u c t his life’s o p e r a tio n s here below in su ch a
m a n n e r th at he is a b le to o b ta in success in this w orld a n d the re w a rd o f
eternal bliss in the H erea fter.
T h e distin ctive fe a tu r e o f the Q u r ’a n a s a religious scrip tu re lies in
the u n d e n ia b le fact that it affirms and completes the total process o f revelation
which has comefrom the Divinefor the guidance o f the human race. G o d says to
the P r o p h e t in the w ell-known Surah a l- M a 'idah, a Surah which is one o f
the very last to be revealed to the P ro p h e t: ‘T h is d a y W e h av e perfected
y o u r religion a n d c o m p le t e d M y fa v o u r ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 5: 3). S im ila rly , in
Surah al-A 'la (87: 14-19), the Q u r 'a n d e cla re s th at the truth m en tion e d
b y it w a s a l s o c o n t a i n e d in th e e a r l i e r s c r i p t u r e s e v e n a s in the
scrip tu res o f A b r a h a m a n d M o se s. T h e process o f revelation h as b e g u n
since tim es im m e m o r i a l a n d h as been bro u g h t to m a n k in d th rou g h the
P r o p h e t s o f u n i v e r s a l r e lig io n s b y , a s it w ere, a p r o c e s s o f p e r i o d i c
in sta llm en ts, to s tim u la te its grow th a n d d e v e lo p m e n t.
T h e necessity for re v e la tio n is a tt e s te d by the fa c ts o f life: the very
c o n d itio n o f finitu de, in w hich we find ourselves, ca lls for D iv in e help.
In the short s p a n o f life th at is ou rs, h a v in g re g a rd to the lim ited ra n g e
o f o u r c a p a b il it ie s a n d pow ers o f p ercep tion , it w o u ld be im p o ssib le for
us w it h o u t a s s i s t a n c e fr o m th e D i v ' n c to u n d e r s t a n d o u r role h ere
below a n d to p la n wise a n d intelligent a ction with a view to servicing
the essen tial n ee d s o f o u r being. In order to be m e a n in g fu lly a w a r e o f
the necessity for revelation , on e h as m erely to think o f the o b v io u s facts
o f m a n ’s d e p e n d e n c e o n the o u te r e n v iro n m e n t in w hich his lot is cast.
In d e e d , the very possibility o f m a n ’s survival d e p e n d s u p o n fo od a n d
shelter w h ich he h as to p r o v id e to h im se lf from the resources th at arc
a v a il a b le to him from the w orld outside. I f earth d id not p r o d u c e for
him th e fo od on w h ich he lives, how c a n m a n a t all h o p e to su rvive ?
S im i l a r l y , m a n fin d s h im s e l f in a u n iverse w h ich he kn o w s h a s been
there o v er m illion s o f years before he h im se lf a rriv e d a n d , w h a t is m ore,
he is fully c o g n iz a n t o f the fact th a t it will co n tin u e b e in g there a fte r his
ow n little ‘d a y will h av e been d o n e ’ a n d he will h av e ‘v a n is h e d into the
n ig h t’ lea v in g th in g s pretty m u ch the s a m e a s they h av e a lw a y s been. It
is c le a r then th a t the universe is necessary- for his su rv iv a l b u t he is not
n ecessary for the life o f the universe! W h a t is the m e a n in g o f the d r a m a
in w hich m a n is c a lle d u p o n to p la y his p a rt. In p a r tic u la r, is he e x ­
p e cted to p la y a n y p a rt a t all — a n d if so, is his role s ignifican t or is it
84 IS L A M : ITS M EA N IN G AN D M E SSA G E

s o m e t h i n g t h a t is in c o n s e q u e n t i a l ? T o q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s th ese m a n
m u s t find th e a n s w e r s , i f he is a t a ll g o i n g to fr u it f u ll y e m p l o y the
o p p o r t u n i t y a n d tim e th at is a t his d is p o s a l while his life lasts. Before
the e n d o v ertak es h im , he m u st learn to re g a rd his m o m e n t a s a servi­
c e a b le m e a n s for the fu lfilm e n t o f the p u r p o s e for w hich he has been
c r e a t e d — th a t , o f co u rs e , p r o v id e d if there Ik : a n y fo r w h ich he has
b e e n c re ate d . R eflec tio n show s th at even the m ost train ed p h ilo so ­
p h ers, d e sp ite c o n sid e r a b le bulk o f tim e they h ave d e v o te d in finding
a n sw e rs to these q u e stio n s, h a v e fo u n d it difficult to return co n v in cin g
a n sw e rs. A n d yet w h ile s o lu tio n s to these p r o b le m s a r e b e in g so u g h t,
the river o f life o f m a n is c o n tin u a lly m o v in g relentlessly o n a n d every
m o m e n t th a t e la p se s fo r the son o f m a n se e m s to hurl h im on to ever
new vistas o f e xp e rie n ce a n d o p p o r tu n ity . A tr a g e d y o f life is th at every
m o m e n t th a t p a s s e s is g o n e , n e v e r to r e tu rn . W h a t m u s t m a n d o in
o r d e r to fulfil the law o f his b e in g ? W ith o u t k n o w in g w h a t th at law is,
w h a t c a n he d o ? S u c h is th e s ta te o f helplessness in w h ich m a n finds
h im se lf th at from all sides a n d q u a r te r s difficult q u e stio n s cro p u p —
q u e s t i o n s to w h ic h th e r e a r e no s a t is f a c t o r y a n sw e r s a v a i l a b l e . T h e
Q u r ’a n refers to this very situ a t io n o f m a n when it s a y s: ‘V e r ily , W e
h ave cre ate d m a n in difficu lty.’ H e n c e the need o f ‘revelation '. R e li­
gion p ro v id e s a n sw e rs to these q u e stio n s o f life on the a u th o r ity o f the
P r o p h e t s o f u n i v e r s a l r e lig io n . M a n h a s been g u i d e d by th e L o r d
h im s e l f even a s M e r c ifu l S u s t a i n c r o f the U n iv e r s e H e h as g u id e d
the w hole o f cre atio n .
T h e Q u r ’a n a s a B o ok o f G u i d a n c e h as itself c o m m e n t e d u p o n the
full im p lic a tio n s o f the c o n ce p t o f Hidayah. Hidayah literally m e a n s ‘ to
g u id e ' a n d ‘ to show the w a y ’ . In Surah al-A ‘la o f the Q u r ’a n reference is
m a d e to all the re le van t a sp e c t s o f the process o f d e v e lo p m e n t th rou gh
w hich all c r e a te d bein gs pass. ‘ P raise the n a m e o f the L o r d , the M ost
H i g h , w h o h a s c r e a t e d a n d th e n equihberated a ll t h i n g s , W h o h a s
a p p o in t e d their destinies a n d W h o h as guided t h e m ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n 87: 1-2).
This H idayah in its w id e r se n s e , m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s a p r i n c i p l e o f
in tern a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f the species. T o the low er a n im a l s h a v e been
given instincts a n d senses th ro u g h which they are led on to b a l a n c e or
e q u ilib c r a t c th em selves. A n d it is th rou g h seeing, h earin g , feeling a n d
sm e llin g th a t they a d a p t th em selv es to their e n v ir o n m e n t a n d thus
to su s ta in th e m se lv es a n d to p ro c re a te their species. W ith m a n , a d d i ­
tio n a lly , H idayah ta k e s the fo rm o f c o n fe r m e n t by G o d o f the gift o f
R e a s o n u p o n h im , — a sort o f a c a p a c it y w hich co n tro ls a n d lim its the
exp ressio n o f instinctive life o f the a n im a l in him. It is by m e a n s o f this
 T H E Q U K ’AN A N D I T S I M P A C T O N H U M A N H I S T O R Y 85

co n trol w h ich re aso n e n a b le s m a n to im p o se ov er his lower n a tu r e that

he is e le v a te d to a h ig h e r sta tu s. G r e a t a s this gift o f reason is, by itself it
d o e s n o t a n d c a n n o t suffice — for r e a s o n o n l y o p e r a t e s w it h i n th e
fr a m e w o r k o f in stinctive life c o n d itio n e d a s it is by the sensory a p p a ­
r a tu s . It h a s , th e r e fo r e , its ow n lim its, a n d b e y o n d th o se lim its it is
d a n g e r o u s for it to go. T h u s the P ro p h e ts h av e b ro u g h t Hidayah to m an
from the D iv in e in yet on e m o re fo rm . A n d this form h as reference to
th e m e s s a g e c o n c e r n i n g th o s e i n j u n c t i o n s , th e d i s r e g a r d o f w h ich
w o u ld in v o lv e m a n in w a s t e fu l fric tio n w ith th e u n iv e rse , n a y , in a
v e r i t a b l e w a r a g a i n s t his ow n p o t e n t ia li t ie s . A r m e d by th is H idayah
m a n is c a p a b l e o f b e in g lib e ra te d fro m the n a rro w er p rec in cts in w hich
his re aso n o p e r a te s. H e is a b le , th a n k s to this g u id a n c e , to c o n te m p la t e
his total d e stin y a n d r e g u la te his in d iv id u a l c o n d u c t a n d the c o n d u c t
o f his fellow b e in g s in the light o f the r e v e aled truth w h ich h a s been
b r o u g h t to h im by the P ro p h e ts o f universal religions. It w o u ld a p p e a r
th at e a c h su c c e e d in g p h a s e o f g u id a n c e is in ten d e d to lim it the earlier
o n e: th u s senses correct the instincts, reason corrects the sense, a n d the
r e v e a le d tru th co rre c ts the o p e r a t io n o f re aso n itself. T h e p r o p h e tic
c o n scio u sn e ss m irrors for m a n the h igh er truth w hich it is in c a p a b l e o f
b e in g a t t a i n e d by the o p e r a tio n s o f u n g u id e d reason. M a n is in fo rm e d
o f the lim its w ithin th e circle o f w hich he m ust m ov e if he is to be sav ed .
H e is th u s e d u c a t e d a n d in itia te d into the s c h e m e o f th in g s in w hich he
is to striv e for the fr u itio n o f his a p p o i n t e d d e stin y . T h e Q u r ’a n , no
w on der, says: ‘T r u ly , it is for U s to show the w a y to m a n a n d truly O u r s
is the fu tu r e a n d truly the p a st' ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2 :1 2 :1 3 ). S im ila r ly , it goes
on to assert: ‘W h o so m ak e s effort to follow in O u r w ays, W e will guide
th e m ; for G o d is a s s u r e d ly with those w h o d o r ig h te o u s d e e d s ’ (al-
Q u r ’a n , 29: 69). F a r m o re e xp licit th a n these references to m a n ’s d e ­
p e n d e n c e on D iv in e g u id a n c e are the follow ing:

S a y , verily guidance is from G o d . T h a t is the true guidance; a n d we arc

in d e ed to s u r r e n d e r ou rselves to the L o rd o f all beings. ( a l- Q u r ’an,
6 :7 1 ).

T h e n , a g a in :

Bu t until you follow their religion, n eith er the J e w s nor the C h r is t ­

ia n s will be sa tisfie d w ith y o u. S a y , v e rily guidance is from G o d —
that is the g u id a n c e . ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 120)

T h e irre d u cib le m in im u m r e q u ir e m e n ts for the successful disco very o f

the so lu tio n o f life’s p r o b le m s thus w o u ld a p p e a r to be two. First o f all
86 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

there is to be a question in the soul, a craving to find a n sw e rs to the p r o ­

b le m s o f lif e , a prayer a t the a l t a r o f the D iv in e for the w ay b e in g show n.
A n d it is this th a t im p a r t s to Surah al-Fatihah the im p o rta n c e th a t h as
been a ss ig n e d to it by those w h o h av e th o ugh t d e e p ly a b o u t the s t r a ­
tegy o f the Q u r ’a n : e a c h tim e m a n h as to pra y : he ask s: ‘S h o w us the
w a y ’ — in o t h e r w ords ‘G r a n t us the g u id a n c e ’. I f a m a n with a pure
soul, with a feeling h ea rt, a sk s for g u id a n c e a n d p roceeds to re a d that
portion o f the Q u r ’a n that is b o u n d to issue forth from the Book he will
get a n a n sw e r to his q u e stio n . A n d , secondly, on e h as to h av e the will to
w a lk o n th e w a y t h a t is r e v e a l e d . F o r n o t th e w h o le p a t h w o u ld be
show n to m a n if he w o u ld not even w alk on th at part o f the w ay which
is b e in g s h o w n to h im : c a p a c i t y to receive truth u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d s
u p o n m an’s efforts to implement the truth that comes to him. H e w h o sees the
w ay, b u t w o u ld n ot n e g o tia te it, will s ta y w h ere he is - in deed, su ch is
the law , the rest o f the w ay will never be show n to him.
T h e s t r a t e g y o f re lig io n precisely co n sists in this is th at it e n a b le s
m a n to find his w a y to the g o a l that counts. M a n by the flickering light
o f h is f e e b l e p o w e r s w h ic h is a ll th a t is f u r n i s h e d to h im b y his
m e a g r e r e s o u r c e s — c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d to d is c o v e r the w a y o n his
o w n , m u c h less h a v e the energy a n d the inclination to follow the w ay. It is
his faith in the revealed truth th at h as c o m e to h im from the P ro p h e ts
o f u n i v e r s a l r e lig io n th a t is c a p a b l e o f c o m i n g to his re sc u e in this
r e g a r d a n d this is so b e ca u se the n a tu r a l r each o f his ow n p e rso n a lity is
such th at in respect o f the essential q u e stio n s o f life it c a n n o t , by itself,
find a n y va lid answ ers.
T h e p rocess o f revelation , a s re m a rk e d earlier, h as been c o n s u m ­
m a t e d in the m e s s a g e that h as been bro u g h t by the P rop h et o f Islam to
m a n k i n d . S o m u c h is th is tr u e th a t it m a y b e s a i d th a t I s l a m i t s e lf
p r o v id e s for the e d u c a t i o n o f the h u m a n race. M a n h a s e v o lv e d a n d
h a s b e e n a w itn e ss to v a r io u s p h a s e s o f his ow n e v o lu tio n . D ifferen t
P r o p h e t s h a v e b r o u g h t d if fe r e n t m e s s a g e s fo r th e ir p e o p l e , i f o n ly
b e c a u s e , h a v in g re g a rd to the different co n d itio n s in which h u m a n ity
h a s f o u n d itself, th e m e s s a g e in q u e s t io n c o u ld o n ly be. a d d r e s s e d to
p a r t i c u l a r p e o p le in c e r t a in w e ll-d efin ed e p o c h s o f h u m a n history .
O n l y by s o m e s u c h t e a c h i n g w a s it p o s s ib le to s e c u re m a n ’s fu r th e r
d e v e l o p m e n t . In I s la m re lig io n h as been p e r f e c te d . T h a t is a n o t h e r
w a y o f s a y in g th at with Islam the a g e o f new revelation h as c o m e to a
c l o s e , a n d t h a t th e a g e o f r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e p r i n c i p l e s o f r e v e a l e d
religion h as b een in a u g u r a te d . T h a t is w hy in all the e arlie r scrip tu res
references a r e to b e fo u n d to the a d v e n t o f the P ro p h e t o f Islam . S t u ­
 T H E Q U R ’AN A N D I T S I M P A C T ON H U M A N H I S T O R Y 87

d e n t s o f B i b l e , for in s t a n c e , k n o w th a t Je s u s h a d s a i d : ‘ I h a v e yet
m a n y th in g s to s a y u n to you, b u t y e c a n n o t b e a r th e m now . . . H e will
g u i d e y o u u n t o a ll t r u t h : fo r h e s h a l l n o t s p e a k o f h i m s e l f ; b u t o f
w h atso ev er he sh all hear, th at shall he s p e a k ' ( J o h n 16: 12-13).
F u r t h e r , th e N e w T e s t a m e n t b e a r s t e s t im o n y to th is v e r y tr u th :
‘W h o m th e h e a v e n m u s t re c e iv e u n til the tim e s o f r e st itu tio n o f all
things, w h ich G o d h a th sp o k e n b y th e m o u th o f all his holy prop h e ts
since the w orld b e g a n (A cts, 3 :2 1 ) . T h e H o ly Q u r ’a n itself affirm s this
referen ce in c h a p t e r 6 1, verse 6, w hen it says: ‘A n d th at J e s u s , son o f
M a r y , s a id : “ O ch ildren o f Israel, surely I a m the m essen g er o f A lla h to
yo u v e r ify in g th a t w h ic h is befo re m e o f T o r a h a n d g iv in g th e g o o d
n e w s o f a M e s s e n g e r w h o w ill c o m e a f t e r m e , h is n a m e b e i n g
A h m a d .” ’
T h a t then is the m e a n in g o f the fu n d a m e n t a l tenet o f I sla m which
en jo in s t h a t the P ro p h e t o f Islam is the last P ro p h e t. T h e H o ly Q u r ’an
thus e m b o d i e s the final-m ost c o m m u n i c a t io n from the D ivin e . A fter
th e P r o p h e t o f I s l a m c a m e to m a n k i n d th e n eed fo r c o n t i n u i n g the
p ro c ess o f D iv in e c o m m u n i c a t io n itself h as c o m e to a n end. F o r Islam
signifies in the history o f m a n k in d th at p h ase o f h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t
which c o r re s p o n d s to the period o f m a jo r ity in the life o f the in d ivi­
d u a l. A few w o r d s by w a y o f e x p la n a t io n o f this distin ctive fea tu re o f
th e H o l y B o o k w h ic h c o n s is t s in its a d d r e s s b e i n g d i r e c t e d to fully
g r o w n -u p in d i v i d u a l s a r e ca lle d for — a n d a r e o ffe re d in all h u m ility as
a n a id to those w h o w ou ld like to u n d e r sta n d the g r a n d s tr a te g y o f the
Q u r ’a n fo r b r i n g i n g a b o u t th e m o r a l a n d m e n t a l r e g e n e r a t i o n o f
m a n k in d on e arth .
T h e very fact th at the Q u r 'a n c la im s itself to be a Book o f G u id a n c e
a s s u m e s th at it is not a b o ok o f T e n C o m m a n d m e n t s a s is, for in stan ce,
the O l d T e s t a m e n t . T h e P ro p h e t w a s called u p o n to purify the people,
to te a c h th e m th e B o o k , th a t is th eir d e stin y a n d to m a k e th e m wise
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 129 a n d 1 5 1 ; a l s o 3 : 163.). H e w as to w arn a n d t o g u id c .
T h e Q u r ' a n u n m is ta k a b ly p la c e s the b u rd e n o f m a k in g a ch oice b e ­
tween g o o d a n d evil fully a n d s q u a r e ly on the sh o u ld ers o f m a n . It says:
‘ H a v e W e n ot s h o w n to yo u th e tw o w a y s ’ — the e a s y w a y a n d the
difficult w ay. T h e Q u r ’a n fu rth er d e cla re s th at n o th in g b e lo n g s to m a n
e x c e p t his effort: that he is g o in g to be j u d g e d by w h a t he does here a n d
n ow . D o e s t h is n o t s u g g e s t th a t th e Q u r ’ a n a s s u m e s m a n to h a v e
r e a c h e d a level w h e r e he is r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g c a p a b l e o f c h o o s i n g
betw een the righ t a n d the w ron g. T h e Q u r ’a n is a ls o ca lle d al-Furqan —
w hich m ere ly m e a n s it is the book which helps one to d isc r im in a te —
88 ISLA M : ITS M EA NIN G AND M ESSA GE

betw een the sca le o f va lu e s, p o in tin g out w hich a c ts a r c g o o d , b etter,

a n d best a n d w hich on es are b a d , worse, a n d worst. All this sh o w s that
the Q u r ’a n a d d r e s se s itself to p e o p le w h o c a n ch oose!

(2 )
O n e w a y o f d e m o n s t r a t in g the in d isp cn sib ility o f the m e s s a g e c o n ­
ta in e d in the Q u r ' a n to the m o d e r n w orld is to ta k e u p , one by on e, the
prese n t-d a y s t a n d a r d s o f excellen ce — th at is, v a lu e s a n d id e a ls which
a r e a c c e p t e d a n d u p h e l d b y e n l i g h t e n e d s e c t io n s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y
h u m a n ity a n d to a sk the q u e stio n : W h a t is the g en esis o f those values
a n d id e als? W h e n c e h av e they c o m e ? A n d , in p a r tic u la r , on e m ust ask
w h eth e r those v a lu e s a n d id e a ls w ere at all c o m m e n d e d or e n jo in e d by
p re -Isia m ic religio us lea ch in g . I f w e were to reach the con clu sion that
the p re se n t-d a y set o f id e als a n d v a lu e s w hich is c o n sid e re d w orthy by
a civ iliz e d m a n to a d o p t a n d a c c e p t w a s r e v e a le d for the first time by
I sla m , then the fact th at even a fte r fourteen h u n d re d years th at m e s ­
s a g e c o n tin u e s , a t le a st in p r ic ip le , to b to be fo llow ed still, w o u ld be
p r o o f p ositive o f the c la im th at w h at the Q u r 'a n p r o c la im s to the world
is even today the acceptable gospel.
N e g a tiv e ly , if it c o u ld be sho w n th at w h a t the Q u r ’a n e n jo in s is out
o f d a t e t o d a y so fa r a s the p ra c tic e o f civilized people is in issue, or that
s o m e new v a l u e s a n d id e a l s h a v e g a i n e d c u r r e n c y in m o d e r n tim e s
w hich are not stressed by the Q u r ' a n , w e will h ave to say th at Q u r 'a n
w as a n e p h e m e r a l b o ok a n d its m e s s a g e is out o f d a t e today.
I f 1 w ere a s k e d to s t a t e w h at a r e the v a lu e s w h ich the e n lig h te n e d
co n se n su s o f m a n k in d u p h o ld s in the m id-tw en tieth c en tu ry , I w ou ld
p ut th e m in the fo llow in g ord e r:

(1 ) E q u a li t y , d ig n it y a n d b ro th e rh o o d o f m an .
(2) V a l u e o f u n iv e r s a l e d u c a t i o n w ith e m p h a s i s o n s p irit o f free
e n q u ir y a n d the im p o r t a n c e o f scicntific know ledge.
(3) P ra ctice o f religious tolerance.
(4 ) L ib e r a t io n o f the w o m a n a n d her sp iritu a l e q u a lit y with m an .
(5) F r e e d o m fro m slavery a n d e x p lo ita tio n o f all kinds.
(6) D ig n ity o f m a n u a l lab ou r.
(7) I n t e g r a t i o n o f m a n k in d in a fe e lin g o f o n e n ess ir re sp e ctiv e o f
their differen ces qua race a n d c o lo u r (th a t is, th e p r o g r a m m e o f
s e c u r i n g i n t e g r a t i o n o f m a n k i n d on th e b a s i s o f m o r a l a n d
s p i r i t u a l p rin c ip le s ).
 T H E Q U R AN A N D I T S I M P A C T ON H U M A N H I S T O R Y 89

(8) T h e d e v a lu a t io n o f a r r o g a n c e a n d prid e b a se d on superiority o f

r a c e , c o lo u r , w e a l t h , e tc., a n d th e f o u n d i n g o f so c ie ty o n the
p r in cip le o f ju stice .
(9) R e je c tio n o f the p h ilo so p h y o f asceticism .

E a c h o n e o f th e se it e m s on the a g e n d a o f m o d e r n m a n ’s h ero ic a n d
n o b l e e n d e a v o u r , 1 s u b m i t , is fu lly a n d a d e q u a t e l y s u p p o r t e d by
v a r io u s in ju n c t io n s o f the Q u r ’a n a n d a b l y illu strated by the kin d o f
life that the P r o p h e t o f I sla m lived himself.

T h e P ro p h e t o f I sla m is e x e m p la r y precisely b e c a u s e he is a m an -
p ro p h e t. T h e Q u r ’a n e m p h a s is e s a g a i n a n d a g a i n th at he is a m a n like
a n y o t h e r m a n e x c e p t to th e e x t e n t th a t the W ahl, th a t is the H o ly
A n g e l, b rin g s re v e la tio n to him . H e is the on e P roph et w h o is not o n ly
not interested in p e r f o r m in g m ira cle s, bu t m a k e s the n o n -p e rfo rm a n ce
o f m ira cle s a s his p a ss p o rt to m a in d istin ction . H e d o e s not c l a i m an y
D iv in e o rigin . F o r h im se lf he is co n te n t to be j u s t a n o r d in a r y h u m a n
bein g. H e lives a life o f honest a n d e arn e st e n d e a v o u r th ro u g h o u t his
life. T o the very e n d he p rese rv e s a h igh sense o f m o r a l r e c titu d e a n d
c o n d u c t s the e n te rp r ise s o f life with a g re a t h u m a n d ig n ity . H e is an
a b le w arrior, a n excellent soldier, a loving h u s b a n d , a reliab le frien d, a
wise ruler. H e sanctifies life in a ll its aspects, omitting nothing from its embrace.
H e treats the w hole earth a s a p r a y e r c a r p e t, d e n ies th at the A r a b s h av e
a n y s u p e rio rity o v e r the n on -A ra b s. H e m ak e s on e a n d on ly o n e d e c i­
sive test a b o u t the g r a n d e u r , the loftiness, a n d g r e a tn e ss o f the h u m a n
soul w h ich co n sists in its c a p a c it y to co n trol itse lf so a s to be a b le to
p r a c t i s e r ig h t e o u s n e s s . A n d e v e n w h e n he b e c o m e s the r u l e r o f the
w hole o f A r a b i a he n ever d is c a r d s his old w a y o f s im p le life a n d inces­
san tly en jo in s u p o n h im se lf a n d u p o n his follow ers the s u p r e m e
necessity o f g iv in g a w a y o f the g o o d th in g s o f life to their fellow m en
w h o m ig h t n eed th em . ‘S o g ive ,’ sav s he, ‘ th at y o u r left h a n d m a y not
see w h a t y o u r right h as g iv e n .’ H e fo rb id s his followers fro m re n o u n c­
in g the w o rld . I n d e e d , G o d is e veryw h ere a n d H is e a r th is very w ide
a n d m a n is to serve H im w h erever he likes.
A d v e r tin g to the im p o r t a n c e the Q u r ’a n a tt a c h e s to the e d u c a tio n a l
process, the m a t t e r is too o b v i o u s to need a n y e la b o r a t io n . I'he Book
it s e lf b e g i n s w ith a n i m p e r a t i v e to r e a d : R e a d in the n a m e o f yo u r
L o r d W h o c r e a t e d m a n from a b lo o d -c lo t’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 96: 1, 2). R e a d
a n d yo u r L o rd is m o st g e n e r o u s w h o ta u gh t m a n by the p e n ’ (al-
Q u r ’a n , 9 6 : 3 a n d 4). It e m p h a s i s e s th e v a lu e o f the ink and the pen and
w hat they write ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 6 8: 1). T h e Q u r ' a n is full w ith r e p e a t e d
90 isi a m : its m ea n in g and message

e m p h a s i s on the v a l u e o f th in k in g, o f p o n d e r in g , o f ra tio n a liz a tio n , o f

d isc r im in a tio n . In a w ay , it w o u ld n ot be a n e x a g g e r a tio n to s a y th at
the w h o le o f the B o o k is c o n c e r n e d with o u t l in in g the m e t h o d o lo g y
a n d t e c h n i q u e by w h ic h m a n is to re a d th e B o ok o f N a t u r e a n d to
w itness w ithin h im se lf the S ig n s o f the Divine. A ll universe is on e a n d
m a n is ca lle d u p o n to look at it a n d to learn from it. H o w m a n y tim es
d o e s not the Q u r 'a n call u p o n us to look at the v a r io u s p h e n o m e n a in
n a tu r e a n d c h a lle n g e s us to throw o u r g la n ce a t the creatio n o f the
L o r d a n d to s a y i f we find a n y flaw therein. Not con tent with a sk in g us
to th r o w o u r first g l a n c e a t the u n iv e r se , w e a r e in v ite d to th r o w a
seco n d g la n c e at the universe. W e a re told th a t: Verily o u r vision will
return w eary u p o n us a n d th at we shall not be a b le to see a n y flaw in
the M a s t e r ’s cre a tio n (see a l - Q u r ’a n , 67: 3 a n d 4). T h e n we a r e called
u p o n to see th e S i g n s o f th e L o r d in th e r h y t h m o f c h a n g e t h a t is
d isc o v e r a b le in n a tu r e betw een the night a n d the d a y , a s th o u g h one
is c h a s i n g the other. W e are a sk ed to notice the w a y in which the d e a d
e a r t h is b r o u g h t to life b y the ra in fa ll. W e are a s k e d to c o n s id e r the
m o t io n s o f the s e a s o n s , the sun a n d the m o o n , e a c h o n e r u n n i n g its
c o u rse. T h e Q u r ' a n e n jo in s th a t there a r e sig n s in n a t u r e for p e o p le
w h o reflect ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 13: 3-4). In the m a g ic a l w o r d s o f the Q u r ’a n :
‘A n d H e it is w h o s p r e a d th e e a r t h , m a d e in it firm m o u n t a i n s a n d
rivers. A n d o f all fruits. H e h as m a d e it in p airs, tw o ( o f every kind). H e
m a k e s the night co ve r the d a y . S u r e ly there are signs in this for p e o p le
w h o reflect. A n d in the e a r th are tracts side by side a n d g a r d e n s o f vines
a n d c o rn a n d p a l m trees g ro w in g from on e root a n d distin ct roots —
th e y a r e w a t e r e d w ith o n e w a t e r a n d we m a k e s o m e o f th e m excel
oth ers in fruit. S u r e ly there are signs in these for p e o p le w h o u n d e r ­
s t a n d .’
It w a s this c o n st a n t call to see n a tu r e a n d to u n d e r st a n d the secret o f
its o p e r a tio n s w h ich e n a b le d the e a r lie r A r a b s to b e co m e p io n ee rs o f
s c ie n c e a n d sc ie n tific m e t h o d s . N o w a d a y s , o f c o u r s e , e v e r y t h in g is
a t t e m p t e d to b e e x p l a i n e d by th e h i s t o r i a n s o f h u m a n c u l t u r e a s
th o u g h A r a b ia n science d id not so m uch a s exist. E v e r y th in g is s u p ­
p osed to h av e been fo u n d for us by the G reeks!
T h e m o ra l a n d in tellectual flow ering o f the E u r o p e a n c u lt u r e a n d
civilizatio n h as h a d a source oth er th an the one th at is g en erally in­
voked by scholar. E u r o p e a n civilization itself is a ‘p o s t- P r o te s ta n tis m ’
p r o d u c t . O f c o u r s e , e v e ry s c h o o l - b o y in E u r o p e is t o d a y t a u g h t to
b elieve th a t R e f o r m a t i o n w a s the result o f R e n a i s s a n c e w h ich in its
tu r n is s u p p o s e d to h a v e b e e n u s h e r e d in, t h a n k s to th e r e v iv a l o f
 T H E Q U R ’A N A N D IT S I M P A C T O N H U M A N H I S T O R Y 91

le a rn in g th at took p la c e a fte r the fall o f C o n s t a n t in o p le . S o m e h o w , the

d a r k a g e s o f E u r o p e s u d d e n l y c e a s e d a n d the lig h t o f R e n a i s s a n c e
c a m e to be.
T h a t is all ta u g h t in the u n iversities o f civilized E u r o p e a n d A m e ric a
in the n a m e o f liberal e d u c a t i o n ; a n d a s to the origin o f this ‘ R e n a is ­
s a n c e ' it s e lf all k in d s o f false e x p l a n a t i o n s e x ist a n d c o n t in u e to be
c o n c o c t e d — b u t a n h o n e st a t t e m p t a t h isto ric a l a n a l y s is will in the
wise w o rd s o f R o b e r t B riffa u lt, show th at:
It w as u n d e r the in fluen ce o f the A r a b ia n a n d M o o rish revivial o f
c u lt u r e , a n d in th e fifte en th c e n tu r y , th at the real R e n a i s s a n c e took
p lace . S p a i n , not Ita ly , w as the c r a d le o f the rebirth o f E u ro p e . A fte r
s te a d ily s in k in g lo w er a n d low er into b a r b a r i s m , it h a d re a c h e d the
d a r k e s t d e p t h o f i g n o r a n c e a n d d e g r a d a t i o n w h en th e c itie s o f the
S a r a c e n ic w o rld , B a g h d a d , C a iro , C o r d o v a , T o le d o w ere gro w in g
c e n tr e s o f c i v il iz a tio n a n d in te lle c tu a l a c tiv ity . It w a s there th a t the
new life aro se w hich w a s to grow into a new p h ase o f H u m a n E v o lu ­
tion. F r o m the tim e w h en the influence o f their cu ltu re m a d e itself felt,
b e g a n the stirrin g o f a new life.
It is h ig h ly p r o b a b le th at but for the A r a b s m o d e rn E u r o p e a n civi­
lizatio n c o u ld never h av e arisen a t a ll; it is a b so lu te ly certain th a t, but
for th e m , it w o u ld not h ave a s s u m e d that c h a r a c t e r w h ich h as e n a b le d
it to tra n scen d all p rev io u s p h a s e s o f evolution . F o r a lt h o u g h there is
not a sin gle a sp e c t o f E u r o p e a n grow th in w h ich decisive influence o f
I slam is not tr a c e a b le , now here is it so clear a n d m o m e n t o u s a s in the
g e n e s is o f t h a t p o w e r w h ic h c o n s t it u t e s th e p a r a m o u n t d is t i n c t i v e
force o f the M o d e r n W o rld a n d the S u p r e m e S o u r c e o f its V ic to ry
N a t u r a l S c ie n c e a n d the Scien tific S p irit. {The M aking o f Humanity, pp.
183-90).
N o t m e r e ly in th e d ir e c t io n o f in t e lle c t u a l e v o l u t io n o f M o d e r n
E u r o p e a lo n e is the influence o f Islam to be a c k n o w le d g e d a n d u n d e r ­
s t o o d . ‘T o th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c u lt u r e o f I s l a m ’, s a y s th e s a m e a u t h o r ,
‘w hich h as been fr a u g h t w ith c o n se q u en c es o f such m o m e n t , corres­
p o n d e d a n e th ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t not less n o tab le in the influence w hich
it h as exercised. T h e fierce in toleran ce o f C h r is tia n E u r o p e w as indeed
m ore e n r a g e d th a n h u m ilia te d b y the s p e c ta c le o f the b r o a d tolerancc
w hich m a d e no d istin ction o f creed a n d bestow ed h o n o u r a n d p osition
o f C h r is t i a n a n d J e w alike, a n d w hose p rin ciples a r e sy m b o liz e d in the
well-known a p o l o g u e o f the T h r e e R in g s p o p u la r iz e d by B o c c a c io a n d
L e s s in g . It w a s , h o w e v e r , not w it h o u t f a r - r e a c h i n g in flu e n ce on the
92 i s i .a m : its m e a n in g a n d m e s sa g e

m o re t h o u g h t f u l m i n d s o f those w h o c a m e in c o n t a c t w ith M o o r ish

civiliz a tio n . Bu t b a r b a r i c E u r o p e co n fessed itself im p re ssed a n d w as
s t u n g to e m u l a t i o n by the lofty m a g n a n i m i t y a n d the id e a ls o f c h iv ­
a lr o u s h o n o u r p re s e n te d to it by the k n ig h ts o f S p a i n , by g e n tle m e n
like the fierce so ld ie r , A l - M a n s u r , w h o c l a i m e d th a t, th o u g h he h a d
slain m a n y e n e m ie s in b a ttle, he h a d never offered a n insult to a n y —
a n ideal o f kn igh tly d e m e a n o u r a n d d ig n ity which tw entieth-century
E n g l a n d m ig h t w ith profit p e r p e n d . The r u f iia n tly c r u s a d e r s were
s h a m e d by the g r a n d e u r o f c o n d u c t a n d generosity o f S a l a d in a n d his
c h iv a lr y . T h e id e a l o f k n ig h tly v ir tu e w a s a d o p t e d , th e tr a d it io n o f
Noblesse Oblige w a s e s t a b li s h e d . P o etry a n d R o m a n c e s d e e p ly tin ge d
with A r a b ia n id e a s fo rm e d the only secu lar literature w hich circ u lated
a n d a p p e a l e d to the p o p u l a r im a g i n a t io n ; a n d a new co n ce p tio n o f the
p la c e a n d d ig n ity o f w o m e n p a sse d into E u r o p e th rou gh the C o u r t s o f
P r o v e n c e fro m the M o o r is h w orld, w here she s h a r e d the in tellectual
interests a n d p le a su r e s o f m a n . . . T h u s , sh o ck in g a s the p a r a d o x m a y
be to o u r tr a d itio n a l notions, it w ou ld p r o b a b ly be only strict truth to
say that M o h a m m a d a n cu ltu re h as co n trib u te d at least a s largely a s to
th e a c t u a l p r a c t i c a l , c o n c r e t e m o r a l i t y o f E u r o p e a s m a n y a s m o r e
s u b l im a te d e th ic a l d o c tr in e ’ (see ib id., p p . 307-9).
S im ila r l y , th e p osition o f the w o m a n in the p r e - Is la m ic e r a w as so
p a t h e t ic th a t it is i m p o s s ib l e to get th e m o d e r n m a n to r e a lis e h ow
m u c h o f a d v a n c c h a s I s l a m m a d e in e n j o i n i n g u p o n h u m a n i t y the
necessity o f re sp e ctin g a n d h o n o u r in g the w o m a n . T h e A r a b s fo u n d it
difficult to let d a u g h t e r s grow u p in their house. T h i s w a s s u p p o s e d to
be s o m e t h in g d e r o g a t o r y to their statu s. T h e y used to b u ry th e m alive.
W ith Islam all this w a s p r o h ib ite d . T h e daughter w as a d m i t t e d to b e a
s h a re r with her b ro th e r in the law relatin g to inheritance. T h i s is r a th er
sig n ific an t c o n sid e r in g th at in a s civilized a co u n tr y a s E n g l a n d , not
until 1922, w a s a m arrie d w o m a n entitled to ow n property. Islam g av e
to the w o m a n not only the right to inherit p rop e rty bu t to ow n it even
a g a i n s t h er h u s b a n d , so m u c h s o th a t if a h u s b a n d is g u i l t y o f m is ­
a p p r o p r ia t i n g her p rop e rty she is e n title d to o b t a in a div orce from him
on th a t a c c o u n t a lo n e . As a w id o w she g ets a s h a r e in h er h u s b a n d ’s
p roperty. T h e rights o f w ives a re to b e a c k n o w le d g e d by her h u s b a n d
a n d a r e c le a rly m e n tio n e d (see a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 228; 4: 34; a n d 2: 229).
S h e w a s given a right to c la im a div orce fourteen h u n d r e d y e a rs a g o
w h e r e a s u n d e r the E c c l e s i a s t i c a l law s a n c t io n e d by th e C h u r c h o f
C h r i s t it is i m p o s s i b l e fo r h er to o b t a i n a d i v o r c e e v e n n o w . The
m o d e r n s e c u l a r l e g i s l a t i o n w h ic h r e c o g n iz e s d i v o r c e in C h r i s t i a n
 TH F. Q U R A N A N D I T S I M P A C T O N H U M A N H I S T O R Y 93

co un tries is a n indirect a c c e p t a n c e o f the w isd o m o f th e Q u r a n on this

subject.
There w as a tim e when o f w o m a n , it w a s sa id : ‘ H e for G o d a n d she
for G o d in h i m . ’ B u t n ow w ith I s l a m w o m a n h a s been d e c l a r e d a n
in d e p e n d e n t p e rs o n a lity a s she h as been m a d e d ire ctly a c c o u n t a b l e to
G o d . T h e Q u r ' a n has h o n o u re d w o m a n so m u ch that there i s a c h a p te r
in it e n t i t l e d ‘ W o m a n ’ a n d n u m e r o u s r e fe r e n c e s to h e r s t a t u s a n d
d ig n it y are to be fo u n d therein. T h i s w as a ra d ic a l d e p a r t u r e fro m the
p o sitio n o f p r e - lsla r n ic w o m a n a n d , in d e ed , if o n ly a c o m p a r a t i v e
stu d y u p o n th a t s u b je c t were m a d e it w ou ld seem that her position in
the fr a m e w o r k o f Q u r ’a n i c te a c h in g is m u ch a b o v e even the present
sta tu s o f w o m a n a n y w h e r e in the w orld. S u c h tr iu m p h s a s the ca u se o f
the lib e r a tio n o f w o m a n h a s m a d e in the a n n a l s o f h u m a n history , I
s u b m it, a r e directly tr a c e a b le to the im p a ct o f the Q u r ’an.
S im ila r l y , I sla m c a m e to t e r m in a te the a g e o f slavery. I n d e e d , the
freeing o f the sla v e is the highest p oin t o f h o n o u r to which the Q u r ’an
invites m a n ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 90: 13). T h e Q u r ’a n d e a ls with the q u e stio n o f
the e m a n c i p a t i o n o f m a n so very co m p re h e n siv e ly that it c a n b e called
the Testament of Human Liberty. M a n is d e c la r e d free a n d he is b r o u g h t in
su ch a d ir e c t r e la t io n s h ip w ith G o d th a t even ‘p r i e s t h o o d ’ h a s been
throw n o v e r b o a r d . H o w c a n m a n w o rsh ip G o d freely unless he be free
from p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic , social a n d religio us e x p lo ita tio n ? G o d says:
H e is n e a r e r to us t h a n th e v e in s o f o u r n e c k s . . . h o w c a n a n y o n e
intervene to in terpret H is will to us. M a n is to be m a d e free to be ab le
freely to w o rsh ip the L o r d !
T h e w hole w orld to d a y believes in religious to leran ce, a n d w h atev er
be the e x te n t o f its c o n fo r m ity to the id e a l p o s tu la te d by religious a n d
in telle ctu a l to le r a n c e , all civilized c o u n trie s the w orld o v e r s u b s c r ib e
to m a n ’s inherent righ t to p u rs u e , in the light o f his ow n feeble pow ers
a n d resources, the g o a l w h ich he h as kept before him self. In d e e d , the
Q u r ’a n is the only religious Book. 1 know , w hich h as, on the on e h an d ,
c o m m a n d e d the follow ers o f I sla m to spread th eir faith by resort to the
use o f b e a u tifu l w ords o f p e rsu a sio n a n d , on the oth er h an d , prohibited
th e m a g a i n s t th e v ic e o f b e in g in t o le r a n t o f o t h e r p e o p l e ’s r e lig io u s
beliefs a n d p r a c tic e s . It c a n d i d l y s a y s th at there is no c o m p u ls io n in
religion. F u rth e r , it e n jo in s the P ro p h e t say: ‘Y o u r G o d a n d m y G o d is
on e G o d ’ ; still fu r th e r , w h en all a r g u m e n t s fail a n d the d e t r a c t o r o f
I sla m refuses to listen to re aso n , the M u slim is a d m o n is h e d to say, even
a s the P ro p h e t s a id to his d e tr a c to r s: ‘ Y o u h ave y o u r ow n religion a n d
I h a v e m y r e lig io n .’ In d e e d , the Q u r ’a n has g o n e farth est in this d ire c­
94 i s i .a m : its m k a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

tion w hen it d e c la r e s: ‘ R ev ile not those w h om they call on besides G o d ,

lest th e y , in th e ir i g n o r a n c e , d e s p i t e f u l l y r e v ile H i m . W e h a v e so
fash ion ed the n a tu r e o f m a n th at they like the d e e d s they d o . A fte r all
they shall return to their L o rd a n d 1l e will d ecla re to them w hat their
a ctio n s h av e b e e n ' ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 6 : 109). T h i s sort o f religious tolerance
p r e a c h e d by I s la m a n d p r a c tise d by M u s l im s s te m s fr o m , a n d is the
c o n se q u e n c e of, a larger truth — the truth that the Din, that is, the way
o f life commanded by Cod to be revealed by the Prophets lo mankind has been in
essen tial a sp e c t on e a n d th e s a m e . ‘T o e a c h a m o n g s t y o u ,’ d e cla re s the
Q u r ’a n . ‘ H a v e W e p r e s c rib e d the law a n d a n o p e n w ay . I f G o d h a d
w illed H e w o u ld h a v e m a d e you all o f on e p a tte r n ; but H e w ou ld test
yo u by w h a t H e h a s g iven to e a c h . Be e m u l o u s then in g o o d d e e d s ’
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 5: 4 8 ). S i m i l a r l y , the H o ly Q u r ' a n p o in ts o u t the g r e a t
t r u t h , n a m e l y , ‘T o e v e r y p e o p le W e h a v e a p p o i n t e d o b s e r v a n c e s
w h ich they d e se rv e . T h e r e f o r e let them n ot d is p u t e this m a t te r with
y o u ; bu t bid them to their L o rd for you are on the right w a y ’ (al-
Q u r ’a n , 22: 67).
T o v a r io u s p e o p le s in differen t clim es v a r io u s P ro p h e ts h av e been
sent, all o f w h o m h ave revealed the s a m e Din (the w a y o f life) to them ,
a lt h o u g h the o b se r v a n c e s s a n c tio n e d for the r e a liz a tio n o f the Din in
th eir o w n tim e h a v e been d ifferen t. ‘ There h as n ot been p e o p le w h o
h av e not been visited by the w arn e rs,’ says the Q u r ’a n ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 35:
24). ‘A n d , in d e ed , the P rop h et o f Islam h im se lf is n o th in g m o re th a n a
w a rn e r a n d a g u i d e .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 13: 7). ‘S ev era l o f these P ro p h e ts the
L o r d h as sent a m o n g s t the p eople a s o f o l d ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 6 3: 6). S o m e o f
these P r o p h e t s h a v e been m e n t io n e d b y n a m e in th e Q u r ' a n a n d o f
o t h e r s , s a y s th e L o r d to th e P r o p h e t , ‘W e h a v e to ld th ee n o t h i n g ’
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 40: 78).
I n d e e d , the tolerance p re a c h e d by Islam re ach e s its high w a te r ­
m a r k w h en th e Q u r ’ a n d e c l a r e s ‘ V e r il y , th o se w h o b e lie v e ( t h a t is
M u s l im s ) a n d they w h o follow the Je w is h religion, C h r is tia n s a n d the
S a b i a n s . . . w h osoever believes in G o d a n d the L a s t D a y a n d d o e s that
w h ic h is rig h t sh a ll h a v e th eir r e w a r d w ith the L o r d . F e a r s h a ll not
c o m e u p o n th em , nor shall they grieve.' (a l-Q u r 'a n , 2: 62). C o u l d spirit
o f religio us to le ratio n g o a n y further?
The g r e a te s t c o n t r ib u t i o n w h ich the Q u r ' a n h a s m a d e to h u m a n
h istory, in m y s u b m iss io n , co n cern s the c larifica tio n it h as offered o f
the on ly fo u n d a tio n a l principle on w hich m a n k in d a s a w h o le c a n be
b r o u g h t to liv e t o g e t h e r in p e a c e a n d h a r m o n y . The Q u r ' a n h a s
e m p h a s i s e d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n th e s u p r e m e n e c e ssity o f m a n k in d
 THF. Q U R AN A N D I T S I M P A C T ON H U M A N H I S T O R Y 95

g e t t in g to g e th e r , fo r a f t e r a ll ‘ H a v e W e n o t / s a y s th e L o r d , ‘c r e a t e d
m a n k i n d a s th o u g h it w ere o n e self." T h e in te r n e c in e w a r f a r e s th at
h av e gon e on be tw e e n g r o u p s a n d g ro u p s, c o m m u n itie s a n d c o m m u ­
n ities, n a t io n s a n d n a t io n s , a n d s ects a n d sects a p p e a r to stem from
m a n ’s in v e t e r a t e d e sir e to u p h o l d n ot w hat is R i g h t , b u t m e r e ly to
d e cid e who is R ig h t. T h e Q u r 'a n in vites all o f us to a d h e r e to the L a w o f
G o d with a h a p p y a n d a p t m e t a p h o r , o f stickin g to on e a n d the s a m e
rope o f th e L o r d . T h e Q u r ’a n a d m o n is h e s us a g a in s t fo r m in g c liq u e s
a n d b e i n g p r iv ie s to s c h i s m s a n d d e v e l o p i n g s p ir it o f p a r t i s a n s h i p .
I n d e e d , th e Q u r ’a n m erc ile ssly d e n o u n c e s th ose w h o fo rm sects a n d
sponsor group formations a n d a s to th ose w h o split u p their religion a n d
b e c o m e p a rtie s to the fo u n d in g o f sects, it tells the P ro p h e t: ‘Y o u have
n o th in g to d o with them . T h e ir a ffa ir is with G o d . I lerca fter shall W e
tell th e m w h at they h a v e b e e n ' ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 6: 160). It g o e s o n to e n jo in
in a n o t h e r p l a c e : ‘ B u t m e n h a v e r e n t th e ir g r e a t c o n c e r n ( th e o n e
religion w h ich w a s m a d e for all m a n k in d ) , on e a m o n g a n o th e r , into
sects a n d every p a r ty re joicin g in th at which is their ow n ' ( a l - Q u r ’a n ,
2 3 :5 3 ).
T h e s e i n t e r n a l d i v i s i o n s a n d s c h i s m s w h ic h h a v e d i s r u p t e d th e
p e a c e o f th e w o rld result fro m m a n k in d d is r e g a r d in g the s u p r e m e fact
o f its ow n c o n stitu tio n , n a m e ly , th a t all o f us are from G o d a n d to G o d
is o u r r e tu rn . S im ila r l y , the r acial p rid e is d is c o u n te d by the Q u r 'a n
when it p r o c la im s th a t a ll mankind is from Adam and Adam is madefrom dust.
S a t a n is e x h ib it e d a s a n a c c u rse d one precisely b e c a u s e he a r g u e s , for
the su p e rio r ity o f his high origin a s c o n tra ste d from w h at he believes in
the lowly o r ig in o f m a n . ‘M a n , a fte r a ll ,’ s a y s he, ‘w a s c r e a t e d o f d u st
w h ere as I a m c r c a t e d o f a fire.’ T h is sort o f sense o f exclu siv ism which
a ls o c o m e s to a p e o p le p urely o u t o f a desire to c la im s u p e rio r a n d high
q u a li t y o f b lo o d in their b e in g h as been d e n o u n c e d by the Q u r ’an in no
u n m is t a k a b le te rm s a n d n o m a t te r w hat the d e tra cto rs o f the P rop h et
m ig h t say , the s u p r e m e fact o f p o st-lsla m ic history1is th at Islam a lo n e
o f all p o ssib le creeds h as successfully d e v a lu e d the im p o r t a n c e o f race,
c o lo u r a n d p riv ile g e. It h a s a d m o n is h e d its follow ers not to o r g a n iz e
m a n k i n d in t o g r o u p s b a s e d on p r in c i p le s o f b l o o d o r g e o g r a p h i c a l
c o n t ig u i t y o r p a r t i c u l a r p riv ile g e w h ich they m ig h t c l a i m for t h e m ­
selves. A c c o r d in g to I sla m , he a lo n e is e x a lte d w h o is a m utlaqi— th a t is,
one w h o is a sclf-controlled in d iv id u a l, on e w h o lets the law o f G o d rule
h im . A ll o t h e r t r i m m i n g s a n d t r a p p i n g s o f i n d i v i d u a l life a r e false
c r e d e n tia ls a n d m e a n n othing.
T o d a y in a w o rld , d iv id e d by all m a n n e r o f g ro u p in g s, a n d a ccu rse d
96 isla m : its m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

a s it is, by the w o rsh ip o f a false G o d called ‘n a tio n a lism ', the re a liz a ­
tion h a s c o m e to m a n k in d th at the b ro th e rh o o d o f m a n is c a p a b l e o f
b e i n g f o u n d e d o n ly u p o n a s p ir it u a l p r in c ip le not o n the b a s is o f
co lo ur, race, privilege. T h a t s p iritu a l p rin ciple h ig h lig h ts the im p o r t­
a n c e o f o r g a n iz in g the b ro th e rh o o d o f m a n u p o n the only basis th at he
is a m a n — not b e c a u s e o f what he has bu t b e c a u s e o f who he is. T h o se
w h o b elieve in th e s u p e r io r it y o f r a c e a r e b e in g r o u n d ly c o n d e m n e d
everyw here: those w h o believe th at g rea tn e ss o f a n atio n is m ea su re d
by its e c o n o m i c a n d in d u str ia l p o te n tia l a r e b e in g h ated everyw here
a n d , w h at is w orse, they a r e not e ve n a t p e a c e with th e m se lv es. T h e
institution o f p il g r i m a g e s a n c tio n e d by I sla m is the o n ly illu stration I
know o f the o p e r a tio n o f the sp iritu a l p rin cip le fo r secu rin g in tegratio n
o f m a n k i n d ; g a t h e r i n g o f M u s l i m s in M a k k a e v e ry y e a r is th e on ly
m o d e l u p o n w h ic h a m o v e t o w a r d s a s u p r a - n a t i o n a l s y n t h e s is o f
m a n k in d c a n be s tim u la te d .
T h e s p i r i t u a l p r i n c i p l e u p o n w h ic h m a n k i n d c a n be g r o u p e d ,
a c c o r d in g to Isla m , ta k e s the fo rm o f d e v o tio n to the ideal o f ju stic e .
There a re in n u m e r a b le references in the Q u r ’an to the s u p r e m e n eces­
sity o f e sta b lish in g a ju st society, a ju st order. W e, the in d iv id u a l m en
a n d w o m e n , a r e invited to be ju s t , to hold scales o f ju s t ic e evenly, a n d
a r e fo r b id d e n fro m e m p l o y i n g fa lse m e a s u r e s in w e ig h in g th in g s or
a r tif ic ia lly tilt in g th e b a l a n c e in o u r fa v o u r. W e a r e c a ll e d u p o n to
a d v a n c e the c a u s e o f ju s t ic e by offering te stim o n y sho uld the need to
d o so arise, even a g a in s t o u r o w n kith a n d kin, o u r ow n n ear ones a n d
d e a r on es. T h e r e w a s a tim e w hen th e h ig h est id e a l for m a n w a s to
e x ten d h o p e a n d offer co m fort to p e rson s w h o were sufferin g b e c a u s e o f
the in iq u ito u s a n d un ju st c o n d itio n s to w hich they were s ubject. The
r e lig io u s d u t y w a s m ere ly to comfort the v ic tim s o f in ju stic e with the
a ss u ra n c e th at G o d is with the lowly a n d h u m b le a n d that b e c a u s e o f
th e ir su ffe r in g th e y will be r e w a r d e d in the H e r e a ft e r . T h e Q u r ’an
w ou ld n ot a c c e p t a n y o r g a n iz a t io n a l syn th esis o f m a n k in d w hich is not
based on the ideal o f ju st ic e — w hich consists in g iv in g to e a c h n ation
o r c o m m u n i t y w h a t is its d u e. T h e C h r is tia n society in the co n cep tio n
o f its present p rofession s c o u ld only be fo u n d ed by u p h o ld in g the valu e
o f m e e k n e ss , or r e n d e r in g u n t o C a e s a r w h a t is C a e s a r ’s a n d to G o d
w h at is o f G o d o f c h a rity , o f c o m p a s sio n — not u p o n the fo u n d a tio n
o f justice which co n sists in the e n force m en t o f j u s t law s by ju s t people.
Islam e n jo in s u p o n its votaries to inflict d u ly san ctio n e d p u n ish m e n ts
on the t r a n s g r e s s o r s o f the law a n d a d m o n i s h e s us to c a ll u p o n the
p e rp e tra to r s o f the w ron g to c o m p e n sa t e those w h o h a v e been w rong-
 th e q u r 'a n and its im p a c t o n hum an h isto ry 97
e d by the u n ju s t exercise o f their pow er. It say s all p ow er is G o d ’s a n d
an y o n e w h o h a s it m u s t exercise it not for his personal aggrandizement but
in H is holy namefor the advancement o f H is purpose.

(3)
T h e Q u r ’a n m a n ife s to is th u s there for all to sec. W illy-nilly, it h as been
a c c e p t e d in p r i n c i p l e b y th e w h o le w o r ld . T h e w o r ld s w e a r s by its
id e a ls a n d in fa c t c h e r ish e s th e v a lu e s s p o n s o r e d by it. It is tru e th at
here, a s elsew h ere, there is a g re a t d e al o f disco rd betw een o u r ‘p rofe s­
sio n s ’ a n d ‘p e r f o r m a n c e ’. It is a ls o true th at in the sp h e re o f p ra ctice ,
the te a c h in g o f the Q u r ’a n is least follow ed by those w h o call t h e m ­
selves M u slim s . N o book in the w orld d o w n the a g e s h a s been a d o r e d
m ore th a n the H o ly Q u r ’a n h as been by the M u slim s . T h e respect they
show for the Bo ok , how ever, is not the only respon se th at is d e m a n d e d
by the B o ok . F a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t is the c l a i m o f the Q u r ’a n th a t the
g u id a n c e fu rn ish e d by it sh o u ld be understood a n d applied to the d e ta ils
o f o u r d a ily c o n d u c t.
I f the Q u r ’a n is a Book o f Hidayah is it not o b lig a to r y for all o f us to
know w h a t is c o n t a in e d in it, a n d w h a t it h as e n jo in e d u p o n us. A n d
how c a n we, I a sk , kn o w w h a t it h as e n join ed u p o n us unless we a re ab le
to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t it s a y s. T h i s is n ot th e p l a c e to i n d i c a t e in a n y
m e a s u r e o f d e ta ils w h a t a r c the pre-con ditio n s w h ich h av e to be fulfil­
led before the Q u r ’a n c a n h a v e a p p e a l to the heart o f m a n . A great deal
o f d iscip lin e in the n a tu r e o f internal p u rity a n d a g reat d e a l o f d e v o ­
tion to th e L o r d W h o h a s r e v e a le d it to m a n k i n d is r e q u ir e d befo re
m ere k n o w le d ge o f A r a b ic c a n be serviceable. It is true th at kn ow ledge
o f A r a b ic is n ecessary a n d the m o re we know A r a b ic the better will it be
— b u t th e n , k n o w l e d g e o f A r a b i c is n ot to be c o n fu s e d w ith a close
s tu d y o f its s y n ta x , o f its g r a m m a r , a n d o f its lex ic o g rap h ic a l superfine
distin ction s. T h e A r a b i c o f the Q u r ’a n is sim p le — therefore such is its
m iracle th at it c a n n o t be u n d e rsto o d easily by the so p h istic ate d ones!
T h e Q u r ’a n is the best e v id e n ce th at there is for all o f us to believe
th at G o d e xists, th a t M u h a m m a d is H is P ro p h e t. It is a ls o a B o o k o f
H o p e in th e sense th at it prese n ts to us the im a g e o f o u r M a k e r W h o
forgives us a n d p ro tec ts us a g a in s t o u r ow n follies.
 PA R T III

The Islam ic System

 6

Islam and Social Responsibility *

T. B. Irving

O N E o f th e serio u s facts o f this present a g e is th at the old n o rm s h av e

fa iled to co n v in c e a n d hold o u r y o u th , a n d w c arc fa c in g a new tim e o f
I g n o r a n c e , a fresh Ja h ih y y a , a s the A r a b s or M u s l i m s w o u ld s t a t e it.
W h e th e r this is b e c a u s e W'estern v a lu e s a r e b a sic a lly false or th at som e
form o f d r y rot h as infected o u r c o m m u n i c a tio n s m e d ia , the fact re­
m a in s th at w e a r e f a c in g a real crisis th ro u g h o u t the W estern world.
T h i s p ro c ess is the o p p o site o f the g r e a t e igh teen th -cen tu ry m o v e ­
m en t w hich w a s c a lle d the E n lig h t e n m e n t , when W estern E u r o p e a n d
N o rth A m e r ic a s e e m e d to be s h a k in g o f f their age -o ld prejudices. F o r
M u s l i m s , it a l s o f o r m s a c o n t r a s t to th e s t a r t l i n g p e r i o d w h e n th e
P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d led his a rid p e n in su la o u t o f ch a os, bo th p olitical
a n d so cial, in to the lea d ersh ip o f the then kn ow n w orld. In fact,
w h e r e v e r I s l a m e n t e re d d u r i n g its e a r lie s t y o u th , the m id d l e a g e s ,
e sp e cia lly a s W estern E u r o p e knew this d a rk period in h u m a n history,
s im p ly c e a se d to exist.

T H E ISL A M IC ER A
T h e P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be u p o n h im ) e st a b lish e d religion,
a n d then, I sla m ic s ta te or c o m m o n w e a lth d e v e lo p e d slowly, so m ew h a t
c h a llc n g in g ly , d u r i n g the d e c a d e from the ye a r 6 22 or the H ijra a s it is
c a lle d , the Z e ro ye a r in the Islam ic c a le n d a r , until his d e a th in 632,
o n l y ten y e a r s l a t e r . B y th a t t i m e , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g a p e n i n s u l a o f

• I'his is based on a p a p e r presented by the auth o r to a M u slim -B ap tist

Dialogue Conference held at Toledo, Ohio, U.S.A., and published in Impact
International, August, 1974.
102 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G A N D M E SSA G E

m u t u a ll y r a id in g tribes, A r a b ia h a d b e co m e a c o m m o n w e a lth which

raised new s t a n d a r d s for the w orld to a d o p t . All this o ccu rre d within
the ten y e a rs a fte r th e H ijra o r ‘T r a n s f e r ’ o f the P rop h et a n d his M u slim
c o m m u n i t y from try in g c irc u m st a n c e s in M a k k a h to its new c a p it a l o f
Y a t h r i b , o r M a d f n a a s this city c a m e to be c a lle d , tw o h u n d re d miles to
the north in a n o a sis on the a n cie n t c a r a v a n rou te to Syria.
T h e life o f the P r o p h e t th u s lasted from a r o u n d the ye a r 5 7 0 o f the
C h r i s t i a n e r a , w h e n he w a s b o r n , u n til 6 32. H e w a s c a l l e d an -N ab i
al-U m m tor ‘the U n le tte re d P ro p h e t' in the Q u r 'a n (7: 157-158). W h a t
d o e s this term m e a n ? It m e a n s s im p ly th at M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be
u p o n h im ) w a s not co llege tra in e d , a s we m ig h t e x p e c t him to be to d a y ;
nevertheless he led his p e o p le fo rm a lly a n d sincerely to a b etter w ay o f
life. H e w a s th e m o s t c u lt u r e d a n d c o n c e r n e d in d i v id u a l yet he h a d
never been to sch ool, o n ly tra in e d to speak g o o d A r a b ic b y living a s an
in fan t o u t on tfce d esert, w here they sp o k e the best A r a b ic in th at d ay.
O r even since.
A lm o st im m e d i a t e ly follow ing his d e a t h , Islam burst u p o n the N e a r
E a ste r n a n d the w orld scene, to take ov er the w hole S a s s a n id e m p ir e o f
P e r sia p lu s th e s o u t h e r n tier o f th e B y z a n tin e e m p i r e a s fa r W est a s
S p a i n a n d M o r o c c o o n the A tlan tic. T h i s co vered less th a n one c e n ­
tury: by the ye a r 711, or only e ig h ty y e a rs a fte r the P r o p h e t ’s d e a t h ,
M u s l im s w ere on the b o rd ers o f F r a n c e in the fa r W est, a n d they were
e n t e rin g I n d ia to the E a s t . . . Islam w as term ed the ‘m id d lin g n a t io n ’
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 143), the c o m m u n i t y w h ich w a s to follow the H a p p y
M e d i u m in all m a tte r s, th at a im o f bo th G re e k a n d Islam ic society, a n d
o f a n y m o d e r a t e on e on earth.

B A SIC P U R P O S E
T h e M u s l im 's b a sic p u r p o se in life is to w orsh ip G o d in H is O n e n e ss,
b i-at-T aw h id , a n d not t h r o u g h th e tr in ity o f th e C h r i s t i a n s , n o r the
d u a lity a n d id o la try o f o th er religions. The M u s l im works th ro u g h the
p o w e r o f G o d ’s t r a n s c e n d e n c e ; in th e w o rd s o f K i n g A r t h u r , a s this
C e ltic l e a d e r w a s p r e p a r in g to en te r the next w orld, he a d m o n is h e d his
K n i g h t s o f th e R o u n d T a b l e :

F o r w h a t a r e m e n b etter th a n sheep or g oats, th at nourish a blin d

life w ithin the b ra in , if, k n o w in g G o d , th ey lift not h a n d s in p ra y e r
bo th for th em selv es a n d those th at call them friend?

G o d is th u s T r a n s c e n d e n t , a l-G h an ia s the Q u r ’a n teach es us; while

m ere m a n is o n ly ‘r ic h ’ o r ‘w e a lth y ’ w h en this s a m e a d je ctiv e is a p p lie d
 ISLA M AND SO C IA L R E SPO N SIB ILIT Y 103

to h im . D iv in e service or w orsh ip m e a n s g iv in g ‘w o r t h ’ or v a lu e to w h a t
we respect a n d revere. W e M u s l im s know G o d ; w e m ee t H im five times
a d a y a t least, a n d while we a r e on o u r knees before H im .
T o d a y o u r N e w W o r l d is h e l p i n g to lift t h e d e a d h a n d w h ic h
o p p o se d these co n c e p ts, a n d to sp re a d the u n iversal m e ssag e o f Islam .
I f w e a l l a r c w i l l i n g to l i s t e n , th e n w e m a y c l e a r u p s o m e o f th e
m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h ic h h a s h i n d e r e d W e s t e r n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f
M i d d l e E a s t e r n e th ics a n d v a lu e s, e sp e c ia lly s in ce I s la m itse lf is now
p u s h in g in to th e c itie s o f N o r th A m e r ic a , G r e a t B r ita in a n d
co n tin e n ta l E u r o p e .

T H E S P IR IT O F ISL A M IC C IV ILIZ A T IO N
4R e a d ! ’ o u r P r o p h e t w as told a t the b e g in n in g o f C h a p t e r 96 (a l- ‘A /aq),
w hich b e a rs this s im p le title a n d thus sets a n e arly s ta n d a r d for Islam ic
s o c i e t y . I s l a m d e m a n d e d f r o m its v e r y i n c e p t i o n a f u l l y l i t e r a t e
t r a d i t i o n . H u m a n r e c o r d s m u s t b e p r e s e r v e d i f c i v i l i z a t i o n is to
f u n c t io n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . W e c a ll th is n ee d s t a t is t i c s , w h ic h fo r m the
b a s is fo r e c o n o m i c s a n d s o c i o lo g y , a n d e s p e c i a l l y fo r t a x a t i o n a n d
p la n n in g . O u r g r e a t p re o c c u p a t io n a s M u s l im s h as th u s a lw a y s been
with the m a t t e r or s u b s ta n c e o f civilized living, so th at we c a n a tta in
bo th s p ir it u a l a n d in telle ctu a l v a lu e s, a n d th ereb y fu n c tio n usefully
w ithin o u r society.
W h a t is c i v i l i z a t i o n ? A t first I s l a m s e e m e d to h a v e s t a r t e d in a
c u lt u r a l b a c k w a t e r , a l m o s t a v a c u u m ; b u t im m e d i a t e ly , w ith in the
first d e c a d e o f th e P r o p h e t ’s p a s s i n g , it b e c a m e a fo c u s for c u lt u r a l
e n e rg y w ithin the civilized world.
T h e I sla m ic w a y o f view in g these v a lu e s or s t a n d a r d s is different. In
the first p la c e , it is b a s e d u p o n a c le a r vision o f the w orld a n d the D eity
w hich is R e s p o n s ib l e for its c re a tio n a n d e xisten ce. T h e A r a b i c w ord
for ‘re lig io n ’ is din, w h ich m e a n s s o m e th in g we ‘o w e ’ to G o d , m u ch like
the L a t i n c o n ce p t o f rehgio m e a n in g so m e th in g ‘b in d in g (us) b a c k ’ to
G o d . S im ila r ly the w ord fo r ‘s t a n d a r d ’ isJurqan w hich g ive s the title to
C h a p t e r '25 (A l-Furqan) in the Q u r 'a n . O u r three c a p it a l o r m o r ta l sins
are d e sig n e d to e n su r e the pure w orsh ip o f G o d A lo n e ; these are:

1. KuJ'r, w h ich m e a n s ‘d i s b e l i e f a s well a s ‘in g r a tit u d e ’ ; w hile a kdfu,

w h ich is th e p r e s e n t p a r t ic ip le o f th e s a m e root, is the u n g r a te fu l
p a g a n o r a t h e i s t w h o r e f u s e s to c o n c e d e t h a t G o d h a s a n y role
w ithin H is c r e a tio n ;
2. Shirk o r ‘a s s o c ia t io n ’, w h ich m e a n s g iv in g G o d a p a r tn e r o f an y
104 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G AN D M E S S A G E

sort, so th a t we n o lon ger trust in H im A lone. C h r is tia n tran slato rs

o f t h e Q u r ’ a n o f t e n c a ll th is ‘ p o l y t h e i s m ’ o r ‘ i d o l a t r y ’ , h o p i n g
th e r e b y to d iv e r t c r it ic is m fro m th e m se lv e s , a l t h o u g h th e trin ity
c a n be co n sid e r e d a v a r ia tio n o n this th em e, a s can th e d u a lis m o f
the a n c ie n t Persian s, or the c r u d e r fo rm s o f p a g a n i s m ;
3. Tughyan o r ‘a r r o g a t i o n ’, w hich is the sin o f re fu sin g to trust in G o d
im p l ic it ly , a n d a c t i n g in a t y r a n n o u s o r b u ll y in g m a n n e r . W h e n
w a t e r , for in s t a n c e , is a r r o g a n t , it ov erflo w s a n d floo d s us o u t , a s
h a p p e n e d in the c a se o f N o a h ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 6 9: 11).

T h e M u s l i m ’s r e a c tio n to th ese c o n c e p t s m u s t b e re in fo rce d with

p ractice, with the litu rgy o r ritual th at d e v e lo p s with a n y religion. In
Islam we call this u n d e r p in n in g o f o u r faith the Five P illars, w hich are:
(1 ) O u r b e lie f or c r e e d ; (2 ) P r a y e r , w h ich s u s ta in s d a ily p r a c tic e ; (3)
F a s t in g ; (4 ) the W e lfa re T a x w h ich r e d is t r ib u te s w e a lth w ith in
s o c ie ty ; a n d fin a lly (5 ) th e P i l g r i m a g e to M a k k a , w h en we h a v e the
m e a n s to d o so, a n d not leave o u r fam ilies in w an t. T h e s e p ractices are
s u m m e d u p in th e g r e a t h y m n to L i g h t in the c h a p t e r o f th a t s a m e
n a m e ; note the e lo q u e n c e o f the Q u r ’a n w hich h a s c o n v in ce d m illions
o f M u s l im s t h ro u g h fourteen g lo r io u s cen tu ries:

G o d is the L ig h t o f H e a v e n a n d E a r th !
H is light m a y be c o m p a r e d to a niche in w hich there is a l a m p ; the
l a m p is in a g la s s ; the g la ss is j u s t a s if it were a glitte rin g s t a r kindled
fro m a b le ss e d o liv e tree (w h ich is) n e ith e r E a s t e r n n o r W este rn ,
w h ose oil will a lm o s t glow th o u g h fire h as n ever to u ch e d it. L ig h t
u p o n light, G o d g u id e s a n y o n e H e wishes to H is light.
G o d sets u p p a r a b l e s for m a n k in d ;
G o d is A w a r e o f e v e ry th in g !
T h e r e a r e h ou ses G o d h a s p e rm itte d to be built w here H is n a m e is
m e n t i o n e d ; in th e m H e is glo rifie d m o r n in g a n d e v e n in g by m en
w h o m n e i t h e r b u s i n e s s n o r t r a d i n g d i s t r a c t fr o m r e m e m b e r i n g
G o d , k e e p in g u p p ra y er, a n d p a y in g the w elfare tax. T h e y fe a r a d a y
w h e n t h e i r h e a r t s a n d e y e s i g h t w ill feel o v e r c o m e u n l e s s G o d
r e w a r d s th e m for the finest th in g s they m a y h a v e d o n e , a n d gives
them even m o re o u t o f H is boun ty.
G o d p ro v id e s for a n y o n e H e wishes w itho ut a n y reckonin g! T h o se
w h o d isb e liev e (will fin d) th eir d e e d s a r e like a m ir a g e on a desert:
the th irsty m a n will recko n it is w a t e r till a s he c o m e s u p to it, he
finds it is n o th in g . Yet he finds G o d ( st a n d s ) beside him a n d he m ust
r e n d e r H i m his a c c o u n t ; G o d is P r o m p t in reckonin g!
 ISL A M AND SO C IA L R E SPO N SIB ILITY 105

O r like d a r k n e s s o n the u n fa t h o m e d sea ;

on e w a v e co ve rs u p a n o t h e r w a v e o v e r w h ich ( h a n g ) clo u d s;
layers o f d a rk n e s s , on e a b o v e the other!
W h en he stretch es o u t his h a n d he ca n scarcely see it.
A n y o n e to w h o m G o d does n ot g r a n t light will h a v e no light!
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 24: 35-40).

T h u s I slam sets u p its v a lu e system p lain ly co n cern in g ou r necessity

to think clea rly a b o u t the D eity, a n d to w orsh ip H i m sincerely. O n ly
a f t e r we a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , a n d e s t a b l i s h H i s p u r e w o r s h i p , d o w e
c o n s id e r th e o t h e r sin s or c r im e s w h ich m ig h t be c o m m i t t e d a g a i n s t
s o c i e t y o r o u r f e ll o w m e n , s u c h a s m u r d e r , t h e f t , l y i n g , s l a n d e r ,
a d u lte r y , etc. O f the b ig three disbeliefs, a sso c ia tio n a n d a r r o g a tio n are
m u c h m o re serious, since they strike directly at b asic b e lie f a n d o n e ’s
c le a r vision o f G o d A lone.

SO C IA L R E SP O N SIB IL IT Y
T h u s we are fa c e d with social responsibility. E v ery o n e h as o b lig a tio n s
to his ow n fa m ily , a n d we also h av e th e m to w a r d s society. In d iv id u a l
r e sp o n sib ility here b e c o m e s c lea r, sin ce the c o m m a n d i n g p rese n ce o f
G o d A lo n e m a k e s e a c h on e o f us a c u te ly a w a r e o f his d u t y th ro u g h o u t
the w orld. T h e w elfare ta x re d istrib u te s w ealth a m o n g the p o o r a n d
n ee d y s o th a t society c a n fu n c tio n in a ju s t m an n e r. M u h a m m a d
( p e a c e b e u p o n h i m ) w a s a n o r p h a n , a n d s o h e k n e w f r o m h is
c h i l d h o o d h o w n e c e s s a r y s o m e fo r m o f p u b l i c c h a r i t y w a s , a n d is.
P a r e n t h o o d is a s e r i o u s o b l i g a t i o n a n d m u s t b e a s s u m e d in a
r e sp o n sib le m a n n e r too. S e c tio n s on m o ra l b e h a v io u r are traced out in
like m a n n e r . G o o d m a n n e r s in bo th p r iv a t e a n d p u b lic a r e likewise
co n sid e r e d to be im p o r t a n t . H o w e v e r no d u t y is o v erw h elm in g : ‘G o d
o n l y a s s i g n s a s o u l s o m e t h i n g it c a n c o p e w i t h ; it is c r e d i t e d w ith
w h a te v e r it h as e a r n e d , w hile it is d e b it e d w ith w h atev er it h as bro u g h t
u p o n i t s e l f . ’ ( a l - Q u r ’ a n , 2: 2 8 6 ) . W h a t o n e m i g h t c a ll o u r M a j o r
C o m m a n d m e n t s or o u r re spon sibilities are well set forth:
S A Y : ‘C o m e close, I will list w h at y o u r L o rd has fo rb id d e n you:

I D o n ot a ss o c ia te a n y t h in g w ith H im :
II A n d (sh o w ) k in d n e ss to w a r d s both (yo ur) paren ts.
III D o n ot kill y o u r c h ild ren b e c a u s e o f p o v erty ; W e sh all p ro v id e
for you a s well a s for them.
IV D o not in d u lg e in sh o ck in g a c ts which you m a y p ractise op en ly
or keep secret.
106 ISL A M : ITS M EA NIN G AND M ESSA G E

V D o not kill a n y person w h om G o d h as fo rb id d e n exc ep t th rou gh

(d u e process of) law. H e has instructed you with this so that you
m a y use y o u r reason.
VI D o n o t a p p r o a c h a n o r p h a n ' s e s t a t e b e fo r e he c o m e s o f a g e
e x c e p t to im p ro v e it.
VII G iv e full m e a s u r e a n d w eigh t in all fairn e ss. W e d o not assig n
a n y person to d o m ore th a n he ca n c o p e with.
V I II W 'h en ever y o u s p e a k , b e j u s t e v e n t h o u g h it c o n c e r n s a close
relative.
IX Fulfil G o d ’s a g r e e m e n t. T h u s has H e instructed you so th at you
m a y b e a r it in m in d .
X. T h i s is M y S t r a ig h t R o a d , so follow it a n d d o not follow p a th s
w hich will s e p a r a t e you fr o m H is pa th . T h u s has H e instructed
you so th at you m a y heed.

( a l - Q u r ’a n , 6: 151-153).

E c o n o m ic life m u st likewise be taken c a r e o f in a n eth ica l fash ion ,

esp e cia lly m a t te r s like u su ry or ta k in g interest, w h ich h as a lw a y s led to
ab u se . T h e law a n d the s ta te m ust thus be a b le to function on a basis o f
ju st ic e for everyon e. T h e a n cie n t nation o f T h a m u d w as w arn e d that
even a thirsty c a m e l has its d rin k in g rights ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 5 4 :2 3 - 3 0 ) . E a c h
nation is re sp on sib le for w hat it d o e s ( a l- Q u r a n , 2: 134); the m a t te r o f
collective r e sp o n sib ility is stated in the verse: ‘G o d is n o o n e t o a l t e r a n y
fa v o u r H e h as g r a n t e d a n y folk until they alter w h at they th em selves
h a v e .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 8: 5 3 & 13: 11). T h e p rin ciple o f collective defence
h as been b e w il d e r i n g to th ose p e o p le w h o h a v e a t t a c k e d a n I sla m ic
c o m m u n i t y : I sla m d o e s not p reach the idealistic do c trin e o f the O th e r
C h e c k , bu t in ste ad p refers sclf-dcfcnce te m p ere d with c o m p a s sio n an d
an a t t e m p t at r e co n cilia tio n , a s we learn in the fo llow in g p a ss a g e :

W h o is finer in sp e e ch th a n s o m e o n e w h o a p p e a l s to G o d , a c ts
h o n o u r a b ly a n d says: i a m a M u s l i m .’?
A g o o d d e e d a n d a n evil d e e d a r e n ot a li k e : r e p a y ( e v il ) w ith
s o m e t h in g th a t is finer, a n d notice how s o m e o n e w h o is s e p a r a te d
from you by e n m i t y will b e co m e a b o so m friend!
Yet o n ly th o se w h o d is c ip lin e th em selv es will a t t a i n it; o n ly the
very luckiest will a c h ic v c it!
N e v e r t h e l e s s i f s o m e im p u l s e fro m S a t a n s h o u l d p r o m p t y o u ,
se e k r e f u g e w it h G o d : H e is th e A l e r t , A w a r e ! ( a l - Q u r ’ a n . 4 1:
33-36).
 ISLAM AND SO C IA L R ESPO N SIB ILIT Y 107

O n a n in d i v i d u a l level, r e sp o n sib le a c t i o n is e n c o u r a g e d : p o sitiv e

b e h a v i o u r is p r e fe r re d o v e r n e g a tiv e or d e st r u c t iv e c o n d u c t ; we are
p r o m is e d : ‘A n y o n e w h o c o m e s with a fine d e e d will h av e ten m o re like
it, w h ile a n y o n e w h o c o m e s w ith an evil d e e d will o n ly be re w a r d e d
with its like; they will not be h a r m e d .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 6: 161). T h u s we are
e n c o u r a g e d to be c o n stru ctiv e in o u r c o n d u c t ; with o u r close relatives
first o f all, w ith w o m e n , c h ild ren a n d especially o r p h a n s, a n d with the
p oo r a n d fe e b le m in d e d , a n d the w ay fa rer, all o f w h om need ca rc a n d
c o m p a ssio n . T h e h o sp ita lity o f M u slim c o u n tries h as b eco m e
p r o v e r b ia l: ‘T h e y offer fo od to the n eedy, the o r p h a n a n d the c a p tiv e
ou t o f love for H i m : “ W e are only feedin g you for G o d ’s sake. W e w ant
no rew ard from you nor a n y th a n k s .” ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 76: 8-9).
M u c h o f this a t t it u d e w as w orked o u t in its d e ta ils by fo llow in g the
e x a m p l e o f P r o p h e tic p r a c tic e or Sunnah a s it is c a lle d in A r a b ic . T h e
science o f IJadith or ‘T r a d i t i o n s ’ w as e stab lish e d for this p u rp o se , a n d
its rig o ro u s a p p lic a t io n is on e o f the glories o f historical m e th o d which
w as d e v e lo p e d in a p a in s t a k in g fashion by M u s l im sch ola rs a im in g at
a s c e r t a i n i n g th e tru th o f p a s t e v e n ts a n d s ta te m e n ts . T h r o u g h all o f
this the p e rso n a lity o f the P r o p h e t c a n be seen w orking with the intense
sincerity w h ich fo rm s the b a s is for o u r Hadith or Islam ic traditio ns.
O u r s is a p r o u d t r a d i t i o n w h ic h h a s b o u n d th e m i d d l e b e lt o f
co u n tr ie s th a t stretch from M o r o c c o th rou g h A fric a a n d so u th ern A sia
in to I n d o n e s ia to g e th e r into a c u lt u r a l whole. D e s p ite the in r o a d s o f
th e W est, th e I s l a m ic w orld is o n c e m ore a ris in g to assert itself a s the
‘ M i d d l i n g C o m m u n i t y ’ on the p r e se n t w orld scene. Its eth ics a n d its
e x p r e s s io n in a r t a n d so cie ty h a v e g iven it a d ig n it y w h ich e v e n the
F re n ch were u n a b le to de stroy in N o r th A frica, a lt h o u g h the S p a n is h
d id this in G r a n a d a a n d V a le n c ia . H e re h ow ever is the m e ssag e which
the religion o f I sla m b rin g s to the present cen tu ry a s the W estern world
g ro p e s for its v a lu e s, a n d seeks on ce m ore for w h at m a n sh o u ld w orship
o r g iv e w orth to. I sla m ste p s fo rw a rd w ith c le a r v a lu e s to g u id e us to
ren ew ed social responsibility.
 7

T he Islam ic Concept o f Worship*

M u sta fa A h m a d a l- Z a r q a

W O R S H I P , a c c o r d i n g to I s l a m , is a m e a n s fo r th e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f
m a n ’s soul a n d his p ra c tic a l life.
T h e b a s i s o f *ibadah ( w o r s h i p ) is th e fa c t t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s a r e
cr e a tu r e s a n d th u s b o n d - s e r v a n t s o f G o d , their C r e a t o r a n d their L o r d ,
to W h o m th e y a r e d e s t in e d to re tu r n . T h u s M a n ’s tu r n in g to w a r d s
G o d , in in t im a t e c o m m u n i o n , reverence, a n d in the spirit o f d evotion
a n d h u m b l e su b m iss io n , is te rm ed ‘ibadah.
W o r s h i p is a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e p a r t o f a ll r e lig io n s , i n c l u d i n g th e
id o la tr o u s ones. It is m o t iv a te d , how ever, in e a c h religion by different
ob jectives, a ss u m e s different fo rm s a n d is p e rfo rm ed u n d e r a different
set o f rules.
In s o m e religion s w o rsh ip is a m e a n s to d e v e lo p in m a n the a ttitu d e
o f a s c e t i c i s m a n d i s o l a t i o n f r o m life. In th e se r e l i g i o n s it s e e k s to
d e v e l o p a m e n t a l i t y w h ic h a n a t h e m a t i z e s t h e e n j o y m e n t o f th e
p le a su res o f this world.
T h e n , th ere a r c o th er religion s w h ich co n se c r a te c e rta in p la c e s for
the s a k e o f w o r sh ip a n d p r o h ib it its p e rf o r m a n c e a t a n y o th er place.
T h e r e a r e a l s o r e lig io n s w h ic h a r e o f th e view t h a t w o r s h i p c a n be
p e rfo r m e d o n ly u n d e r the le a d e rsh ip o f a p a r tic u la r class o f p e o p le —
th e o r d a i n e d p riests. P e o p le m a y , th erefore, p e rfo r m w o rsh ip u n d e r
the le a d e rsh ip o f priests a n d on ly a t the p la c e s co n se crate d for it. T h u s
the n a tu r e a s well a s the fo rm s o f w orsh ip differ fro m one religion to the
other.

• This articlc was originally published in al-Muslimun, Beirut. Translated from

Arabic by Dr. Zafar Ishaq Ansari.
110 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G A N D M E SSA G E

A s fo r I sla m , its c o n c e p tio n o f w orsh ip is related to its f u n d a m e n t a l

view th at the true fo u n d a tio n s o f a g o o d life a r e so u n d n e ss o f b e lie f a n d
th in k in g, p u rity o f sou l, a n d rig h teousn ess o f action.
T h r o u g h b e l i e f in th e u n i t y o f G o d , W h o is in v e s te d w ith all the
a t t r i b u t e s o f p e rfe c tio n , I s la m seeks to p u r g e h u m a n in tellect o f the
filth o f i d o l a t r y a n d s u p e r s t i t i o u s fa n c ie s . In f a c t , p o l y t h e i s m a n d
id o la tr y w h ich a r e o p p o s e d by I sla m d e g r a d e m a n to a level w hich is
i n c o m p a t i b l e w it h h is d i g n i t y . I s l a m f i g h t s a g a i n s t i d o l a t r y a n d
p o ly th e ism in w h ich ev er fo rm s a n d to w h atev er exten t they m ig h t be
fo u n d . In its co n c e rn to e r a d i c a t e id o la tr y Islam ta k e s notice e ve n o f
the im p e r c e p tib le fo r m s o f idolatry'. It takes notice even o f those beliefs
a n d p ra ctice s w hich d o not a p p e a r to their a d h e r e n ts a s ta in te d with
id o la try . O n e o f the m a n ife s t a t io n s o f this c o n cern is th a t I s la m d oes
not p e rm it the p e rfo r m a n c e o f ritual p ra y er (salat) in front o f a to m b ,
n or d o c s it perm it m a n to sw e a r in the n a m e o f a n y o n e e xcep t G o d . All
th is is o w i n g to th e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g h o s tilit y o f I s l a m to id o l a t r y
W h e n C a l i p h ‘ U m a r s a w th a t p e o p le h a d b e g u n to sa n c t ify th e tree
b e n e a t h w h ich the C o m p a n i o n s o f the H o ly P r o p h e t ( p e a c e be u p o n
h im ) h a d p l e d g e d to la y d o w n th e ir lives in th e w a y o f G o d on th e
o c c a s i o n o f H u d a y b i y a h , he f e a r e d t h a t its s a n c t i f i c a t i o n m i g h t
c o r r u p t the b e lie fs o f the p e o p le . H e , th e refore, h a d it c u t d o w n . B y
d e st r o y in g e v e r y th in g w h ich m ig h t b lu r the d istin ctio n be tw e e n the
c r e a t u r e a n d the C r e a t o r , I s l a m b r o u g h t m a n o u t o f th e d a r k n e s s o f
su p erstition a n d ig n o r a n c e to the full d a y lig h t o f realities.
C o m i n g b a c k to ‘w o r s h i p ’ in I s l a m , it serv es a s a m e a n s to p u r g e
m a n ’s sou l a n d his p r a c tic a l life o f sin a n d w ickedn ess. It h as been so
r e g u la te d a s to suffice for the p u r p o se o f this p u rifica tio n , p ro v id e d it is
p e rfo rm ed in e a r n e st a n d if sufficient care is taken to preserve its true
spirit.

D IST IN G U ISH IN G F E A T U R E S
T h e c h a r a c te r istic featu res o f w orsh ip a s p r o p o u n d e d by Islam m a y be
sta te d a s the follow ing:
( a ) F r e e d o m fro m In term ediaries.
F i r s t o f a l l , I s l a m h a s l i b e r a t e d ‘w o r s h i p ’ f r o m t h e b o n d a g e o f
in t e r m e d ia r ie s b e tw e e n m a n a n d his C r e a to r . I sla m seeks to cre ate a
direct link betw een m a n a n d his L o r d , th u s re n d e rin g the intercession
o f in te r m e d ia rie s un n ecessary.
R e l i g i o u s s c h o l a r s in I s l a m , it m a y b e p o i n t e d o u t , a r e n e i t h e r
in t e r m e d ia r i e s b e tw e e n m a n a n d G o d n or a r e they c o n sid e r e d to be
 T H E ISLA M IC C O N C E P T O F W O RSH IP 111

e n title d to a c c e p t or reject a c t s o f w o rsh ip on b e h a l f o f G o d . In ste a d ,

they a r e e q u a l to o r d in a r y h u m a n b e in g s in the sight o f G o d . R a t h e r ,
t h e y h a v e b e e n b u r d e n e d w ith th e a d d i t i o n a l d u t y o f i m p a r t i n g
k n o w le d ge to th ose w h o lack kn o w le d ge . T h e y will be d e e m e d guilty if
they h old it b a c k fro m the seekers afte r kn ow ledge. In oth er w ords, the
I sla m ic SharVah d o c s not im p o s e the d o m in a t i o n o f r e lig io u s sch o la r s
on the rest o f the p e o p le . T h e fu n c tio n o f these s c h o la r s is m e re ly to
g u id e p e o p le in the right d ire ctio n . T h i s is a m p l y b o rn e o u t by w hat
A lla h said to the H o ly P ro p h e t:

‘ R e m i n d th e m , for you a r e b u t a re m e m b r a n c e r ; yo u are not a t all

a w a r d e r o v er th e m .’ ( a l - Q u r !a n , 88: 21-22).

T h e P r o p h e t ( p e a c e be on h im ) also a d d r e s se d the fo llow in g w o rd s

to his ow n d a u g h t e r F a tim a h , w hich sh o w th at a ll h u m a n b e in g s s t a n d
on a fo otin g o f c o m p l e t e e q u a lit y before G o d :

‘O F a t i m a h , d a u g h t e r o f M u h a m m a d :
I sh all b e o f no h elp to you before A ll a h .’

( b ) Not Confined to Specific Places.

S e c o n d l y , I s l a m h a s n o t o n l y l i b e r a t e d m a n ' s ‘ib adah f r o m th e
b o n d a g e o f in te rm e d ia rie s; it h as also lib e ra te d it from c o n fin e m e n t to
sp ecific places. Islam r c g a r d s e v e r y p la c e — w h eth er it i s o n e ’s d w e llin g
p la c e , the b a c k o f a n a n im a l , the b o a r d o f a vessel on the s u r fa c e o f the
sea , o r a m o s q u e specifically built for w orsh ip — a s p u re e n o u g h fo r the
p e r f o r m a n c e o f w o r s h i p . W h e r e v e r a m a n m i g h t b e , he c a n tu r n
t o w a r d s h is L o r d a n d e n t e r in t o c o m m u n i o n w ith H i m . T h e H o ly
P ro p h e t h as e x p r e sse d this i d e a b e a u tifu lly :

‘T h e (w hole o f the) earth has been

ren d e re d for m e a m o s q u e : p u re a n d c l e a n .’

(c ) A ll-Em bracing I 'iew.

T h ir d ly , I sla m h as a ls o c o n sid e r a b ly w id e n ed the s c o p e o f w orship.
In I s l a m , w o r s h i p is n o t c o n f in e d to s p e c ifie d p r a y e r s a n d l it a n ie s
w h ic h a r c to b e p e r f o r m e d on p a r t i c u l a r o c c a s i o n s . R a t h e r . I s la m
c o n sid e r s e v e ry v i r t u o u s a c t i o n w h ich h as been sin cerely p e rfo r m e d
a n d with the view to c a rry out the c o m m a n d m e n t s of G o d a n d in o rd e r
to seek H is P le a s u r e , a n a c t o f w o rsh ip for which m a n will be re w arded.
The fa c t is t h a t e v e n e a t i n g , d r i n k i n g , s l e e p i n g a n d e n j o y m e n t o f
in n o c e n t r e c r e a t i o n , e v e n th o se w o r ld ly a c tio n s w h ich s a tis fy m a n ’s
p h y s i c a l n e e d s a n d e v e n y ie ld s e n s u o u s p l e a s u r e s , b e c o m e a c t s o f
112 ISL A M : ITS M EA NING AND M ESSAGE

w orsh ip p r o v id e d they a r e p e rfo r m e d w ith true religious m otives. Yes,

e v e n th o se a c t s b e c o m e a c t s o f w o r s h ip if th e in t e n t io n u n d e r ly in g
th e m is to c o m p l y w ith the will o f G o d : th a t is, if o n e tries to satisfy
o n e ’s n e e d s w it h in l e g i t i m a t e m e a n s s o a s to k e e p o n e s e l f in c h e c k
a g a i n s t in d u l g i n g in th in g s w h ich a r e p r o h ib it e d . It is a ls o a n a c t o f
w o rsh ip to try to s tre n g th e n o n e ’s b o d y by p r o v id in g it with its d u e o f
n o u r is h m e n t a n d s le e p ; by m a k i n g it u n d e r t a k e e x e r tio n a s well a s
g i v i n g it r e s t a n d r e c r e a t i o n s o a s to e n a b l e it to s h o u l d e r t h e
re spon sibilities w h ich h a v e been p la c e d o n m a n by G o d . In fact, if one
does all that with the a b o v e -m e n tio n e d intention, o n e ’s actio n w ould
be in h a r m o n y with the follow ing sa y in g o f the H o ly P ro p h e t ( p e a c e be
u p o n h im ): ‘A believer w h o is possessed o f strength is b etter a n d d e a r e r
to G o d t h a n a b e l i e v e r w h o is w e a k . ’ I n s h o r t , it is s i m p l y b y
purification o f m otive s th at the a c tio n s w hich a r c p a r t o f w orldly life
b e co m e a c ts o f d e v o tio n a n d w orship.
T h u s , it is possible th at a m a n sh o u ld a d v a n c e spiritu ally even while
he is fu lly e n j o y in g th e p le a s u r e s o f w o r ld ly life. T h e re aso n is th at
d u r i n g all this e n jo y m e n t his heart will b e in c o m m u n i o n w ith G o d by
v irtu e o f the p u r ity o f his in te n tio n s, a n d o w in g to his h a v i n g yoked
h im se lf c o m p le te ly to the service o f G o d . It will e n a b le him to rem ain
p e rp e tu a lly in the s ta te o f su b m iss io n , o b e d ie n c e a n d d e v o tio n to G o d
— even d u r i n g his w o rk in g p u rs u its — a n d this is the very essen ce o f
w orship.
F o r I s la m , u n lik e o th e r r e lig io n s, d o e s n o t a n a t h e m a tiz e
g r atifica tio n o f m a n ’s instinctive bod ily a p p etite s.
I s l a m d o e s n ot e v e n c o n s i d e r a b s t e n t i o n fro m th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f
these de sire s to be in a n y w a y a n a c t o f g r e a te r p ie ty a n d virtue th an
s a t i s f y i n g th e m . I s la m w a n t s m a n to e n jo y the p l e a s u r e s a n d g o o d
th in g s o f life p ro v id e d he does not tran sgress the lim its o f le g itim a c y or
the righ ts o f oth ers, n o r tr a m p le u p o n m oral excellence, nor injure the
larger interests o f society.
T h e r e is a p r o f o u n d w i s d o m a n d a n i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n fo r th is
e xten sio n o f the sco p e o f w orship. The reason is that Islam w an ts m a n ’s
h e a r t to r e m a i n in p e r p e t u a l c o m m u n i o n w ith his L o r d . I sla m a ls o
w an ts th at m a n s h o u ld o b se rv e ceaseless v ig ila n c e ov er his d e sire s so
that his life m a y b e co m e a source o f his w elfare in the life t o c o m e a s the
Q u r ’a n say s: ‘S e e k the a b o d e o f the h ereafter in th at w hich A lla h has
given to you a n d neglect not your portion o f the w o rld .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 28:
77). N o w , w h en a person know s that even h i s e n j o y m c n t s a n d p leasures
ca n b e c o m e a c ts o f w orsh ip m erely by virtue o f p u rity o f intention a n d
 T H E ISL A M IC C O N C E P T O F W O R SH IP 113

m o t i v e , it b e c o m e s e a s y f o r h i m t o r e n d e r o b e d i e n c e t o G o d
c o n tin u a lly a n d to direct all his a tte n tio n in seeking D ivin e pleasure.
F o r he know s well th at this d e votio n to G o d d oc s not necessarily m e a n
a b a n d o n m e n t o f w orldly life, a n d m isery a n d wretchedness.
W h a t d o e s g o o d i n t e n t i o n l e a d t o ? It w ill p r e v e n t m a n f r o m
fo rg e ttin g G o d b e c a u s e o f excessive self-indulgence. T h e H o ly P rop h et
has s a id th a t (even) w hen a person a ffection ately p u t s a piece o f food in
the m o u th o f his wife in o rd e r to stren gth en b o n d s o f m a t r im o n ia l love,
he is r e w a r d e d for it. T h i s is u n d e r s t a n d a b le for he is try in g to fulfil the
p u rp o se o f living to g eth e r with love a n d affection, the p u rp o se w hich,
a s the Q u r ’a n says is th e raison d'etre o f fa m ily life.

‘A n d o f H is sig n s is this: H e cre ate d for you y o u r p a rtn e r s th a t you

m ig h t find rest in th e m a n d H e o r d a i n e d b e tw e e n yo u love a n d
m e r c y .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 30: 21).

IN T E N T IO N S A ND M O T IV ES
It is b e c a u s e o f t h i s b a s i s t h a t M u s l i m j u r i s t s a n d s c h o l a r s h a v e
p r o c la im e d that g o o d intention c h a n g e s a c ts o f h ab it ( *adah) into a cts
o f w o r s h ip ( ‘ibadah). G o o d in t e n tio n c r e a t e s a w o rld o f d iffere n ce in
h u m a n life. It is o w in g to th e a b se n c e o f p u rity o f intention th at there
are p e o p le w h o e at a n d drin k a n d satisfy their a n im a l d esires a n d while
so d o i n g th e y s i m p ly live on th e s a m e p l a n e a s th e a n i m a l s d o . T h e
r e a s o n fo r th is is th a t th e ir a c t i o n s a r e a c t u a t e d by n o o t h e r m o t iv e
th a n the g r a tific a tio n o f a n i m a l desires. O n the co n tr a ry there are also
p e o p le w h o are, a p p a r e n t l y , sim ila r to the a fo r e m e n tio n e d p e o p le in so
f a r a s th e y a l s o s a t is f y th e ir d e s ir e s a n d e n jo y th e p l e a s u r e s o f life.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a n k s to th e n o b le in t e n t io n w h ic h m o t i v a t e s th e ir
action s, e ve n their p h y sical self-fulfilment b e co m e s a n a c t o f w orship
for w hich th ey m erit rew ard. T h e reason is that the m o tiv e b e h in d all
th e ir a c t i o n s is to liv e in c o m p l i a n c e w ith th e W ill o f G o d . T h e i r
su b lim ity o f m o tiv e b e c o m e s m an ifest in their c o n d u c t in d a y -to -d a y
life in so fa r a s it reflects the fact th a t they d istin g u ish betw een good
a n d evil.
O n the c o n tr a ry , those w hose lives are s horn o f good in ten tion s arc
liable to be o v e rw h e lm e d by their lusts a n d are likely to slide into a life
o f sin a n d m o r a l d e c a d e n c e . O n the c o n tr a ry , the p u r ity o f intention
a n d h ig h t h i n k i n g a r e lik e ly , w ith r e g a r d to p e o p l e o f th e s e c o n d
c a te g o r y , to s t a n d in the w a y o f th eir s lip p in g into d e g r a d a t io n . A n d
th a n k s to the p ositive a tt itu d e o f Islam to w ard s life, all this is ensured
114 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

w it h o u t d e p r i v i n g m a n o f a w h o le s o m e e n jo y m e n t o f life. T h e real
b a s i s o f th is d if f e r e n c e lies in the fa c t th a t w h ile the o n e is a l w a y s
m in d fu l o f G o d a n d r e m e m b e r s H i m , the oth er is a lt o g e t h e r negligent.
It is this th at m ak es the form er a p ious, w o rsh ipfu l b e in g , a n d the latter
a heedless, s elf-in d u lg e n t a n im a l . It is for the people o f this kind that
t h e H o l y Q u r ’ a n h a s s a i d : *. . . T h o s e w h o d i s b e l i e v e , t a k e t h e i r
c o m f o r t in this life a n d eat even a s the c a tt le e at, a n d the Fire is their
h a b it a t io n .' ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 4 7: 12).
T h e n , w h a t a g r e a t loss in d e e d d o p e o p le suffer b y not r e c tify in g
th e ir o r i e n t a t i o n o f life a n d p u r i f y in g th eir in te n tio n s . F o r it is this
a lo n e w h ich tr a n sfo r m s even their p u rsu its o f p le a su re a n d e n jo y m e n t
into a c t s o f w orship. W h a t a tr a g e d y that p e o p le spoil the p ro sp ec ts o f
th e ir e t e r n a l life a l t h o u g h th e y c o u l d h a v e b e e n a t t a i n e d so e a s ily ,
w ith o u t n ecessarily losing their share in this world.
T h i s is the I sla m ic p h ilosop h y o f w orship. W ith ou t s a y in g ‘n o ’ to a n y
o f h is l e g i t i m a t e p h y s ic a l n e e d s a n d d e sire s, I s l a m seeks to e le v a t e
h u m a n i t y to a p la c e w h ich befits its d ig n ity a n d status.

P O SIT IO N O F S P E C IF IC R IT U A L S
T h e w id e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f w o r s h ip — i.e. its in c o r p o r a t io n o f all a c t s
w hich a re p e rfo r m e d with the intention o f c o m p ly in g with the Will o f
G o d , in c lu d in g fulfilm ent o f leg itim ate ple asu res, is s o m e t im e s utilized
a s a pretext to s u p p o r t the e rro n eo u s view th at the o b lig a t o r y rituals o f
w o r s h i p s u c h a s p r a y e r s , fa s t i n g , z a k a l a n d p i l g r i m a g e c a n b e d i s ­
p e n s e d w it h ; or th a t th e y a r e n ot very i m p o r t a n t . T h e tr u th , h o w ­
ever, is q u i t e c o n t r a r y to this. In Isla m , they a r c the c h ie f m e a n s for
s t r e n g t h e n i n g m a n ’s a t t a c h m e n t w ith G o d . T h u s a b s o l u t e l y
m isc o n c e iv e d is the view o f those w h o a re given to lax ity in religious
m a tte r s with re g a rd to the o b lig a t o r y a cts o f w orship, a n d im a g in e that
true faith d o e s n ot consist o f salat (p r a y e r s ) a n d sawm (fa stin g ); th at the
b a sis o f true faith is m ere ly pu rity o f h e a rt, g o o d n e ss o f in ten tion a n d
s o u n d n e s s o f c o n d u c t . T h i s c o n s t itu te s m is r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f I s l a m ic
teach in gs.
S o fa r a s the in ten tion to live a life o f rig h teousn ess is c o n cern e d , it
does not len d itse lf to e x tern a l o b se rv a tio n . H e n c e the in ten tion to d o
g o o d a l o n e d o e s n o t m a r k o f f th e tr u e m e n o f f a i t h f r o m th e re st.
R elig io n , a fte r all, h as a n e x tern a l a sp e ct in the s a m e w a y a s it h a s an
internal asp ect.
T h is a t t i t u d e o f d e l i b e r a t e d i s r e g a r d o f r i t u a l o b l i g a t i o n s is
d e s t r u c t iv e o f th e very fo u n d a tio n s o f re lig io n . F o r, w ere th at
 T H E ISLA M IC C O N C E P T O F W O R S H IP 115
view p oin t to be a d o p t e d , everyone, even those w h o a r e in fact o p p o se d
to r e lig io n , c o u l d c l a i m to be th e d e v o u t e s t o f a ll w o r s h i p p e r s ! The
p ra y ers a n d all o th er prescribed fo r m s o f w orsh ip for th a t m a tte r, serve
to d istin g u ish the on es w h o d o really h a v e faith a n d wish sincerely to
serve G o d fro m th ose w h o a r e c o n te n t w ith lip-service. S o im p o r t a n t
in d e ed is p r a y e r th a t the P ro p h e t h a s sa id : ‘S alat (p r a y e r ) is the p illa r o f
the I sla m ic religion a n d w h o so e v e r a b a n d o n s it, d e m o lish e s the very
p illa r o f re lig io n .’

A PRACTICAL IDEAL
T h e real p u r p o se o f Islam in d e c la r in g th at ‘ibadah e m b r a c e s the total
life o f m a n is to m a k e religio us faith p la y a p ra ctica l a n d effective role
in r e fo rm in g h u m a n life, in d e v e lo p in g in m a n a n a t t it u d e o f dignified
p a tie n c e a n d fo rtitu d e in the face o f h a rd s h ip s a n d difficulties a n d in
c r e a t i n g in h im th e u r g e to s t r i v e fo r th e p r e v a l e n c e o f g o o d a n d
e x tirp a tio n o f evil.
A ll this m a k e s it a m p l y e v id e n t th a t I sla m , the s t a n d a r d - b e a r e r o f
the a b o v e - st a te d c o n c e p ts a n d ideals, is o p p o se d to those d e fea tist a n d
is o la tio n ist p h il o s o p h ie s w h ic h s c h o la r s h a v e te r m e d a s a sc e t ic is m .
T h i s is t h a t e r r o n e o u s k i n d o f a s c e t i c i s m w h i c h is b a s e d o n
w o r l d - r e n u n c i a t i o n , o n r e s i g n a t i o n f r o m th e r e s o u r c e s o f life , on
w it h d r a w a l fro m th e life o f a c tio n a n d s tr u g g le , on sh e e r s t a g n a t i o n
a n d d e c a d e n c e . T h e s e t h in g s h a v e n o th in g to d o with I sla m . R a t h e r ,
they a r e the s y m b o ls o f d e fe a tis m a n d e sc a p e from the str u g g le o f life.
F o r life r e q u ir e s s tr e n g t h , m a t e r i a l re so u rce s a n d a c tiv e h a b it s . T h e
role o f I sla m in the s tr u g g le o f life is a p ositive one. It is th ro u g h this
a t t i t u d e t h a t I s la m e n s u r e s the c h a n n e l iz a t io n o f m a n ’s p o w e rs a n d
resources in su ch a m a n n e r a s to le a d e v e n tu a lly to g en e ral good. T h e
I s l a m i c s y s t e m o f w o r s h i p is a m e a n s to e n s u r e th is s o u n d n e s s o f
orien tation .
A n even t m a y b e n a r r a t e d here to illustrate the I sla m ic a t t it u d e to
the q u e stio n u n d e r d iscu ssion , a n d to d is a b u s e m in d s o f w ro n g notions
o f sp iritu a l life. It is re p o r te d th a t ‘A ’ish ah , the m o th e r o f the faithful,
on c e s a w a p e rso n w a lk in g w ith h is b o d y s to o p e d d o w n a n d his back
b e n t with w eak n e ss, a p p e a r i n g a s if he were not fully alive, a t t r a c t in g
th e reb y the g la n c e s o f those a r o u n d him . S h e in q u ired a b o u t h im a n d
w a s in fo r m e d t h a t he w a s a s a in tly p e rson . ‘ A ’is h a h d e n o u n c e d this
kin d o f sain tlin ess a n d s a id : ‘ ‘U m a r son o f K h a tta b , w a s th e saintliest
o f p eople. B u t w h en he s a id so m e th in g , he m a d e h im se lf h ea rd ; when
he w alk e d , he w alk e d fast; a n d w h en he b e a t, his b e a tin g c a u s e d p a i n .’
 8

Islam ic Approach to Social

Justice*
by Syed Qutb
W E c a n n o t c o m p r e h e n d the n a tu r e o f social ju st ic e in Islam until we
h av e first s tu d ie d th e I sla m ic c o n c e p t o f D ivin ity, the universe, life a n d
h u m a n ity . F o r , social ju s t ic e is only a b ra n ch o f th at g r e a t p rin ciple on
w h ich all I sla m ic te a c h in g s a r e based.
N o w th e fa it h o f I s l a m w h ic h u n d e r t a k e s th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the
w h o le o f h u m a n life d o e s not treat the different a s p c c t s o f th at life at
r a n d o m , n o r d o e s it c o n s id e r th e m a s u n r e la te d p a rts. T h a t is to s a y
I sla m h a s a perfect, c o m p re h e n siv e c o n ce p t o f D iv in ity , o f the u n i­
v e rse, o f life a n d h u m a n i t y — a c o n c e p t on w h ich a r e b a s e d all th e
m y r i a d d e t a i l s ; a n d fr o m w h ich a r e d r a w n the b a s is o f its law s a n d
ju r id ic a l th o u g h t , its m o d e s o f w o rsh ip a n d p a tte rn s for social b e h a ­
viour. All these m a tte r s a r e b a s e d on this fu n d a m e n t a l a n d all-
e m b r a c i n g co n c e p t, so th a t for every situ a tio n we n eed not falter in the
d a r k n e s s to seek its s olu tion , n o r is every p r o b le m re qu ired to be d e alt
with in isolatio n fro m a ll o th er p ro b le m s. T h e s ch em e o f life e n v isa g e d
by I sla m is a c o m p le t e w h ole th at revolves rou n d the ce n tra l c o n c e p t o f
D ivin ity, i.e. Tawhid.
A k n o w le d g e o f this un iversal I sla m ic c o n ce p t will e n a b le the s t u ­
d e n t to u n d e r s t a n d the p rin cip le s a n d law s o f Islam a n d to relate the
* T h is article is taken from the auth o r’s a l-‘Adalah al-ijtima ‘tyahfi'l-Islam
(seventh edition). This is a new translation by M i‘raj M uham m ad, published
in The Criterion, vol. 3, No. 4, Ju ly-A u gu st, 1968. The translator has not
modified the style o f the original which represents one o f the finest literary
styles of the Arabic language. Some of the Western readers may not be familiar
with this style. We would request them to concentrate more on the substance
of the argum en t. Editor.
I 18 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

p a r tic u la r s to the f u n d a m e n t a l rules. T h i s will a ls o h elp him s tu d y its

fe a tu re s a n d d ire ctio n s with interest a n d w ith d e p th o f perception . H e
will th u s be a b l e to see that this c o n ce p t is both c oherent a n d c o m p r e ­
h en siv e, a n d that it is a w h ole w h ich c a n n o t b e d iv id e d . H e will a ls o
o b se rv e th at its a p p lic a t io n to h u m a n life c a n n o t b e a r fruit unless it is
a p p lie d a s a w h ole a n d not in picccs.
S o the best m e t h o d o f s tu d y in g I sla m is to start b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g its
a l l - e m b r a c i n g c o n c e p t o f D iv in ity , the u n iv e r se , life a n d h u m a n i t y
b efo re g o in g on to s tu d y its view s on politics or e c o n o m ic s or the re la ­
tio n s h ip b etw een so cie ty a n d m a n . F o r such q u e st io n s a s these a r e in
fa c t b a s e d on th a t c o m p r e h e n s iv e c o n c e p t a n d th ey c a n n o t be tru ly
a n d d e e p l y u n d e rsto o d e x c e p t in its light.
N o w th e true I sla m ic c o n c e p t is not to b e s o u g h t in Ib n S f n a (A v i­
c e n n a ) o r Ib n R u s h d ( A v e r r o e s ) o r a l - F a r a b f or the like w h o are known
a s ‘th e p h ilo s o p h e r s o f I s l a m ’ ; for their p h ilo so p h y is no m ore th a n a
s h a d o w o f the G re e k p h ilo s o p h y w h ich is in its essen ce fo reig n to the
spirit o f Isla m . T h e faith o f I sla m h a s its ow n n a tiv e, perfect c o n c e p t
w h ich is to b e s o u g h t in its o w n a u th e n tic sources: T h e Q u r 'a n a n d the
T r a d i t i o n s , a n d in the life o f its P rop h et (u p o n w h o m be the blessin gs
a n d the p e a c e o f G o d ) . T h e s e sou rces a re sufficient for every stu d e n t
w h o w a n t s to o b t a i n a d e e p u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e u n iv e r s a l I s l a m ic
co n c e p t on w h ich a re b a s e d all the te ach in g s a n d the law s o f Islam .

FO U N D A T IO N S O F SO C IA L JU S T IC E
I s la m a s a faith h a s d e a lt with the n a tu r e o f the relatio n b etw een the
C r e a t o r a n d H is cre atio n , the n a tu re o f m a n ’s relation to the universe
a n d to life in g en e ral in this w orld, a n d o f m a n 's relatio n to his ow n self.
It h a s a l s o d i s c u s s e d th e n a t u r e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f i n d i v i d u a l to
s o c i e t y a n d to s t a t e , a n d o f th e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n d if fe r e n t h u m a n
societies, a n d o f the re la tio n b etw een on e n a tio n a n d a n o th e r . Islam
h a s b a s e d a ll th e se r e l a t i o n s on th e o n e u n i v e r s a l , c o m p r e h e n s i v e
c o n c e p t w h ic h is a l w a y s k e p t in v ie w in th e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a ll th e
p a r tic u la r rules.
T h e d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f t h is c o n c e p t is b e y o n d th e s c o p e o f th is
treatise; it r a th e r fo rm s the s u b je c t o f a n o th e r work o f the a u t h o r , ‘T h e
C h a r a c te r is tic s o f the I sla m ic C o n c e p t a n d its F u n d a m e n t a l s ’. 1S o here
we sh a ll m e r e ly in d i c a t e the m a i n o u tlin e s o f th e g e n e r a l s c h e m e , in
o r d e r to fa cilitate o u r s tu d y o f social ju s t ic e in Islam .
I. See M u h am m a d Q uib.K h asa’ is al-Tasawwur al-Islam i wa Muqawwimatuh,
C airo, 1965.
 I S L A M I C A P P R O A C H T O S O C IA L J U S T I C E 119

H u m a n i t y r e m a in e d for lon g a g e s d evoid o f a co m p re h e n siv e c o n ­

c e p t o f the C r e a t o r a n d H is cre atio n , or o f the un iverse, life a n d m a n ­
kind.

W h e n e v e r a m e s s e n g e r b r o u g h t a c e r ta in fo r m ( o f re lig io n ) fro m
G o d to m a n k i n d a few o f th e m a c c e p t e d it, a n d a g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f
th e m tu r n e d a w a y fro m it. T h e n h u m a n i t y a s a w hole a b a n d o n e d the
true religion a n d re tu rn e d to m isle a d in g , disto rted c o n c e p t s o f I g n o r­
an ce. T h e n c a m e I sla m w ith th e m o st p erfect c o n c e p t a n d th e m o st
c o m p r e h e n s iv e Shari'ah (le g al s y st e m ) b o th o f w h ich were c o n n e c te d
with e a c h other. I sla m e st a b lish e d a realistic w a y o f life in w h ich the
c o n c e p t a n d th t Shari'ah bo th a re represen ted in a p ra c tic a l form.
T h e relation betw een the C r e a t o r a n d H is cre atio n (i.e. the universe,
life a n d m a n k in d ) is to be fo u n d in the p ow e r o f the W o rd , the A ctive
Will from w h ich all cre atio n c a m e :

‘ H is c o m m a n d , when I le desires a th in g, is to say to it “ B e ” , a n d it

is.’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 36: 82).

S o there is n o in te r m e d ia ry in the form o f p ow e r or m a t te r betw een

th e C r e a t o r a n d H i s c r e a t i o n . It is fr o m H i s a b s o l u t e w ill t h a t all
e x istin g th in g s d ire ctly p ro c ee d ; a n d it is by th at a b s o lu t e Will th at all
th in g s a re s u s ta in e d , o r g a n iz e d a n d c o n d u c t e d :

‘ H e c o n d u c t s the affairs, H e d istin g u ish e s the s ig n s . . (al-

Q u r a n , 13: 2).
‘ It is n ot for th e s u n to o v e r t a k e the m o o n , n o r d o e s the n ig h t
o u ts trip the d a y . T h e y float e a c h in a n o r b it.’ ( a l- Q u r 'a n , 36: 40).
‘ Blessed b e H e in w hose h a n d is the K i n g d o m , a n d H e is pow erful
ov er e v e r y th in g .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 67: 1).

S o a ll c r e a t i o n , is s u in g a s it d o e s fr o m o n e a b s o l u t e W ill, fo r m s a
p e rfe c t u n ity in w h ich e a c h in d i v id u a l p a r t is in h a r m o n i o u s o r d e r
with the r e m a in d e r . A n d thus, too, every form o f existen ce is based on a
w isd o m w h ich a g r e e s with this perfect order:

. . A n d H e c r e a t e d e v e r y t h i n g , th e n H e o r d a i n e d fo r it a
m e a s u r e .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 25: 2).
‘S u re ly W e h av e c re ate d e v e r y th in g in m e a s u r e .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 54:
49).
. . W'ho c r e a t e d seven h e a v e n s in h a r m o n y . Y o u d o not see in
the cre a tio n o f the Beneficient a n y in con gru ity. R e t u r n yo u r g a z e ;
d o y o u see a n y rifts? T h e n return y o u r g az e a g a in , a n d a g a in your
120 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

g a z e will c o m e b a c k 10 you d a z z le d , a w e a r y .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 67: 34).

‘ G o d is H e w h o s e n d s th e w in d s , t h a t stir u p c l o u d s , a n d H e
s p r e a d s th e m in the sky how H e will, a n d s h a tt e rs th e m ; then you
see the rain c o m i n g forth from th e m , a n d when H e m a k e s it to fall
on w h o m so e v e r o f H is serv an ts H e will, lo, they rejoice . . (al-
Q u r ’a n , 30: 48).

All these Q u r ’a n i c verses m a k e it o b v io u s that every e x istin g b e in g is

b a s e d o n a w is d o m w h ich is in p erfect h a r m o n y w ith the p u r p o s e o f
c r e a t io n ; a n d th at the W ill from w hich all cre atio n first p roceeds, a n d
by w h ic h it is th en c o n t in u a l ly s u s ta in e d a n d d ir e c t e d , m a k e s every
e x istin g b e in g h a r m o n i o u s with a n d u n ive rsally a d v a n t a g e o u s to all
cre atio n .
H a v i n g d ire ctly p ro c e e d e d from a sin gle, a b so lu te , p erfect W ill, all
cr e a tio n is a u n ity w hich is perfect in all its parts, a n d h a r m o n io u s in its
n a tu re , its o r g a n iz a t io n a n d its directions. B e c a u s e o f these c h a r a c t e ­
ristics the w h ole cre a tio n is s u it a b le for, h elpful in, a n d c o n d u c iv e to,
the e xisten ce o f life in gen e ral, a n d to the existen ce o f m a n , the highest
form o f life, in p a r tic u la r . S o the universe c a n n o t be hostile to life, or to
m a n : nor c a n ‘N a t u r e ’ be held to be a n ta g o n is tic to m a n , o p p o s e d to
h im , o r s tr iv in g a g a i n s t h im . B e in g a cre a tio n o f G o d , sh e is r a th e r a
frien d w h ose a i m s a r c o n e w ith th ose o f life a n d m a n k in d . N o r is it a
function o f living bein gs to co n te n d with N a t u r e , for they h av e grow n
u p in h er b o so m , a n d she a n d they together form a p a r t o f the universe
w hich h as p r o c e e d e d from the single Will. T h u s , b a sica lly m a n lives in
a p urely frien d ly e n v iro n m e n t, a m o n g the pow ers o f a friendly u n i­
verse. S o G o d , w h en H e c r e a te d the e a r th , ‘set th erein firm m o u n t a in s
o v er it, a n d H e blessed it, a n d H e o r d a in e d therein its diverse s u ste n ­
a n c e . ’ 2 ‘A n d H e c a s t on the e a r th firm m o u n t a in s , th a t it s h a k e not
with you . . .’ 3 ‘A n d the e a r th , H e h a s set it d o w n for a ll b e in g s .’ 4 ‘ It is
H e w h o m a d e the e a r th s u b m iss iv e to y o u, so w alk in its tracts, a n d e at
o f H is p r o v isio n .’ 5 ‘ It is H e w h o cre ate d for you all th at is in the e a r t h .’
b M o r e o v e r , the h e a v e n with its sta r s is a p a rt o f the universe w hich is
perfect with all its p a r ts, a n d e v e ry th in g th at is in the h ea v e n a n d in the
e arth is friendly, c o -o p e rativ e a n d h a r m o n io u s with all the r e m a in in g
p arts. G o d s ays:

2. al-Qur’an, 41: 10.

3. ibid., 16: 15.
4. ibid., 55: 10.
5. ibid., 67: 15.
6. ibid., 2: 29.
 ISLA M IC A P P R O A C H T O SO C IA L JU S T IC E 121
‘ H a v e W e not m a d e th e e arth a flat e x p a n s e a n d the m o u n t a in s as
p e g s? A n d W e h a v e c r e a t e d you in p airs, a n d h av e a p p o in t e d your
sle ep for a rest; a n d W e h av e a p p o in t e d the night f o r a g a r m e n t, a n d
h av e a p p o in t e d the d a y for a livelihood. A n d W e h a v e built a b o v e
you seven s tr o n g ones, a n d W e h a v e a p p o in t e d a b la z in g l a m p a n d
h av e sent d o w n o u t o f the rain -clou ds w a te r c a s c a d i n g th a t W e m ay
b r i n g forth th ereb y g r a in a n d v e g e ta tio n , a n d g a r d e n s l u x u r ia n t . ’
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 78: 6-16).

The creed o f I sla m h as th u s e sta b lish e d that G o d , the N o u rish e r o f

m a n , h a s c r e a t e d a ll these forces a s friends a n d h elp ers o f m a n . In ord e r
to g a i n th e f r ie n d s h ip o f th ese fo rces it is n e c e ssa r y for m a n to s tu d y
th e m , to m a k e h im se lf a c q u a i n t e d w ith th em , a n d to c o -o p e rate with
t h e m . I f a n y o f t h e s e fo r c e s h a r m s m a n , it is b e c a u s e he h a s n o t
a p p r o a c h e d it p r o p e r ly a n d is ig n o r a n t o f the law th at governs it.
T h e C r e a t o r h a s , h o w e v e r , n ot left liv i n g b e i n g s a n d m e n to the
frien dly un iverse w itho ut g iv in g th e m H is direct a tte n tio n a n d c o n ­
stan t c a r e , fo r H is d ire ct W ill is c o n stan t th r o u g h o u t all the universe,
c o n sta n t, too, o v e r its every in d iv id u a l e x istin g b e in g a t all tim es. (G o d
sa y s:)

‘G o d h o ld s th e h e a v e n s a n d th e e a r t h , lest they r e m o v e ; a n d if
th e y w ere to r e m o v e th e re is not o n e th a t c o u l d h o ld th e m a f t e r
h im .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 35: 41).
‘N o c r e a t u r e is there c r a w lin g on the earth , but its p rovision rests
on G o d ; H e k now s its h a b ita tio n a n d its re po sito ry .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 11:
6 ).
‘W e in d e ed c r e a t e d m a n ; a n d W e know w h at his soul w h ispers
w i t h i n h i m , a n d W e a r e n e a r e r to h im t h a n h is j u g u l a r v e i n . ’
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 50: 16).
‘ Y o u r L o r d h a s s a i d , “ C a l l u p o n M e a n d I will a n s w e r y o u . ” ’
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 40: 60).
*. . . a n d slay not y o u r c h ild ren b e c a u s e o f p o v e r t y ; W e p ro v id e
for you a n d for th e m . . .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 6: 152).

N o w , sin ce the u n ifie d u n iv e rse h a s e m a n a t e d fr o m a sin gle W ill;

b e c a u s e m a n is h im s e l f a p a r t o f the U n iv e r s e , c o -o p e r a tiv e with a n d
h a r m o n i o u s to a ll th e o t h e r p a r t s ; a n d b e c a u s e i n d i v i d u a l s a r c a s
a to m s , c o -o p e rativ e with a n d h a r m o n io u s to the w o r ld ; therefore all o f
th e se a r e b o u n d to b e c o - o p e r a t i v e w ith a n d h a r m o n i o u s to o n e
a n o t h e r . H e n c e th e I s l a m i c c o n c e p t t h a t h u m a n i t y is a n e s s e n t ia l
122 I S L A M ; IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

u n ity ; its p a r t s s e p a r a t e o n ly to join in, they v ary from on e a n o th e r only

to c r e a te a h a r m o n y a n d they a d o p t different w ays m erely to h elp one
a n o th e r in the e n d . F o r thus a n d only thus c a n m a n be a b le to co ­
o p e r a te with the unified cre atio n : ' O m a n k in d , W e h av e c re ate d you
m a le a n d fe m a le , a n d h a v e m a d e yo u races a n d tribes, th at you m a y
know on e a n o th e r.' ( a l- Q u r 'a n , 49: 13).
There c a n be n o s o u n d system in h u m a n life until this co -op eratio n
a n d h a r m o n y h av e taken p la c e in the m a n n e r t h a t G o d h as o rd a in e d .
Its r e a l i z a t i o n is n e c e s s a r y for th e w e l f a r e o f a ll h u m a n i t y , so th a t
fo rcefu l efforts m a y be m a d e to b r in g b a ck those w h o h a v e d e v ia t e d
from the right p a t h : ‘T h e o n ly rew ard o f those w h o w a g e w a r a g a in s t
G o d a n d H is M e sse n g e r, a n d strive afte r co rru p tio n in the lan d , is that
they shall be killed, o r cru cified, or their h a n d s a n d feet shall a lt e r n a ­
tely be cu t off, or th ey shall be b a n ish ed from the l a n d .'7 i f two p arties
o f the B elievers fight, m a k e p e ac e betw een th e m ; then, if on e o f them
o p p r e s s e s th e o t h e r , figh t the o p p r e s s in g o n e till it r e tu r n s to G o d ’s
c o m m a n d m e n t . II it returns, m a k e p e a c e betw een th e m e q u ita b ly , a n d
be ju st .’8 ‘A n d if G o d h a d not repelled so m e m en b y others, the earth
w o u ld h a v e been co r ru p te d ."'
A c c o r d i n g l y , th e f u n d a m e n t a l t h in g is this c o - o p e r a t i o n , m u t u a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a c q u a i n t a n c e a n d h a r m o n y o n the lin es set by the
D iv in e law , a n d w h oever d e v ia te s from this p rin cip le m u st be bro u g h t
back to it. F o r the D iv in e law is w orthier to b e follow ed th an the desires
o f in d iv id u a ls a n d o f societies. S u c h m u t u a l resp on sib ility a m o n g all is
in k e e p in g with the p u r p o se o f the unified un iverse a n d the a i m s o f its
C re a to r.
N o w w h en we c o m e to c o n sid e r m a n a s a r a ce a n d a s a n in d iv id u a l,
we fiwd h im a p e rfec t u n ity ; m a n ’s fa c u ltie s w h ich a re so d iv erse in
a p p e a r a n c c a re e ssen tially one in p u rp o se . In this respect m a n is c o m ­
p a r a b l e to the u n iv e r se in its e n tir e ty , sin ce its p o w e r to o is a u n ity ,
th o u g h d iv erse in a p p e a r a n c e .
M a n lived for a g e s w ith o u t a r riv in g at a n y c o m p r e h e n siv e con cept
o f h u m a n a n d un iversal pow ers. H e c o n t in u e d to d ifferen tiate betw een
sp iritu a l a n d m a t e r ia l pow ers, he d e n ied on e o f these in ord e r to e s t a ­
blish the oth er, o r he a d m i t t e d the existence o f bo th in a s ta te o f o p p o ­
sition a n d a n t a g o n is m . H e b a s e d all his sciences on the p r e s u m p t io n

7. al-Qur’an, 5: 33.
8. Ibid, 48: 9.
9. ibid., 2: 251.
$
 ISLA M IC A P P R O A C H T O SO C IA L JU S T IC E 123

th at there w a s a b a sic conflict betw een these two types o f pow er, a n d
th a t th e s u p e r io r it y o f on e d e p e n d e d on b e littlin g the other. H e held
th a t such su p e rio r ity o n the on e side a n d inferiority on the o th er w as
in e v i t a b l e , b e c a u s e in his o p i n io n s u c h c o n flict w a s in h e re n t in the
n a tu r e o f the un iverse a n d m an .
C h r i s t i a n i t y — th e fo rm w h ich the C h u r c h a n d the H o ly S y n o d s
g a v e to it — is on e o f the clearest e x a m p le s o f this conflict in m a n . A n d
in this respect it a g r e e s to so m e exten t with H i n d u is m a n d B u d d h is m ,
th o u g h the latte r two religions differ from each oth er on a n u m b e r o f
e ss e n t ia ls . F o r , a c c o r d i n g to t h e m , th e s a l v a t i o n o f the sou l is to be
g a in e d by h u m ilia tin g the b o d y , b y to rm e n tin g it, or even by a n n ih i­
l a t i n g it, o r a t th e l e a s t b y n e g l e c t i n g it a n d a b s t a i n i n g f r o m its
en jo y m e n ts.
In the d is to r te d (creed o f) C h r is t i a n i t y a n d in o t h e r s im il a r fa ith s
this is the c a r d in a l p rin cip le on w hich a re based their d octrin e s on life
a n d its e n jo y m e n t, on the d u t ie s o f the in d iv id u a l on the on e h a n d a n d
o f s o c i e t y o n th e o t h e r , a n d o n m a n a n d th e d if fe r e n t p o w e r s a n d
a b ilitie s w h ich exist in his nature.
T h u s the co n flict b e tw e e n the tw o ty p es o f p o w e r c o n t in u e d , a n d
m a n r e m a in e d torn by it. H e c o n tin u e d to be p e rp le x e d , a n d failed to
a rriv e a t a decision. T h e n c a m e Islam w hich b ro u g h t with it a perfect,
co h e re n t th eory in w hich there w a s n eith er a n y c ro o k e d n ess n o r a n y
c o n fu s io n , n eith er a n y c o n tr a d ic t io n n o r a n y conflict. I sla m c a m e to
un ify all p ow ers a n d abilities, to fuse to g eth e r sp iritu a l a sp ir a tio n s a n d
b o d ily desires, a n d to h a r m o n iz e their directions, a n d thus to cre ate a
co m p r e h e n s iv e u n ity in the universe, life a n d m a n . Its a im w a s to unite
earth a n d H e a v e n in the system o f this w orld, to jo in the present world
a n d th e H e r e a ft e r in the d octrin es o f the fa ith ; to link spirit a n d b o d y in
the person o f m a n ; to co rre late w orsh ip a n d w ork in the system o f life.
It s o u g h t to b r in g all these into one p a t h — the p a th which led to G o d .
It a i m e d a t s u b j e c t i n g all these to on e a u t h o r it y — the a u t h o r it y o f
God.
T h e u n iv e r se is, th e r e fo r e , a u n ity , c o m p o s e d o f th in g s w h ich are
v isib le a n d c a n b e p e r c e iv e d , a n d o f th in g s w h ich a r e in v is ib le a n d
im p e rcep tib le . L ife is, likewise, a unity, co n sistin g o f m a te r ia l abilities
a n d sp iritu a l p o w e rs w hich ca n never be s e p a r a te d from e ac h o th er a s
this will r e s u lt in d i s o r d e r a n d c o n f u s io n . S i m i l a r l y m a n is a u n ity
c o m p o se d o f s p iritu a l a sp iratio n s so arin g to w ard s H e av e n , an d o f
( m a t e r ia l) desires w h ich clin g to the earth. N o s e p a r a tio n c a n be m a d e
betw een these tw o a sp e c t s o f h u m a n n atu re , b e ca u se there is no d isu ­
124 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G A N D M E S S A G E

nity b e tw e e n H e a v e n a n d e a r t h , or b e tw e e n th in g s p e r c e p t ib le a n d
th in g s im p e r c e p t ib le in the un iverse, a n d b e ca u se in this religion (o f
I s l a m ) th e re is n o is o la tio n b etw een this w orld a n d th at to c o m e , or
betw een d a ily life a n d w orship, or betw een the cre ed a n d the law.
B e y o n d a ll th is , th e r e d o e s e x i s t o n e e t e r n a l , e v e r l a s t i n g p o w e r ,
w h ic h h a s n o b e g i n n i n g t h a t c a n be k n o w n a n d n o e n d th a t c a n be
a t t r i b u t e d to it. T h i s p o w e r u l t i m a t e l y b e a r s s w a y o v e r th e w h o le
universe, life a n d m a n k in d . It is the p o w e r o f G o d .
A s for the m o r ta l h u m a n in d iv id u a l, he is c a p a b l e o f h a v in g h im se lf
c o n n e c t e d w ith th is e t e r n a l , e v e r la s t in g P o w e r w h ich g u id e s h im in
life, a n d fr o m w h ic h he seeks h e lp in h is m is fo r t u n e s . H e c a n g et in
touch w ith this p ow e r w hen he is a b r o a d in the w orld, bu sy in e a r n in g
his l i v e l i h o o d , j u s t a s he c o m e s in c o n t a c t w ith it w h e n he is in the
m o s q u e a t p rayer.
S im i l a r l y , the h u m a n in d i v id u a l c a n striv e fo r th e H e r e a ft e r , not
o n ly w hen he fasts a n d d e n ie s h im se lf all kinds o f p le a su r a b le things,
bu t a ls o w h en he b r e a k s his fast a n d en joy s all the g o o d th in g s o f life —
so lo n g a s he d o e s e it h e r o f th e se tw o t h in g s w ith h is h e a r t firm ly
d ire cted to w a r d s G o d .
A n d thus the life o f this w orld, with all its p ra y er a n d its work, all its
e n jo y m e n ts a n d its d e p riv a tio n s , is the on ly w a y to the next w orld, with
its H e a v e n a n d its H ell, its p u n ish m e n t a n d its rew ard.
T h i s is the true u n ity be tw e e n v a r io u s p a rts o f the u n iverse a n d its
pow ers, betw een all the diverse p o ten tia litie s o f life, betw een m a n a n d
his soul, betw een his a c tu a litie s a n d his d re am s. T h i s is the u n ity which
ca n e stab lish a la stin g h a r m o n y betw een the universe a n d life, betw een
life a n d liv in g b e in g s , b etw een society a n d the in d i v id u a l s , be tw e e n
m a n ’s sp ir it u a l a sp ir a tio n s a n d his b o d ily desires, a n d finally betw een
the w orld a n d the faith, betw een the te m p o r a l a n d the sp iritual.
T h i s h a r m o n y is not e stab lish e d a t the expe n se o f the p h ysical side o f
m a n , nor yet at the e x p e n se o f the sp iritu a l side, r a th er it gives freedom
o f a c tio n to b o th o f th e m in o rd e r to un ify their a ctiv itie s a n d direct
th e m to w a r d s w elfare, g oo d n e ss a n d grow th . S im ila r ly this h a r m o n y is
not e sta b lish e d a t the e x p e n se o f the in d iv id u al, or o f society; n o r to the
a d v a n t a g e o f on e g r o u p a n d to the d i s a d v a n t a g e o f the oth er, nor in
fa v o u r o f on e p e o p le ov er an oth e r. B u t e a c h o f these is held to h a v e its
ow n rig h ts a n d its o w n r e sp o n s ib ilitie s a c c o r d i n g to the p rin c ip le o f
ju st ic e a n d e q u a lity . F o r the in d iv id u a l a n d socicty, the p a r ty a n d the
c o m m u n ity , the p e o p le a n d all oth er p eop les — all are b o u n d by one
law w hich h a s bu t on e a i m : n a m e ly , th at the freed o m o f actio n sho uld
 ISL A M IC A P P R O A C H T O SO C IA L JU S T IC E 125
be g i v e n to b o t h th e i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i e t y w it h o u t a n y m u t u a l
con flict; a n d th a t the p e op le , one a n d all, should work together for the
grow th a n d p ro g ress o f h u m a n life, a n d for its orien tation to w ard s the
C r e a t o r o f life.
I sla m , th en , is a faith o f the unity o f all the pow ers o f the universe;
a n d b e y o n d d o u b t it is a faith w hich s t a n d s for unity — the u n ity o f
G o d , the u n ity o f all religions in the D iv in e F a ith , a n d the unity o f all
th e p r o p h e t s in th e ir p r e a c h i n g o f this on e F a it h sin ce the d a w n o f
t i m e : 1(1‘S u r e l y this c o m m u n i t y o f yours is on e c o m m u n i ty , a n d I a m
y o u r L o r d ; so serve M e . ’ 11
S o a ls o Islam s t a n d s for the unity o f w orship a n d social intercourse,
o f c r e e d a n d la w , o f sp ir itu a l a n d m a te r ia l realities, o f e c o n o m ic a n d
sp ir itu a l va lu e s, o f the presen t world a n d the w orld to c o m e , o f earth
a n d H e a v e n . O n this a ll - e m b r a c in g u n ity are b a s e d all the law s a n d
d u tie s p rescrib e d in Isla m , all its instructions a n d restrictions, a s well as
its p r e c e p ts for a d m i n is t e r in g p o litica l a n d finan cial m atte rs, a n d its
te a c h in g s o f the d istrib u tio n o f profits a n d liabilities, a n d on rights an d
responsibilities. In short, this f u n d a m e n t a l p rin cip le o f unity e m b r a c e s
all the d e ta ils a n d p a r tic u la r rules o f life.
W h en we h a v e stu d ied this c o m p re h en siv e n e ss which is inherent in
th e n a t u r e o f the I s l a m i c th e o r y o f D i v in ity , th e u n iv e r se , life a n d
h u m a n i t y , w e c a n e a s ily u n d e r s t a n d the f u n d a m e n t a l f e a t u r e s a n d
ou tlin es o f social ju s t ic e in Islam .

T H E S P IR IT O F ISLA M IC S O C IA L JU S T IC E
F o r on e th in g, it is a co m p re h e n siv e h u m a n ju st ic e e m b r a c in g all sides
a n d b a s ic fa c to r s o f h u m a n life. It is n ot m e re ly a lim ite d e c o n o m ic
ju stice . It, therefore, d e a ls with all a sp e c ts o f life a n d its activities, even
a s it is co n cern e d with the m in d a n d a tt itu d e , with heart a n d c o n ­
science. I'he v a lu e s with w h ich this ju st ic e d eals are not only e con o m ic
values, n or a r e they m erely m a te ria l values in g en e ral; r a th er they are a
m ix tu re o f these v a lu e s a n d m o ra l a n d sp iritu a l values together.
T h e d i s t o r t e d ve rsio n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y looks a t m a n o n ly fro m the
s t a n d - p o i n t o f h is s p i r i t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s , a n d a t t e m p t s to c r u s h his
bodily d esires in o rd e r to give the reins to his a sp iratio n s. O n the other
h a n d , C o m m u n i s m lo o k s a t m a n o n l y fr o m th e s t a n d - p o i n t o f his

10. See the c h a p te r on a l-q issa h Jl’l-Qur'an (H istory in the Q u r ’a n ) in the

al-Tasivir al-Fannifi'l-Qur’an (Literary1Artistry of the Q u r’an) by the present
writer (Cairo, D ar al-M a‘arif, n.d., pp. 111-164).
11. al-Qur’an, 21: 92).
126 I S L A M ! ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

m a te r ia l n ee d s; it looks not only a t h u m a n ity — b u t also a t the whole

cre a tio n a n d th e un iverse — from a p urely m a te r ia l p oin t o f view. But
I s l a m lo o k s a t m a n a s f o r m i n g a u n i t y w h o s e s p i r i t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s
ca n n o t be s e p a r a t e d fro m his b o d ily desires, a n d w hose sp ir itu a l needs
c a n n o t b e d iv o r c e d from his m a t e r ia l needs. It looks a t the universe a n d
a t life w ith th is a l l - e m b r a c i n g view w h ic h p e r m i t s n o s e p a r a t i o n or
division . T h i s is the point w here the w ay s o f C o m m u n i s m , C h r is tia n ity
a n d I s l a m d i v e r g e . T h i s d i v e r g e n c e is d u e to th e fa c t t h a t I s l a m is
p u r e ly a d iv in e re lig io n , w h e r e a s in C h r is t i a n i t y h u m a n d is to r tio n s
h a v e crept in a n d C o m m u n i s m is purely a p r o d u c t o f m a n ’s fan tasy.
S e c o n d ly , in the I sla m ic view , life consists o f e stab lish e d , well-
d e fin e d fo r m s o f m u t u a l love a n d re sp e ct, c o - o p e r a t io n a n d m u t u a l
r e sp o n sib ility betw een M u s l im s in p a r tic u la r , a n d betw een all h u m a n
b e i n g s in g e n e r a l . T h e s a m e view o f life is held by C h r i s t i a n i t y , but
there these fo rm s a r e not b a se d on codified, w ell-defined, e xplicit laws,
nor on the realities a n d facts o f life. O n the o th er h a n d in the C o m m u ­
nist v ie w , life is a c o n t i n u a l s tr ife a n d s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n c l a s s e s , a
s tr u g g le w h ich m u s t e n d in o n e class o v e r c o m in g the o th e r ; a t w hich
p o i n t th e C o m m u n i s t d r e a m is r e a liz e d . T h i s m a k e s m a n i f e s t th a t
C h r is tia n ity is the d r e a m o f an a b s t r a c t w orld o f id e a s a n d i m a g i n a ­
tion, a d r e a m w hich is to be realized o n ly in the K i n g d o m o f H e a v e n ;
a n d th a t I s l a m is th e p e r p e t u a l d r e a m o f h u m a n i t y , e m b o d i e d in a
reality w h ich exists on e a r t h ; a n d th at C o m m u n i s m is h atred o f m a n ­
kind h a r b o u r e d by a people.
T h e s e are, then, tw o m ain features — the a b so lu te , j u s t , a n d c o h e ­
rent u n ity , a n d th e g e n e ral, m u t u a l r e sp o n sib ility o f in d i v id u a l s a n d
societies — b y w h ich is m a r k e d the c o n ce p t o f social j u s t ic e in I sla m
w h ich ta k e s in to c o n s id e r a t io n th e b a s ic e le m e n ts o f h u m a n n a tu r e ,
a n d does not, a t the s a m e tim e, d isr e g a r d h u m a n a bilities.
T h e G lo r io u s Q u r 'a n s ay s o f m a n th at ‘surely he is violent in his love
for b e n e fit:’ 12 his love for benefit for h im se lf a n d for his be lon g in gs. It
s a y s, a ls o , d e s c r i b i n g th a t g r e e d w h ich is in th e n a t u r e o f m a n th a t
‘sou ls a r e p ro n e to a v a r ic e ,’ 13 so it is a lw a y s present in their m in d s. S o
also there o c cu rs in the Q u r ’a n a w on de rfu lly artistic d e scrip tio n o f this
r e m a r k a b l e h u m a n tra it: ‘S a y : “ I f y o u p ossessed th e tre a su res o f the
L o r d ’s m erc y , yet w o u ld you hold them b a c k for fear o f e x p e n d in g ; a n d
m a n is ever n ig g a r d l y .” ' I4 O n the o th er h a n d the Q u r ’a n affirm s th at

12. al-Qur’an, 100: 8.

13. ibid., 4: 128.
14. ibid., 17: 100.
 I S L A M I C A P P R O A C H T O S O C IA I J U S T I C E 127

the m erc y o f G o d (is so vast th at it) e m b r a c e s all th in g s .15 S o by in d i­

c a t i n g the v a stn e ss o f D iv in e m erc y a n d that o f h u m a n stin gin ess the
Q u r ' a n sh o w s the e x t e n t o f a v a r i c e in th e n a t u r e o f m a n if he is left
w ith o u t d is c ip lin e or instructions.
A c c o r d in g l y , w h en I sla m c o m e s to lay d o w n its rules a n d law s, its
e x h o r t a t io n s a n d in stru c tio n s, it d o e s not d is r e g a r d th at n a tu r a l love
for self-interest, nor d o e s it neglect that d e e p n a tu r a l a v a r ic e ; it rath er
cu res this so r d id selfishness a n d a v a r ic e by instructions a n d laws, a n d
c h a r g e s m a n o n l y to his c a p a c i t y . At th e s a m e tim e I s la m d o e s not
ig n o r e the n e e d s a n d the w e lfa r e o f society, nor d o e s it o v e rlo o k the
h ig h id e a l s o f life b o t h in i n d i v i d u a l s a n d s o c ie ty in e v e r y a g e a n d
a m o n g differen t peoples.
I sla m a ffir m s th a t, ju s t a s e n c ro a c h m e n ts u p o n society by the c u p i ­
d ity a n d a m b i t i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l a r e a kin d o f s o c i a l o p p r e s s io n
w h ich is in co n sisten t with ju s t ic e , sim ilarly e n c r o a c h m e n ts u p o n the
n a tu r e a n d a b ility o f the in d iv id u a l by society a r e a lso a kind o f in ju ­
stice. It is a n in ju stice, not to the in d iv id u a l a lo n e , b u t to the society
a lso. F o r the evil effects o f su p p r e s s in g the a ctiv ity o f the in d iv id u a l by-
c r u sh in g his ( n a t u r a l) tre n ds a n d p ropen sities d o not on ly result in the
d e p riv a tio n o f th at on e in d iv id u a l o f his d u e ; bu t a ls o results in p r e ­
c l u d in g the w hole society from a v a il in g itself o f his m a x i m u m abilities.
W hen the social system v o u ch e s for the righ ts o f the c o m m u n i t y in the
efforts a n d a b ilitie s o f the in d iv id u a l, a n d lays dow n c u rb s a n d l im ita ­
tions on the fr e e d o m , the desires, a n d the a m b it io n s o f the in d iv id u al,
it sh o u ld not, therefore, ignore the right o f the in d iv id u a l co n cern in g
the fr e e d o m o f a c tio n w ithin the lim its w hich s a f e g u a r d the w elfare o f
the c o m m u n i t y a n d o f the in d iv id u a l him self, a n d w hich prev ent his
a c tio n s from c o m i n g in conflict with the high ob je ctive s o f life. A s such
life is a m a t te r o f co -o p cra tio n a n d m u t u a l respon sibility a c c o r d in g to
Isla m , a n d n ot a co n sta n t w a r fa re to be lived in a spirit o f s tru g g le a n d
hostility. Likew ise, it s t a n d s for the freedo m o f in d iv id u a l a n d co llec­
tive a b ilit ie s, a n d not for r e pre ssion , d e p r iv a tio n a n d im p r iso n m e n t.
A c c o r d i n g to it, e v e r y th in g th a t is n ot le g a lly fo r b id d e n is perfectly
p e r m i s s ib le ; a n d a m a n is r e w a r d e d fo r his s a l u t a r y d e e d s w h ich he
p e r f o r m e d o b s e r v i n g th e b o u n d a r i e s set by th e D i v in e la w , a n d for
s e e k i n g th e p l e a s u r e o f G o d a lo n e , a n d w h ic h a r e c o n d u c i v e to the
a c h ie v e m e n t o f the high id e a ls o f life th at G o d a p p r o v e s of.
T h i s b r e a d th o f vision in the Islam ic view o f life, to g eth e r with the
fact th a t it goes b e y o n d m erely e co n o m ic v a lu e s to th ose o th er v a lu e s
15. ibid., 7: 156.
128 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

on w h ich life d e p e n d s — these th in g s re n d e r the I sla m ic faith m o re

c a p a b l e o f strik in g b a l a n c e a n d e q u it y in society, a n d o f e st a b lish in g
ju s t ic e in the w h o le o f the h u m a n sphere. It a ls o relieves Islam fro m the
n a r r o w in t e r p r e ta tio n o f ju s t ic e a s u n d e r st o o d by C o m m u n i s m . Fo r
ju stice , a c c o r d in g to the C o m m u n is t theory, is an e q u a lit y in w ages, in
ord e r to p r e v e n t e c o n o m ic d is p a r ity ; b u t when this th eory w as faced
with p ra c tic a l a p p lic a t io n , C o m m u n i s m fo un d itself u n a b le to e s t a ­
blish this m e c h a n ic a l, a r b it r a ry e q u a lity . O n the oth er h a n d , ju st ic e in
Islam is a h u m a n e q u a lit y e n v is a g in g the a d ju s t m e n t o f all va lu e s, o f
which the e c o n o m ic fo rm s a p a rt. T o be precise, ju st ic e in Islam m e a n s
e q u a lit y in o p p o r t u n i t y a n d freedo m o f talen ts w hich work within the
lim its th at d o not c o m e into conflict w ith the high ideals o f life.
S in c e v a lu e s, talen ts a n d resources a r e m an ifo ld a n d in ter-blen ded,
a n d it is o n l y in th e lig h t o f th e v a r i e d c o n t e x t t h a t j u s t i c e c a n be
e s t a b l i s h e d , I s la m d o c s not w a n t to im p o s e a c o m p u l s o r y e c o n o m i c
e q u a lit y in the n arro w literal sense o f the term. T h i s kind o f e q u a lit y is
a g a i n s t n a tu r e , a n d is o p p o s e d to the b a s ic fact th a t i n d i v id u a l s are
e n d o w e d with differing talents. This type o f e q u a lit y arrests the d e v e ­
lo p m e n t o f o u ts ta n d in g a b ility , a n d m a k e s it e q u a l to lesser a b ility ; it
p rev e n ts ta le n te d peop le from usin g their talen ts to their ow n a d v a n ­
ta g e a n d to that o f the c o m m u n ity . C o n se q u e n tly , the c o m m u n i t y a s
well a s entire h u m a n i t y is d e p riv e d o f the fruits o f these talents.
It is o f no a v a il to stick to the fallacy that the n a tu r a l e n d o w m e n ts
are e q u a l. F o r we m a y distort this fact in respect o f m en tal a n d spiritual
e n d o w m e n ts (th o u g h there is no possibility o f d isto rtin g this fact when
p ra c tic a l life takes its co urse), b u t we c a n n o t falsify the fact that som e
i n d i v i d u a l s a r e b o r n w ith d iffe r e n t n a t u r a l e n d o w m e n t s o f h e a l t h ,
p erfection a n d p oten tiality. In fact, there is no possibility o f e st a b lish ­
ing e q u a lit y in respect o f all a b ilitie s a n d e n d o w m e n ts until a m ac h in e
is not in v e n te d for c a s t in g th e m into on e m o u ld a f t e r the fa sh io n o f
s t a n d a r d i z e d p rod u cts.
It is, therefore, foolish a n d useless to de n y the existence o f o u t s t a n d ­
ing e n d o w m e n ts o f person ality , intellect a n d spirit. This h a r d ly needs a
discussion . A s such we m ust reckon with all these e n d o w m e n ts, a n d to
all o f them we m ust give the o p p o r tu n ity to p ro d u c e their m a x i m u m
r e su lts . T h e n w e s h o u l d try to t a k e fr o m th e se r e s u lts t h a t w h ic h
a p p e a r s to be n ec essary for the w elfare a n d benefit o f society. O n no
a c c o u n t m u st we close the o u tlet for such e n d o w m e n ts, or d isc o u r a g e
them by m a k in g th e m e q u a l with re g a rd to lesser abilities. In no res­
pect s h o u l d we s h a c k le s u c h g ifts, o r h in d e r th e m fro m free a c tio n ,
 ISL A M IC A P P R O A C H T O SO C IAL JU S T IC E 129

th ereb y fritterin g th e m a w a y a n d d e p riv in g o f their fruits the c o m ­

m u n it y a n d the h u m a n race.
I sla m does, o f c o u rse, recogn ize the p rin cip le o f e q u a lit y in o p p o r ­
tu n ity, a n d the p r in c ip le o f ju s t ic e a m o n g all. It leaves the d o o r o p e n
for a c h ie v e m e n t o f p re-em in e n ce th ro u g h h a r d work. T h e n it e s t a ­
b lis h e s in the M u s l i m so cie ty v a l u e s o t h e r th a n th e e c o n o m ic . ( G o d
sa y s:)

‘ S u r e l y th e n o b le s t a m o n g y o u in th e s ig h t o f G o d is th e m o s t
g o d fe a r in g o f y o u .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 49: 13).
‘G o d r a ise s u p in r a n k th ose o f yo u w h o b elieve a n d h a v e been
g iven k n o w le d g e .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 58: 11).
‘W e a lth a n d c h ild ren a r e a n o r n a m e n t o f life o f the w o rld ; b u t the
a b i d i n g th in gs, the d e e d s o f righ teousn ess, are better in thy L o r d ’s
sig h t for r e w a r d , a n d b etter in h o p e .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 18: 46).

F r o m this it is a p p a r e n t th at there are values o th er th a n the m erely

e c o n o m ic on w h ich Islam co un ts, a n d re g a r d s th e m a s the real values.
It is th r o u g h th ese v a l u e s th a t I sla m a i m s a t e s t a b li s h in g b a l a n c e in
society d e sp ite the d is p a r ity in the finan cial resources o f the in d ivi­
d u a l s w h ich is d u e to the r e a s o n a b le d ifferen ces in th eir s tr u g g le a n d
e n d o w m e n t s , a n d is not a result o f a d o p t i n g the m e a n s a n d m e th o d s
p r o h ib ite d in Islam .
I sla m , then, does n ot p rescrib e a literal e q u a lit y o f w ealth , b e cau se
the a c q u i s i t i o n o f w e a lth d e p e n d s on m e n ’s a b i lit ie s , w h ich a r e not
u n i f o r m . H e n c e a b s o l u t e j u s t i c e d e m a n d s th a t m e n ’s in c o m e s a n d
re w a rd s s h o u ld also v a ry , a n d th at so m e h av e m o re th a n others — so
lon g a s h u m a n ju s t ic e is u p h e ld by the provision o f e q u a l o p p o r tu n ity
for all. T h u s s t a t u s or u p b r in g in g , o rigin or race, or an y kind o f res­
tr ic tio n w h ic h s tifle s e n t e r p r i s e s h o u l d n o t s t a n d in th e w a y o f a n y
in d iv id u a l. J u s t i c e m u st also be u p h e ld b y the in clusion o f o th er real
v a lu e s in the re ck o n in g , a n d by the freeing o f the h u m a n m in d c o m ­
p le te ly fr o m the p r e s s u r e o f the p u r e ly e c o n o m i c v a lu e s, a n d b y the
r elegation o f these to their true a n d re a s o n a b le p lace . E c o n o m ic values
m u st not be given a n in trin sically h igh s t a n d in g , su ch a s they enjoy in
those h u m a n societies w hich lack the perception o f religious values, or
w hich m in im iz e their im p o r t a n c e a n d assign s u p r e m e a n d f u n d a ­
m e n ta l v a lu e to w ea lth alone.
I sla m refuses to give this v a lu e to w ealth. It d is d a in s to co n sid e r life
in term s o f a m o u th fu l o f b r e a d , c a r n a l desires, o r a h a n d fu l o f m oney.
Y e t a t the s a m e tim e it p rescribe s a c o m p e te n c e for every in d iv id u al,
130 is i.a m : it s m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

a n d a t tim es m o re th a n a co m p e te n c e . It prefers to p r o v id e this c o m ­

p e ten ce by m e a n s o f in d iv id u a l p ro p e rty a n d th ro u g h such enterprises
a s a r e c o n d u c i v e to t h a t k in d o f e c o n o m i c s y st e m w h ich re c o g n iz e s
p r iv a t e ow n e rsh ip , in ord e r to re m o v e the fe a r o f d e stitu tion on the one
h a n d , a n d to e lim in a t e the ty ran n y o f the a u th o r ity w hich a p p r o ­
p r i a t e s th e s o u r c e s o f in c o m e on th e o th e r. A t th e s a m e tim e I s la m
fo r b id s th a t u n b r id le d lu x u r y w h ich g ive s the reins to a s c r a m b le for
lucre a n d c a r n a l desires, a n d w hich results in c r e a tin g gross d isp a r ity in
the s t a n d a r d s o f living. I s la m re cog n iz e s the c la im s o f the p o o r u p o n
the w ea lth o f the rich, a c c o r d in g to their needs, a n d to th e s a m e extent
as is su it a b le for society; a n d thus g u a r a n t e e s its e q u iv a le n c e , b a l a n c e
a n d g row th . A s such I sla m does not neglect an y o f the v a r io u s a sp e cts
o f life, m a te r ia l, in tellectual, religious a n d w orldly. It r a th er org a n iz es
them all, th at they m a y be related together a n d thus furnish a n all-
e m b r a c i n g u n ity in w h ich it will be difficult to n eg lect a n y on e o f its
v a r io u s h a r m o n io u s, integral p a r ts, a n d th at this unity m a y h arm o n iz e
w ith th e u n ity o f th e g r e a t un iv e rse , a n d w ith th a t o f life, a n d o f all
m a n k in d .
 9

Woman in Islam *

G a m a l A . B a d aw i

T H E s t a t u s o f w o m e n in society is n eith er a new issue n or is it a fully

s e t tle d o n e . T h e p o s it io n o f I s l a m on this issue h a s b e e n a m o n g the
s u b j e c t s p r e s e n t e d to th e W e s te r n r e a d e r with the least o b je c t iv ity .
T h i s p a p e r is in te n d e d to p ro v id e a b r i e f a n d a u t h e n tic e x p o sitio n o f
w h a t I sla m s t a n d s for in this re ga rd . T h e te a ch in g s o f Islam a r e based
e ssen tially on the Q u r ’a n ( G o d ’s re ve la tion ) a n d Hadith (e la b o ratio n s
by P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ) . T h e Q u r ’a n a n d Hadith, pro p e rly a n d un-
b i a s e d l y u n d e r s t o o d , p r o v id e the b a s ic so u r c e o f a u t h e n t i c a t i o n for
a n y p osition o r view w hich is a tt r ib u te d to Islam .
T h e p a p e r s t a r t s w ith a b r i e f s u r v e y o f th e s t a t u s o f w o m e n in the
p re -Isla m ic era. It then focuses o n these m a jo r q u e stion s:
W h a t is th e p o s i t i o n o f I s l a m r e g a r d i n g th e s t a t u s o f w o m a n in
society? H o w s im il a r or different is th at position from ‘the spirit o f the
tim e ’, w hich w a s d o m i n a n t w h en I slam w a s r e v e aled ? H o w w ou ld this
c o m p a r e w ith th e ‘ r i g h t s ’ w h ic h w e re fin a lly g a i n e d b y w o m a n in
recent d e c a d e s ?
O n e m a j o r o b je ctiv e o f this p a p e r is to p ro v id e a fair e v a lu a tio n o f
w h a t I s la m c o n t r ib u t e d to w a r d s the r e sto ra tio n o f w o m a n ’s d ig n it y
a n d rights. In o r d e r to a ch ie v e this o b je ctiv e , it m a y be useful to review
briefly h ow w o m e n were t r e a te d in g e n e r a l in p r e v io u s c iv iliz a tio n s
a n d relig io n s, e sp e c ia lly those w h ich p r e c e d e d I s la m (P re -6 1 0 C . E . ) 1
P art o f the in fo r m a tio n p r o v id e d here, how ever, d escribes th at sta tu s

* This chapter is taken from the author’s booklet published by the Muslim
Students’ Association of the United States and C an ada, Gary, Indiana, U.S.A.
1. ‘C .E .’ throughout the paper stands for Christian Era (A.D.).
132 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

o f w o m a n a s late a s th e n in eteen th ce n tu ry , m o re th a n twelve cen tu ries

a fte r Islam .

W O M A N IN O T H E R C I V IL IZ A T IO N S
D e s c r ib in g the s t a t u s o f a H i n d u w o m a n , a n a u t h o r ity on the su b jec t
states:

In I n d ia , s u b je c tio n w a s a c a r d in a l principle. D a y a n d n igh t m ust

w o m e n b e h eld by th eir p r o t e c to r s in a s ta te o f d e p e n d e n c e , say s
M a n u . T h e rule o f in h e rita n c e w as a g n a t i c , th a t is d e sce n t trace d
th ro u g h m a le s to the e xclu sio n o f f e m a l e s . 2

In H i n d u s c r ip tu r e s , the d e sc rip tio n o f a g o o d w ife is a s follow s: ‘a

w o m a n w h ose m in d , speech a n d b o d y a r e kept in s u b jec tio n , a c q u ir e s
h igh renow n in this w orld , a n d , in the n ext, the s a m e a b o d e with her
h u sb an d .’ 3
In A th e n s, w o m e n were not better o ff th a n e ith er the I n d ia n or the
R o m a n w om en .
‘A t h e n i a n w o m e n were a lw a y s m in ors, s u b je c t to s o m e m ale — to
th eir fath e r, to their broth er, or to so m e o f their m a le kin .’ 4
H e r con sen t in m a r r i a g e w as not g en e rally th o u g h t to be n ecessary
a n d ‘sh e w a s o b lig e d to s u b m i t to the wishes o f h er p a r e n ts, a n d receive
fro m th e m her h u s b a n d a n d h er lord, even th o u g h he were s tr a n g e r to
her.’ ^
A R o m a n wife w a s d e scrib e d b y a n h istorian a s : ‘a b a b e , a m in or, a
w a r d , a p erson i n c a p a b l e o f d o in g or a c t i n g a n y t h in g a c c o r d in g to her
o w n i n d i v i d u a l t a s t e , a p e r s o n c o n t i n u a l l y u n d e r th e t u t e l a g e a n d
g u a r d ia n s h ip o f her h u s b a n d . ’ 6
In the Encyclopaedia Bntanruca, we find a s u m m a r y o f the legal sta tu s
o f w o m e n in the R o m a n civilizatio n :

In R o m a n L a w a w o m a n w as even in historic tim es co m p le te ly

d e p e n d e n t. I f m a rr ie d she a n d her p ro p e rty p assed into the p ow e r o f
her h u s b a n d . . . the wife w a s the p u r c h a s e d p ro p e rty o f her h us­
b a n d a n d like a sla v e a c q u ir e d o n ly for his benefit. A w o m a n co u ld

2. The Encyclopaedia Bntanmca, 11 th cd., 1911. Vol. 28, p. 782.

3. In Macc, David and Vera, Marriage East and West, Dolphin Books, Double­
day and Co., Inc., N.Y., 1960.
4. Allen, E.A., History o f Civilization, Vol. 3, p. 444.
5. Ibid., p. 443.
6. Ibid., p. 550.
7. The Encyclopaedia Bntannica, 1 llh cd., 191 l,o p . cit., Vol. 28, p. 782.
 W O M A N IN IS L A M 133

n ot c x c r c i s c a n y civ il o r p u b l i c office . . . c o u l d n o t b e a w itn e ss,

su rety, tu to r, o r c u r a t o r ; she c o u ld not a d o p t or be a d o p t e d , or m ak e
will o r co n tr a c t.
A m o n g the S c a n d i n a v i a n races w o m e n were:

u n d e r th e p e r p e t u a l t u t e la g e , w h e th e r m a r r i e d or u n m a r r ie d . As
late a s the C o d e o f C h r is t i a n V , a t the e n d o f the 17th C e n tu r y , it
w a s e n a c t e d t h a t i f a w o m a n m a r r i e d w it h o u t th e c o n s e n t o f her
tu to r he m ig h t h a v e , if he w ished, a d m i n is t r a t io n a n d u su fru c t o f
her g o o d s d u r i n g h er life.8

A c c o r d in g to th e E n g lish C o m m o n L a w :

. . . all re al p r o p e r t y w h ic h a w ife h e ld a t the tim e o f a m a r r i a g e

b e c a m e a p o s s e s sio n o f h er h u s b a n d . H e w a s e n t it le d to th e rent
from the la n d a n d to a n y profit w hich m ig h t be m a d e fro m o p e r a t ­
in g the e sta te d u r i n g the jo in t life o f the spouses. A s tim e p a ss e d , the
E n g lish co u rts d e v ise d m e a n s to forbid a h u s b a n d ’s tran sferrin g real
p r o p e r ty w it h o u t the co n se n t o f his w ife, b u t he still r e ta in e d the
right to m a n a g e it a n d to receive the m on ey w hich it p r o d u c e d . As
to a w ife ’s p e r s o n a l p r o p e r ty , th e h u s b a n d ’s p o w e r w a s c o m p le t e .
H e h a d the righ t to sp en d it a s he saw fit.9

O n l y b y t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y d i d th e s i t u a t i o n s t a r t to
im p rove. ‘ B y a series o f a cts s ta r tin g with the M a r r ie d W o m e n ’s P r o ­
p e r t y A c t in 1 8 7 0 , a m e n d e d in 1 8 8 2 a n d 1 8 8 7 , m a r r i e d w o m e n
a c h ie v e d the righ t to ow n p r o p e r ly a n d to enter c o n tra c ts on a p a r with
sp in sters, w id o w s, a n d d iv o r c e e s.’ 10 A s late a s the n in eteen th c e n tu ry
a n a u t h o r i t y in a n c i e n t l a w , S i r H e n r y M a i n e , w r o t e : ‘ N o s o c i e t y
which preserves a n y tin ctu re o f C h r is tia n in stitution s is likely to restore
to m a r r i e d w o m e n th e p e r s o n a l l ib e r t y c o n f e r r e d on th e m b y th e
M i d d l e R o m a n L a w . ’ 11
In his e ss a y The Subjection o f Women, J o h n S t u a r t M ill w rote:

W e a re c o n tin u a lly told th at civ iliz a tio n a n d C h r is tia n ity h ave

r e sto r e d to the w o m a n h er j u s t r ig h ts . M e a n w h i l e the w ife is the
a c t u a l b o n d s e r v a n t o f h er h u s b a n d ; n o less so, a s f a r a s th e legal
o b lig a t io n goes, th a n slaves c o m m o n l y so c a l l e d . 12
8. Ibid., p. 783.
9. The Encyclopaedia Americana (International Edition), Vol. 29, p. 108.
10. The Encyclopaedia Bntanmca, 1968, Vol. 23, p. 624.
11. Quoted in M ace, Marriage: East and H;est, op. cit., p. 81.
12. Ibid., pp. 82-83.
134 IS L A M ! IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

B e fo r e m o v in g on to the Q u r ’a n ic d e cree s c o n c e r n in g the s t a t u s o f

w o m a n , a few B i b lic a l d ecrees m a y shed m o re light on the su b je c t, thus
p r o v i d i n g a b e t te r b a s i s fo r a n i m p a r t i a l e v a l u a t i o n . In th e M o s a i c
L a w , the wife w as be tro th e d . E x p la in i n g this co n cep t, tht Encyclopaedia
Biblica s t a t e s : ‘T o b e tro th a w ife to o n e s e l f m e a n t s im p ly to a c q u ir e
p ossession o f h er b y p a y m e n t o f the p u r c h a s e m o n e y ; the b e tro th e d is a
girl for w h o m th e p u r c h a s e m o n e y h a s been p a i d . ’ 13 F r o m th e legal
p oin t o f view , the con sen t o f the girl w as not n ecessary fo r the v a l i d a ­
tion o f her m a r r ia g e . T h e g irl’s co n se n t is u n n e ce ssa ry a n d the need for
it is n ow h ere su g g e ste d in the L a w . ’ 14
A s to the righ t o f d iv orce , we re ad in the Encyclopaedia B iblica: ‘T h e
w o m a n b e i n g m a n ’s p r o p e r t y , h is r ig h t to d i v o r c e h e r fo llo w s a s a
m a t t e r o f c o u rs e .’ 15T h e righ t to divorce w as held only by m an . i n the
M o s a i c L a w d iv o rc e w as a priv ilege o f the h u s b a n d only . . 16
T h e p osition o f the C h r is tia n C h u r c h until recent ce n tu ries se e m s to
h a v e been in flu e n ce d by bo th the M o s a i c L a w a n d by the s t r e a m s o f
t h o u g h t th a t w ere d o m i n a n t in its c o n t e m p o r a r y c u ltu re s . In th eir
bo ok , M arriage: E a st and West, D a v i d a n d V e r a M a c e w r o t e : 17
L e t n o o n e s u p p o s e , eith er, th a t o u r C h r is tia n h e r ita g e is free o f
s u c h s l i g h t i n g j u d g e m e n t s . It w o u ld b e h a r d to find a n y w h e r e a
co llec tio n o f m o re d e g r a d i n g references to the fe m a le sex th a n the
e arly C h u r c h F a th e r s provide. Leck y, the fa m o u s h istorian , sp e a k s
o f ‘T h e s e fierce in cen tives w hich form so co n sp ic u o u s a n d so g ro ­
te sq u e a portion o f the w ritin g o f the F a th e rs . . . w o m a n w as re p r e ­
sen te d a s the d o o r o f hell, a s the m o th e r o f all h u m a n ills. S h e sho uld
be a s h a m e d a t the very th o u g h t th at she is a w o m a n . S h e sh o u ld live
in c o n tin u a l p e n a n c e on a c c o u n t o f the curses she h as b r o u g h t u p o n
the w orld. S h e sh o u ld be a s h a m e d o f her dress, for it is the m em o rial
o f her fall. S h e sh o u ld be e sp e cially a s h a m e d o f her b e a u ty , for it is
the m o st p o te n t in stru m e n t o f the d e v il.’ O n e o f the m o st sc a th in g o f
these a t t a c k s on w o m a n is th a t o f T e r t u l li a n : ‘D o you know th at you
a r e e a c h a n E v e ? T h e sen ten ce o f G o d on this sex o f y o u r s lives in this
a g e : the guilt m u st o f necessity live too. Y o u are the d e v il’s g a te w a y :
13. Encyclopaedia Biblica, 1902, Vol. 3, p. 2942.
14. Ibid., p. 2942.
15. Ibid., p. 2947.
16. 7 he Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th cd., op. cit., p. 782. It should be noted here
that such interpretations by religious institutions do not necessarily con­
form to what the Muslim believes to be the original version of all revealed
religions, which is believed to be essentially the same throughout history.
17. D. and V. Mace, Marriage East and West, op. at., pp. 80-81.
 W O M A N IN IS L A M 135

you a r e the u n s e a le r o f th a t fo r b id d e n tree; you are the first deserters

o f the d iv in e law ; y o u a r c sh e w h o p e r s u a d e s h im w h o m the devil
w a s n o t v a l i a n t e n o u g h to a t t a c k . Y o u d e s t r o y e d so e a s ily G o d ’s
im a g e , m a n . O n a c c o u n t o f yo u r desert — th a t is d e a t h even the
S o n o f G o d h a d to die.' N o t only d id the c h u rc h affirm the inferior
s ta tu s o f w o m a n , it d e p riv e d h er o f legal rights she h a d p reviously
e njoy ed .

W O M A N IN ISL A M
In the m idst o f the d a rk n ess that e n g u lfe d the w orld, the d iv in e reve­
l a t io n e c h o e d in th e w id e d e s e r t o f A r a b i a w ith a fresh , n o b le a n d
un iversal m e s s a g e to h u m a n i t y 111: ‘O M a n k i n d , keep y o u r d u t y to your
L o r d w h o c r e a te d you fro m a single soul a n d from it cre ate d its m a t e (o f
sa m e k in d ) a n d fro m th e m tw ain has s p r e a d a m u ltit u d e o f m en a n d
w o m e n .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 4: l ) . 19
A sc h o la r w h o p o n d e r e d a b o u t this verse states: ‘ It is believed that
there is n o text, old o r new, th at d e a ls with the h u m a n i t y o f the w o m a n
fr o m a ll a s p e c t s in s u c h a n a m a z i n g b r e v ity , e lo q u e n c e , d e p t h a n d
o rig in ality a s this d iv in e d e cree .’ 20
S tr e ss in g this n o b le a n d n a tu r a l c o n c e p tio n , the Q u r ’a n states:

H e ( G o d ) it is w h o d id cre ate you from a single soul a n d therefrom

d id cre ate his m a t e , th at he m ig h t dw ell with her (in love) . . . (al-
Q u r ’a n , 7: 189).
T h e C r e a t o r o f h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h : H e h as m a d e for yo u p a ir s
from a m o n g yourselves. ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 42: 11).
A n d G o d h as given you m a t e s o f y o u r ow n n a tu re , a n d h as given
yo u fr o m y o u r m a t e s , c h ild r e n a n d g r a n d c h i ld r e n , a n d h as m a d e
p rovision o f g o o d th in gs for you. Is it then in v a n ity th a t they believe
a n d in the g r a c e o f G o d th at they d isbeliev e? ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 16: 72).

T h e rest o f th is p a p e r o u tlin e s the p o sitio n o f I sla m r e g a r d in g the

s t a t u s o f w o m a n in s o c i c t y fr o m its v a r i o u s a s p e c t s — s p i r i t u a l l y ,
so cially , e c o n o m ic a lly a n d politically
18. Al-Siba‘f, M.,/i/-.V/ar«aA Bayna'l-Fiqh Wa’l-Qanun, 2nded., 1966,0. 20.
19. ‘From it' here refers to the kind, i.e. ‘from the same kind, or of like nature,
God created its m a te .’ There is no trace in the Q u r ’an to a parallel of the
Biblical concept that Five was created from one o f A d a m ’s ribs.’ See Yusuf‘Ali,
The Holy Qur art, note No. 504.
20. Al-KhulT, A l- B a h f, Min Usus Qadiyyah al-M ar’ah, A l- W a‘i) A/-IslamI,
Ministry of Wakf, Kuwait, Vol. 3, No. 27, Ju n e 9, 1967, p. 17. Translated by
the writer.
136 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

T H E SP IR IT U A L A SP EC T

T h e Q u r ’a n p r o v id e s c lea r-cu t e v id e n c e th a t w o m a n is c o m p le t e ly
e q u a t e d with m a n in the sight o f G o d in term s o f h er rights a n d res­
p on sib ilities. T h e Q u r ’a n states:

E v e r y sou l will be ( h e ld ) in p le d g e for its d e e d s. ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 74:

38).

It a ls o states:

*. . . S o t h e ir L o r d a c c e p t e d th e ir p r a y e r s , ( s a y i n g ) : I w ill n o t
suffer to be lost the w ork o f a n y o f y o u w h eth e r m a le o r fem ale. Y o u
proc ee d o n e from a n o t h e r . . ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 3: 195).

W h o e v e r w o r k s r ig h t e o u s n e s s , m a n or w o m a n , a n d h a s fa it h ,
verily to him W e give a new life th at is g o o d a n d p u re , a n d W e will
bestow on su ch their rew ard a c c o r d in g to the best o f their action s.
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 16: 97. see a ls o 4: 124).

W o m a n a c c o r d i n g to th e Q u r ’a n is n o t b l a m e d fo r A d a m ’s first
m ista k e . B o th w ere jo in t l y w r o n g in their d is o b e d ie n c e to G o d , both
re p e n te d , a n d b o th w ere forgiven. ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 3 6-3 7; 7: 20-24). In
on e verse in fa c t ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 20: 121), A d a m specifically, w as b la m e d .
In term s o f religio us o b lig a t io n s , such a s the D a ily P rayers, F a s tin g ,
P o o r -d u e a n d P i lg r im a g e , w o m a n is no differen t fro m m a n . In so m e
cases, in deed, w o m a n h as c e rta in a d v a n t a g e s ov er m a n . F o r e x a m p le ,
the w o m a n is e x e m p t e d from the d a ily p ra y ers a n d fro m fa s tin g d u r in g
h er m e n s t r u a l p e r i o d s a n d fo r ty d a y s a f t e r c h i l d b i r t h . S h e is a l s o
e x e m p t e d o f fa stin g d u r i n g h er p r e g n a n c y a n d w h en she is n u rsin g her
b a b y if th e r e is a n y th r e a t to her h e a lth or h er b a b y ’s. I f the m isse d
fa stin g is o b li g a t o r y (d u r i n g the m o n th o f R a m a d a n ) , sh e c a n m a k e u p
for the m isse d d a y s w h en e ve r she can . S h e d o e s not h av e to m a k e u p for
the m issed p r a y e r s b e c a u s e o f one o f the a b o v e reason s. W o m e n used to
g o to th e m o s q u e d u r i n g th e d a y s o f th e P r o p h e t a n d t h e r e a f t e r
a tt e n d a n c e a t the F r i d a y c o n g r e g a t io n a l prayers is o p t io n a l for them
while it is m a n d a t o r y for m en (on F rid ay ):
T h i s is c le a r ly a te n d e r to uch o f the I s l a m ic te a c h in g s for they are
c o n sid e r a te o f the fact that a w o m a n m a y be n u rsin g her b a b y or c a r in g
for h im , a n d th u s m a y b e u n a b le to g o o u t to the m o s q u e at the tim e o f
the prayers. T h e y a ls o take into a c c o u n t the p h y sio lo g ica l a n d p sy ­
c h o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s a ss o c ia te d with h er n a tu r a l fe m ale functions.
 W O M A N IN IS L A M 137

THE SOCIAL ASPECT

( a ) A s a child and an adolescent.

D e s p i t e th e s o c i a l a c c e p t a n c e o f f e m a l e i n f a n t i c i d e a m o n g s o m e
A r a b i a n trib e s, th e Q u r ’a n f o r b a d e this c u s t o m , a n d c o n sid e r e d it a
crim e like a n y o th er m u rd e r .
‘A n d w h e n th e f e m a l e ( i n f a n t ) b u r ie d a li v e — is q u e s t i o n e d , for
w h a t c r im e she w a s killed.’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 81: 8-9).
C r i t c i z i n g th e a t t i t u d e s o f s u c h p a r e n t s w h o r e je c t t h e ir f e m a l e
ch ild ren , the Q u r ’a n states:

‘W h e n new s is b r o u g h t to on e o f th e m , o f (th e B irth of) a fem ale

( c h il d ) , h is fa c e d a r k e n s a n d h e is filled w ith in w a r d g rie f! W ith
s h a m e d o e s he h id e h im s e l f from his p e o p le b e ca u se o f the b a d news
he h a s h a d ! S h a l l he r e t a in h er on ( s u ffe r a n c e ) a n d c o n t e m p t , or
b u r y h er in th e d u s t ? A h ! W h a t a n evil (c h o ice) they d e c id e o n ? ’
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 1 6 :5 8 -5 9 ).

F a r f r o m s a v i n g the g i r l ’s life so th a t sh e m a y l a t e r suffer in ju stice

a n d in e q u a lit y , I sla m re q u ires kin d a n d j u s t tre a tm e n t for her. A m o n g
th e s a y in g s o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d (p e a c e be u p o n h im ) in this regard
are the follow ing:

W h o so e v e r h as a d a u g h t e r a n d he d o e s not b u r y her a liv e , does

not insult her, a n d d oes not fa v o u r his son over her, G o d will enter
h im in to P a r a d ise . (Ib n H a n b a l , N o . 1957).
W h o so ev er s u p p o r t s tw o d a u g h t e r s till they m a t u r e , he a n d I will
c o m e in the d a y o f ju d g e m e n t a s this ( a n d he p o in te d with his two
fingers).

A s i m i l a r H adhh d e a l s in like m a n n e r w ith o n e w h o s u p p o r t s two

sisters. (Ib n H a n b a l , N o. 2104).
T h e right o f fe m a le s to seek k n o w le d ge is not different from th a t o f
m ale s. P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be u p o n h im ) sa id : ‘S e e k in g
k n o w le d ge is m a n d a t o r y for every M u s l i m . ’ (A l- B a y h a q f) . M u s l im a s
used here in c lu d in g b o th m a le s a n d fe m a le s .21

(b ) A s a wife.
T h e Q u r ’a n clea rly in d ic a te s th at m a r r i a g e is s h a r in g betw een the
21. S o m e less au th e n tic versions a d d ‘m ale an d fe m ale ’. T h e m ean in g,
however, is sound etym ologically even as it is consistent with the over-all
nature o f Islam ic duties in a p p ly in g e q u ally to males an d females unless
special exemptions are specified.
138 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

tw o h alv e s o f the society, a n d th a t its o b je ctiv e s, b e sid e p e r p e t u a t in g

h u m a n life, a r e e m o tio n a l w ellb e in g a n d sp ir itu a l h a rm o n y . Its bases
a r e love a n d mercy.
A m o n g the m o st im p ressive verses in the Q u r ’a n a b o u t m a r r ia g e is
the follow ing:
‘A n d a m o n g H is s ig n s is this: T h a t H e c r e a te d m a t e s for you from
y o u r s e l v e s t h a t y o u m a y fin d re st, p e a c e o f m i n d in t h e m , a n d H e
o r d a in e d betw een you love a n d m ercy. L o , herein in deed are signs for
p e o p le w h o reflect.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 30: 21).
A c c o r d i n g to I s l a m i c L a w , w o m e n c a n n o t b e f o r c e d to m a r r y
a n y o n e w ith o u t their consent.
Ibn ‘A b b a s re p o rte d th at a girl c a m e to the M e sse n g e r o f G o d ,
M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be u p o n h im ), a n d she r e p o r te d th a t h er fa th e r
h a d fo rced her to m a r r y w ith o u t her co n sen t. T h e M e s se n g e r o f G o d
g a v e her the ch o ice (b e tw e en a c c e p tin g the m a r r i a g e o r in v a lid a tin g
it). (Ib n H a n b a l N o. 2469). In a n o th e r version, the girl s a id : ‘A c tu a lly
I a c c e p t this m a r r i a g e b u t I w a n t e d to let w o m e n know th at p a r e n ts
h av e no righ t (to force a h u s b a n d on th e m ).’ (Ib n M a j a h , N o. 1873).
B esides a ll o th er p rov ision s for her p rotection a t the tim e o f m a r ­
riag e, it w a s sp ecific ally d ecree d th a t w o m a n h as the full right to her
M ahr, a m a r r i a g e gift, w hich is presen ted to her by her h u s b a n d a n d is
in c l u d e d in th e n u p t i a l c o n t r a c t , a n d th a t su ch o w n e r s h ip d o e s not
tr a n s f e r to h er f a t h e r o r h u s b a n d . T h e c o n c e p t o f A la hr in I s l a m is
neither a n a c t u a l or sy m b o lic price for the w o m a n , a s w as the ca se in
certain cu ltu re s, b u t ra th er it is a gift s y m b o liz in g love a n d affection.
T h e rules for m a r r ie d life in I sla m a r e c le a r a n d in h a r m o n y w ith
u p r i g h t h u m a n n a t u r e . In c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d
p s y c h o l o g ic a l m a k e - u p o f m a n a n d w o m a n , b o th h a v e e q u a l rig h ts
a n d c l a i m s o n o n e a n o t h e r , e x c e p t for o n e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h a t o f
leadersh ip. T h is is a m a t t e r w hich is n a tu ra l in a n y collective life a n d
w hich is co n sisten t with the n a tu r e o f m a n .
T h e Q u r ’a n thus states:

‘A n d th e y ( w o m e n ) h a v e rig h ts s i m i l a r to th o se ( o f m e n ) o v e r
th e m , a n d m e n a re a d e g r e e a b o v e th e m .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 2: 228).

S u c h degre e is Qiwama ( m a in te n a n c e a n d protection ). T h is refers to

th at n a tu r a l difference betw een the sexes w hich entitles the w eaker sex
to p r o t e c tio n . It im p lie s n o s u p e r io r it y or a d v a n t a g e before th e law.
Y et, m a n ’s role o f lea d ersh ip in r elation to his fa m ily d o c s not m e a n the
h u s b a n d ’s d ic ta to rs h ip ov er his wife. Islam e m p h a siz e s the im p o rta n c e
 W O M A N IN ISL AM 139

o f t a k i n g c o u n s e l a n d m u t u a l a g r e e m e n t in f a m i l y d e c is io n s . T h e
Q u r ’a n g ives us a n e x a m p le :

*. . . I f th e y ( h u s b a n d w ife ) d e sire to w e a n th e c h ild by m u t u a l

c o n s e n t a n d ( a f t e r ) c o n s u l t a t i o n , th ere is n o b la r n e o n th e m . .
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 233).

O v e r a n d a b o v e h er b a s ic rig h ts a s a w ife c o m e s the righ t w hich is

e m p h a s i z e d by the Q u r ’a n a n d is s tro n g ly r e c o m m e n d e d by the P ro ­
p h et ( P ) ; k in d tr e a tm e n t a n d c o m p a n io n sh ip .
T h e Q u r ’a n sta te s:

. . B u t c o n s o r t w ith th e m in k in d n e s s, for if yo u h a t e th e m it
m a y h a p p e n th a t yo u h ate a th in g w herein G o d h a s p la c e d m u ch
g o o d .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 4: 19).

P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d ( P ) s a i d :

T h e best o f you is the best to his fa m ily a n d I a m the best a m o n g

you to m y fam ily.
T h e m ost perfect believers a r c the best in c o n d u c t a n d the best o f
yo u a r e those w h o are best to their wives. (Ibn H a n b a l N o. 7396).
B e h o ld , m a n y w o m e n c a m e to M u h a m m a d ’s w ives c o m p l a in in g
a g a in s t th eir h u s b a n d s (b e c a u s e they b e a t th e m ) . . . those ( h u s ­
b a n d s ) a r e n ot th e best o f you.

A s the w o m a n ’s righ t to d e c id e a b o u t her m a r r ia g e is recogn ized, so

also her righ t to seek a n e n d for a n un successful m a r r i a g e is recogn ized.
T o p r o v i d e fo r th e s t a b i l i t y o f th e f a m il y , h o w e v e r, a n d in o r d e r to
p rotect it from hasty decision u n d e r te m p o r a r y e m o tio n a l stress, c e r ­
tain ste p s a n d w a itin g p e rio d s sh o u ld l>e o b se rv e d by m e n a n d w o m e n
seeking divorce. C o n s i d e r i n g the relatively m ore e m o tio n a l n a tu r e o f
w o m e n , a g o o d reason for a sk in g for div orce should be b ro u g h t before
the ju d g e . Like the m a n , how ever, the w o m a n c a n div orce her h u s b a n d
w ith o u t resortin g to the c o u r t, if the n u p tia l co n tra ct a llo w s that.
M o r e specifically , so m e a sp e c ts o f Islam ic L a w co n cern in g m a r r ia g e
a n d d iv o r c e a r c in terestin g a n d are w orth y o f s e p a r a te treatm ent.*’2
22. It is sufficient to say here that polygamy existed in almost all nations and
was even sanctioned by Ju d a ism and Christianity until recent centuries. The
Q u r ’an is the only revealed scripture that explicitly limited polygamy and
discouraged its practice by various stringent conditions. One reason for not
categorically forbidding polygamy is that in different places at different times,
there may exist individual or social exigencies which make polygamy a better
solution than either divorce o r a hypocritical pretence of morality.
140 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

W h e n th e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e m a r r i a g e r e la tio n s h ip is im p o s s ib le
for a n y re aso n , m en a re still ta u g h t to seek a g r a c io u s end for it.
T h e Q u r ’a n s ta te s a b o u t su ch cases:

W h en you div orce w o m e n , a n d they re ach their prescribed term,

then retain th e m in kin dness a n d retain them n ot for in jury so that
you tra n sgre ss (th e lim its). ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 2: 231). (Se e also a l - Q u r ’a n ,
2: 22 9, a n d 3 3 : 4 9 ) .

( c ) A s a mother:
I sla m c o n sid e re d kin dness to p a r e n ts next to the w orship o f G o d .
‘ Y o u r L o r d h a s d e c r e e d th a t y o u w o r s h ip n o n e sa v e H i m , a n d
th at yo u be kind to y o u r p a r e n t s . . .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 17: 23).
M o r e o v e r , the Q u r ’a n h as a sp ecial r e c o m m e n d a tio n for the good
t r e a tm e n t o f m oth ers:
‘A n d we h a v e e n jo in e d u p o n m a n (to be g o o d ) to his p a ren ts: H is
m o t h e r b e a r s h im in w e a k n e s s u p o n w e a k n e s s . . . ’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n ,
31: 14). ( S e c a ls o a l - Q u r ’a n , 4 6: 15; 29: 8).

A m a n c a m e to M u h a m m a d ( P ) a sk in g , ‘O M e s s e n g e r o f G o d ,
w h o a m o n g the p e o p le is the m o st w orth y o f m y g o o d c o m p a n y ? ’
T h e P r o p h e t s a id , ‘ Y o u r m o t h e r .’ T h e m a n s a id , ‘T h e n w h o e ls e ? ’
T h e P r o p h e t ( P ) s a i d , ‘ Y o u r m o t h e r . ’ T h e m a n s a i d , ‘T h e n w h o
e ls e ? ’ T h e P r o p h e t ( P ) s a i d , ‘ Y o u r m o t h e r .’ T h e m a n s a i d , ‘T h e n
w h o else?’ O n ly then d id the P roph et (P ) say , ‘Y o u r fa th e r.’ (Al-
B u k h a r f a n d M u slim ) .

A f a m o u s s a y in g o f the P ro p h e t is ‘P a r a d is e is a t the feet o f m o th e r s.’

(In A l- N i s a ’f, I b n - M a j a h , Ibn H a n b a l) .
i t is the g e n e r o u s (in c h a r a c te r ) w h o is g o o d to w o m e n , a n d it is the
w icked w h o in sults t h e m .’

T H E E C O N O M IC A SP E C T
Islam de cree d a righ t o f w hich w o m a n w as d e p riv e d both before I slam
a n d a f t e r if (even a s late a s this c e n t u r y ) ,23 the righ t o f in d e p e n d e n t

23. For example, it was not until 1938 that the French Law was amended so as
to recognize the eligibility of women to contract. A married woman, however,
was still required to secure her husband’s permission before she could dispense
with her private property. See for example AI-SibaT, op. cit., pp. 31-37.
 W O M A N IN IS L A M 141

o w n e r sh ip . A c c o r d i n g to I s l a m ic L a w , w o m a n ’s rig h t to h er m o n e y ,
real e state, o r o th er p r o p e rtie s is fully a c k n o w le d g e d . T h i s right u n ­
d e r g o e s n o c h a n g e w h eth e r she is single or m arried . S h e re tain s her full
r ig h t s to b u y , sell, m o r t g a g e o r le a se a n y o r a ll h e r p r o p e r tie s . It is
n ow here s u g g e s te d in the L a w th a t a w o m a n is a m in o r s im p ly b e cau se
sh e is a f e m a l e . It is a l s o n o t e w o r t h y t h a t s u c h r ig h t a p p l i e s to her
p r o p e r t i e s b e f o r e m a r r i a g e a s w ell a s to w h a t e v e r sh e a c q u i r e s
thereafter.
W ith r e g a r d to the w o m a n ’s righ t to seek e m p lo y m e n t, it s h o u ld be
s ta te d first th at I s la m r e g a r d s her role in society a s a m o th e r a n d a wife
a s the m o st sa c re d a n d essen tial one. N e ith e r m a id s nor b a b y s itt e r s ca n
p o s s i b l y t a k e t h e m o t h e r ’s p l a c c a s th e e d u c a t o r o f a n u p r i g h t ,
c o m p lex -free , a n d c a refu lly -re a red child. S u c h a n oble a n d vital role,
w h ic h l a r g e l y s h a p e s th e f u t u r e o f n a t i o n s , c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s
‘id len e ss’.
H o w e v e r , th e re is n o d e c r e e in I s l a m w h ich fo r b id s w o m a n fro m
see k in g e m p l o y m e n t w h en e ve r there is a necessity for it, e sp e cially in
p o s it io n s w h ic h fit h er n a t u r e a n d in w h ic h so cie ty n e e d s h er m ost.
E x a m p l e s o f th e se p r o f e s s i o n s a r e n u r s in g , t e a c h i n g ( e s p e c ia ll y fo r
c h ild ren ), a n d m cd ic in c. M oreo v e r, there is no restriction on ben efit­
i n g fro m w o m a n ’s e x c e p t io n a l talen t in a n y field. E v e n for the p o si­
tion o f a j u d g e , there m a y be a te n d e n c y to d o u b t the w o m a n ’s fitness
for th e p o st d u e to her m o r e e m o tio n a l n a tu re , we find e a r ly M u s l im
s c h o la r s su ch a s A b u - H a n f f a a n d a l - T a b a r f h o ld in g there is n o t h in g
w ro n g w ith it. In a d d itio n , I sla m restored to w o m a n the right o f inhe­
ritan ce in s o m e cu ltures. H e r sh a re is co m p le te ly hers a n d n o on e ca n
m a k e a n y c l a i m on it, in c lu d in g her fath e r a n d her h u s b a n d .
‘T o m e n ( o f the f a m il y ) b e lo n g s a s h a r e o f th a t w h ich p a r e n ts a n d
n e a r k in d re d leave , a n d to w o m e n a s h a r e o f th a t w h ich p a r e n t s a n d
n e a r k i n d r e d l e a v e , w h e t h e r it b e a little or m u c h — a d e t e r m i n a t e
s h a r e .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 4: 7).
H e r s h a re in m o st cases is o n e -h a lf o f the m a n ’s s h a re , with n o im ­
p lic a tio n th a t sh e is w orth h a l f a m a n ! It w o u ld seem grossly in c o n ­
sistent a fte r the o v e r w h e lm in g e v id e n ce o f w o m a n ’s e q u ita b le tr e a t­
m e n t in I s l a m , w h ich w a s d is c u ss e d in the p r e c e d i n g p a g e s , to m a k e
su ch a n inference. T h i s v a ria tio n in in h eritan ce righ ts is o n ly co n si­
s te n t w ith th e v a r i a t i o n s in fi n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f m a n a n d
w o m a n a c c o r d in g to the I sla m ic L a w . M a n in I sla m is fully resp on sib le
for the m a i n t e n a n c e o f his wife, his ch ildren , a n d in so m e cases o f his
n e e d y re la tiv e s, e s p e c ia lly th e fe m ale s. T h i s r e sp o n s ib ility is n eith e r
142 IS L A M ! ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

w a i v e d n o r r e d u c e d b e c a u s e o f h is w i f e ’s w e a l t h o r b e c a u s e o f h er
acce ss to a n y p e rso n a l in c o m e g a i n e d from w ork, rent, profit, or a n y
oth er legal m ea n s.
W o m a n , on the o th er h a n d , is f a r m ore secure fin an cially a n d is far
less b u r d e n e d w ith a n y c l a i m s o n h e r p o s s e s s i o n s . H e r p o s s e s s i o n s
before m a r r i a g e d o not tra n sfer to h er h u s b a n d a n d she even keep s her
m a i d e n n a m e . S h e h as no o b lig a t io n to sp en d on her fa m ily o u t o f such
p r o p e r tie s o r o u t o f her in c o m e a fte r m a r r i a g e . S h e is e n title d to the
M ahr w hich she ta k e s fro m h er h u s b a n d at the tim e o f m a r r ia g e . I f she
is d iv o rce d , she m a y get a n a lim o n y from h er e x - h u sb a n d .
A n e x a m in a t i o n o f the in h eritan ce law w ithin the overall f r a m e ­
w ork o f the I sla m ic L a w reveals, not only ju stice , bu t also an a b u n d ­
a n ce o f c o m p a s sio n for w o m a n .24

T H E P O L IT IC A L A SP E C T
A n y fa ir in v e s tig a tio n o f the te a c h in g s o f I sla m or in to th e history' o f
I s l a m i c c i v i l i z a t i o n w ill s u r e l y find a c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f w o m a n ’s
e q u a lit y with m a n in w h at we call to d a y ‘political rig h ts’.
T h i s in clu d e s the righ t o f election a s well a s the n o m in a tio n to p o li­
tic a l offices. It a ls o in c l u d e s w o m a n ’s r ig h t to p a r t i c i p a t e in p u b lic
affairs. B o th in the Q u r ’a n a n d in I sla m ic history we find e x a m p le s o f
w o m e n w h o p a r tic ip a te d in serious discussion s a n d a r g u e d even with
the P ro p h e t ( P ) h im se lf (see a l - Q u r ’a n , 58: 1; a n d 60: 10-12).
D u r i n g the C a l i p h a t e o f ‘ U m a r I b n a l - K h a t t a b , a w o m a n a r g u e d
with him in the m o s q u e , p r o v e d her point, a n d c a u s e d h im to d e c la r e in
the p resen ce o f p e o p le : ‘A w o m a n is right a n d ‘U m a r is w ro n g .’
A lt h o u g h n ot m e n tio n e d in the Q u r ’a n , on e Hadith o f the P roph et is
in terp reted to m a k e w o m a n ineligible for the p osition o f h e a d o f state.
T h e Hadith referred to is ro u gh ly tr a n sla te d : ‘A p e o p le will not p rosp er
if th e y let a w o m a n be th e ir l e a d e r . ’ T h i s l i m i t a t i o n , h o w e v e r, h as
n oth in g to d o with the d ig n ity o f w o m a n or with her rights. It is rather,
r e la te d to th e n a tu r a l d ifferen ces in the b io lo g ica l a n d p sy c h o lo g ic a l
m a k e - u p o f m en a n d w om en.
A c c o r d in g to I sla m , the h e a d o f the state is no m ere figu re-h ead. H e
lea d s p e o p le in the p ra y e rs, e sp e cially on F rid a y s a n d festivities; he is
co n tin u o u sly e n g a g e d in the process o f decision m a k in g p e rt a in in g to

24. For a good discussion o f this point, also o f the acceptance o f w om en’s
witness according to Islamic Law, see ‘Abd al-Alf, Ham mudah, Islam m Focus,
pp. 117-118, and A I-Siba‘f, M ustafa, A l-M ar’ah Bayn al-Fiqh wa'l-Qanun (in
Arabic).
 W O M A N IN IS L A M 143
the secu rity a n d w ell-bein g o f his p eop le. T h i s d e m a n d i n g position , or
a n y s i m i l a r o n e , s u c h a s th e C o m m a n d e r o f th e A r m y , is g e n e r a l ly
in c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l m a k e - u p o f
w o m a n in g e n e r a l . It is a m e d i c a l fa c t t h a t d u r i n g th e ir m o n t h l y
p e rio d s a n d d u r i n g their p reg n a n cie s, w o m e n u n d e r g o v a rio u s p h y ­
s iolog ical a n d p sy ch o lo g ica l c h a n g e s. S u c h c h a n g e s m a y o c cu r d u r in g
a n e m e r g e n c y s i t u a t i o n , t h u s a f f e c t i n g h er d e c is io n . T h e e x c e s siv e
stra in d u r i n g these p e rio d s h a s o th er effects a s well. M o r e o v e r , som e
d e cisio n s r e q u ire a m a x i m u m o f ra tio n ality a n d a m in im u m o f e m o ­
tio n a lity — a r e q u ir e m e n t w h ich m a y not c o in cid e w ith the instinctive
n a tu r e o f w om en .
E v e n in m o d e r n tim es, a n d in the m o st d e v e lo p e d coun tries, it is rare
to find a w o m a n in the position o f a h e a d o f state a c t i n g a s m ore th a n a
f i g u r e h e a d , a w o m a n c o m m a n d e r o f th e a r m e d s e r v ic e s , or e v e n a
p r o p o r t i o n a t e n u m b e r o f w o m e n r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s in p a r l i a m e n t s , or
s i m i l a r b o d ie s. O n e c a n not p o s s ib ly a s c r ib e this t o b a c k w a r d n e s s o f
v a r io u s n a tio n s o r to a n y co n stitu tio n a l lim ita tio n on w o m a n ’s right to
be in such a p osition a s a h e a d o f state or a s a m e m b e r o f the p a r ­
l ia m e n t. It is m o r e logical to e x p la in the present situ a t io n in term s o f
the n a tu r a l a n d in d is p u t a b le differences betw een m a n a n d w o m a n , a
difference w hich d o e s not im p ly a n y ‘s u p r e m a c y ’ o f on e ov er the other.
T h e d iffe r e n c e im p lie s r a t h e r the ‘c o m p l e m e n t a r y ' roles o f b o th the
sexes in life.

C O N C L U SIO N
T h e first p a r t o f this p a p e r d e a l s briefly w ith th e p o s itio n o f v a r io u s
r e lig io n s a n d c u lt u r e s on th e issu e u n d e r in v e s tig a tio n . P a r t o f this
e xp o sitio n e x t e n d s to co ve r the gen eral tren d a s late a s the nineteenth
ce n tu ry , n e a r ly 1300 y e a rs a fte r the Q u r ’a n set forth the I sla m ic te a ­
chings.
In th e s e c o n d p a r t o f th e p a p e r , th e s t a t u s o f w o m e n in I s l a m is
briefly d is c u ss e d . E m p h a s i s in this p a r t is p la c e d o n the o r ig in a l a n d
a u t h e n tic sou rces o f Islam . T h i s represen ts the s t a n d a r d a c c o r d in g to
w hich d e g r e e o f a d h e r e n c e o f M u s l im s can be j u d g e d . It is also a fact
th at d u r i n g s o m e o f o u r m o m e n t s o f declin e, such te a ch in g s were not
strictly a d h e r e d to by m a n y p e o p le w h o professed to be M u slim s.
S u c h d e v ia tio n s were u n fa irly e x a g g e r a te d by so m e writers, a n d the
w orst o f th e se w e r e s u p e r f ic i a l ly ta k e n to re p r e se n t the t e a c h in g s o f
Islam to the W este rn r e a d e r w ith o u t ta k in g the tr o u b le to m a k e a n y
144 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

o rigin al a n d u n b ia s e d s tu d y o f the a u t h e n tic sources o f these te ach in g s

E v e n w ith su ch d e v ia tio n s three facts are w orth m e n tio n in g :

1. T h e history o f M u s l im s is rich with w om e n .of g reat a ch ie v e m e n ts

in a ll w alk s o f life fro m a s e arly a s the seventh c e n tu ry ( C .E . ) . 25
2. It is im p o ssib le for a n y o n e to ju st ify a n y m is tr e a tm e n t o f w o m a n
b y a n y d e c r e e o f r u le e m b o d i e d in th e I s l a m i c L a w , n o r c o u l d
a n y o n e d a r e to ca n c e l, re duce or d isto rt the c lea rcu t legal rig h ts o f
w o m e n g iven in I sla m ic L a w .
3. T h r o u g h o u t history, the r e p u ta tio n , ch a stity a n d m a t e r n a l role of
M u s l im w o m e n w ere o b je c ts o f a d m ir a t io n b y im p a r tia l observers.

It is a ls o w orth w h ile to s ta te th a t the s t a t u s w h ich w o m e n re ach e d

d u r i n g th e present e r a w a s not a ch ieved d u e to the kindness o f m en or
d u e to n a tu r a l p rogress. It w a s r a th e r a c h ie v e d th ro u g h a lon g stru g g le
a n d sacrifice on w o m a n ’s p a r t a n d only w hen society n eeded her c o n ­
trib u tio n a n d w ork, m o re e sp e c ia lly d u r in g the tw o w orld w ars, a n d
d u e to the e s c a la tio n o f tech n olog ical ch a n ge .
In th e c a s e o f I s l a m s u c h c o m p a s s i o n a t e a n d d ig n ifie d s t a t u s w as
d e cree d , n ot b e c a u s e it reflects the e n v iro n m e n t o f the seventh century,
nor u n d e r the th re at o r pressure o f w o m e n a n d their o r g a n iz a tio n , but
r a th er b e c a u s e o f its intrinsic truthfulness.
I f this in d icate s a n y th in g , it w o u ld d e m o n st r a t e the div in e origin o f
the Q u r ’a n a n d the tru th fuln ess o f the m e ssag e o f I sla m , w hich, unlike
h u m a n p h ilo so p h ie s a n d ideologies, w a s fa r from p ro c e e d in g fro m its
h u m a n e n v ir o n m e n t, a m e ssag e w hich estab lish e d such h u m a n e p rin ­
cip le s a s n eith er grew ob solete d u r in g the course o f tim e a n d a fte r these
m a n y cen tu ries, n o r c a n b e c o m e ob solete in the future. A fte r all, this is
the m e ssag e o f the A ll-W ise a n d A ll-K n o w in g G o d w hose w isd o m a n d
k n o w ledge a r c far b e y o n d the u ltim a te in h u m a n th o u g h t a n d p r o ­
gress.

25. See, for exa m p le , N ad v i, A. S u la im a n , Heroic Deeds of Muslim Women,

Islamic Publications Ltd., Lahore, Pakistan. Siddiqui, Women in Islam, Insti­
tute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, Pakistan, 1959.
 W O M A N IN IS L A M 145

BIBLIOGRAPHY
T he Holy Q u r ’an: Translation o f verses is heavily based on A. Y u su f ‘A lf’s
translation, The Holy Qur’an Text, Translation and Commentary, The American
International Printing Company, Washington, D.C., 1946.
‘A bd Al-*Atf, H a m m u d a h , Islam in Focus, T he C a n a d ia n Islamic Center,
Edmonton, Alberta, C an ada, 1963.
Allen, E. A., History o f Civilization, General Publishing House, Cincinnati,
Ohio, 1889, Vol. 3.
A l-Sib a‘i\ M u sta fa , Al-M ar’ah Baynal-Fiqh Wa’l-Qanun (in Arabic), 2nd ed.,
Al-Maktabah al-‘Arabiyyah, Halab, Syria, 1966.
Al-Khulf, Al-Bahf ;V/j« Usus Qadiyyah Al-Mar’a h ’ (in Arabic), Al-W a'i Al-
Islami, Ministry of Wakf, Kuwait, Vol. 3 (No. 27) Ju n e 9, 1967.
Encyclopaedia Americana (International Edition), American Corp. N.Y., 1969,
Vol. 29.
Encyclopaedia B iblu a (R e v. T. K. C h eyn cn e an d J. S. Black, editors). T he
Macmillan Co., London, England, 1902, Vol. 3.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica ( 1 1th ed.), University Press, Cambridge. England,
1911, Vol. 28.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica, The Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., Chicago, 111.,
1968', Vol. 23.
Hadith. Most of the quoted ahadith were translated by the writer. They are
quoted in various Arabic sources. Some of them, however, were translated
directly from the original sources. Among the sources checked arc Musnadof
Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Dar A l-M a‘arif, Cairo, U.A.R., 1950 and 1955, Vol. 4
and 3, Sunan o f Ib n -M a ja h , D a r I h y a ’ a l-K u tu b aI-‘A rab iyy ah , C airo ,
U .A .R ., 1952, Vol. l,.S'utt4nofal-Tirmidhf, Vol. 3.
Mace, David and Vera. Marriage: East and West, Dolphin Books, Doubleday
and Col, Inc., N.Y., 1960.
M aw dudf, Abul *Ala, Purdah and the Status of Woman in Liam, Islamic Publica­
tions Ltd., Lahore, 1973.
 10

Political Theory o f Islam *

Abu’l Aia Mawdudf

W I T H c e r t a i n p e o p l e it h a s b e c o m e a so rt o f fa s h i o n to s o m e h o w
identify I sla m with o n e or the oth er system o f life in v o g u e a t the time.
S o a t this tim e a ls o there arc p e o p le w h o say th at Islam is a d e m o c r a c y ,
a n d by th is th e y m e a n to im p ly t h a t th ere is n o d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n
Islam a n d the d e m o c r a c y a s in v o g u e in the W est. S o m e oth ers suggest
th at C o m m u n i s m is b u t the latest a n d revised version o f I sla m a n d it is
in th e fitness o f th in g s th a t M u s l im s im ita te the C o m m u n is t e x p e r i­
m e n t o f S o v i e t R u s s i a . S till s o m e o th e r s w h isp e r th a t I s l a m h a s th e
e le m e n ts o f d ic ta to r s h ip in it a n d we should revive the cuit o f ‘o b e ­
d ie n ce to the A m ir* {th e leader). All these p e op le , in their m isin fo rm e d
a n d m is g u id e d zeal to serve w h a t they hold to be the c a u s e o f I sla m , are
a lw a y s a t g r e a t p a i n s to p r o v e th a t I s la m c o n t a in s w ith in it s e lf the
e le m e n ts o f all ty p es o f c o n te m p o r a r y social a n d p olitical th o u g h t a n d
a c tio n . M o s t o f the p e o p le w h o in d u lg e in this p r a t t l e h a v e n o c le a r
id e a o f the I sla m ic w a y o f life. T h e y h av e n ever m a d e n o r try to m a k e a
s y ste m a tic s tu d y o f the I sla m ic p olitical o rd e r — the p la ce a n d n a tu re
o f d e m o c r a c y , social ju st ic c , a n d e q u a lit y in it. Instead they b e h a v e like
the p ro v e rb ia l b lin d m en w h o g a v e a lto g e th e r c o n tra d ic to r y d e sc r ip ­
tions o f a n e le p h a n t b e c a u s e on e h a d been a b le to to uch o n ly its tail,
th e o t h e r its leg s, th e th ir d its b e lly a n d the fo u rth its c a r s o n ly. O r
p e rh a p s they look u p o n I sla m a s a n o r p h a n whose sole h o p e for su rv i­
v a l lies in w i n n i n g th e p a t r o n a g e a n d th e s h e l t e r i n g c a r e o f s o m e

* This chapter is taken from the author’s Islamic Law and Constitution. It was
originally presented as a paper before a gathering of graduate and undergra­
duate students of the Punjab University, Lahore, in October, 1939 — Editor.
148 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

d o m in a n t crecd. T h a t is w h y so m e p e o p le h ave b e g u n to present a p o ­

logies on I s l a m ’s be h a lf. A s a m a t te r o f fact, this a tt itu d e e m e rg es from
a n inferiority c o m p le x , from the b e lie f th at we a s M u slim s c a n e a r n no
h o n o u r o r respect unless we are a b le to show th at o u r religion resem bles
the m o d e r n cre e d s a n d it is in a g r e e m e n t with m ost o f the c o n t e m p o ­
r a r y id e o lo g ie s. T h e s e p e o p le h a v e d o n e a g r e a t d isse rv ic e to I s l a m ;
they h a v e red u ce d th e political th eory o f Islam to a puzzle, a h o tch ­
potch . T h e y h a v e tu rn ed Islam into a ju g g le r ’s b a g o u t o f which c a n be
p r o d u c e d a n y t h i n g th a t h o l d s a d e m a n d ! S u c h is th e in t e l le c t u a l
p ligh t in w h ich w e a r e e n g u lfe d . P e r h a p s it is a result o f this sorry state
o f a ffa ir s th a t s o m e p e o p le h a v e even b e g u n to s a y th a t I s la m h a s no
p o lit ic a l o r e c o n o m i c s y ste m o f its o w n a n d a n y t h i n g c a n fit into its
schem e.
In these c irc u m st a n c e s it h a s b e c o m e essen tial th at a ca refu l s tu d y o f
the p olitical th eory o f I sla m s h o u ld be m a d e in a scientific w ay , with a
view to g r a s p its real m e a n in g , n a tu r e , p u r p o se a n d significance. S u c h
a s y s t e m a tic s tu d y a lo n e c a n p u t a n e n d to this c o n fu sio n o f th o u g h t
a n d silen ce th ose w h o o u t o f ig n o ra n ce p ro c la im th at there is n oth in g
like I sla m ic p o litica l theory, I sla m ic social o r d e r a n d Islam ic cu lture. I
h o p e it will a ls o b r in g to the w orld g r o p in g in d a rk n ess the light th at it
u rg e n tly n ee d s, a lt h o u g h it is not yet c o m p le t e ly c o n sc io u s o f su ch a
need.

II
FUNDAMENTALS OF ISLAM
It s h o u ld be c le a r ly u n d e rsto o d in the very b e g in n in g th at Islam is not
a j u m b l e o f u n r e l a t e d id e a s a n d in c o h e r e n t m o d e s o f c o n d u c t . It is
ra th e r a w ell-ordered system , a consistent whole, restin g o n a definite
set o f c lea r-cu t p o s tu la te s . Its m a j o r te n e ts a s well a s d e ta ile d rules o f
c o n d u c t a r e a ll d e r i v e d fro m a n d lo g ic a lly c o n n e c t e d w ith its b a s ic
p rin cip le s. All the rules a n d r e g u la tio n s th a t I sla m h as laid d o w n for
th e d iffe r e n t s p h e r e s o f h u m a n life a r e in th e ir e ss e n c e a n d s p ir it a
reflexion, a n e x ten sio n a n d c o ro lla ry o f its first p rin ciples. T h e v a rio u s
p h a s e s o f I sla m ic life a n d activity flow from these f u n d a m e n t a l p o s tu ­
lates e x a c t ly a s the p la n t sp ro u ts forth from its seed. A n d j u s t a s even
th o u g h the tree m a y s p r e a d in all direction s, all its leaves a n d bra n ch e s
re m a in firmly a tt a c h e d to the roots a n d derive s u ste n a n ce from them
a n d it is a lw a y s the seed a n d the root w hich d e te rm in e the n a tu r e a n d
form o f the tree, s im ila r is the c a se with Islam . Its entire s ch em e o f life
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 149

a ls o flows fr o m its b a s ic p o s tu la te s . T h e r e f o r e w h a t e v e r a s p e c t o f the

I sla m ic id e o lo g y on e m a y like to s tu d y , he m u s t, first o f all, g o to the
roots a n d look to the f u n d a m e n t a l principles. T h e n a n d then a lo n e he
c a n h a v e a r e a l l y c o r r e c t a n d s a t i s f a c t o r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e
ideology' a n d its specific in ju n ctio n s a n d a real a p p r e c ia t io n o f its spirit
a n d n atu re .

T H E M ISSIO N O F T H E P R O P H E T S
T h e m ission o f a p ro p h e t is to p r o p a g a t e I sla m , d is s e m in a te the te a c h ­
in g s o f A lla h a n d e sta b lish the d iv in e g u id a n c e in this w orld o f flesh
a n d bones. T h i s w a s the m ission o f all the d iv in e ly in sp ire d P ro p h e ts
w h o a p p e a r e d in succession ever since m a n 's h a b ita tio n on e arth u p to
the a d v e n t o f M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e b e u p o n h im ). In fact the m ission o f
all the p r o p h e ts w a s o n e a n d the s a m e the p r e a c h in g o f Islam . A n d
P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( p e a c e be u p o n h im ) w a s the last o f their line.
W ith h im p r o p h e t h o o d c a m e to a n e n d a n d to h im w a s revealed the
final c o d e o f h u m a n g u id a n c e in all its co m p leteness. All the prop h e ts
c o n v e y e d to m a n k i n d the g u id a n c e w h ich w a s r e v e aled to them a n d
ask ed it to a c k n o w le d g e the a b s o lu te sovereignty o f G o d a n d to render
u n a llo y e d o b e d ie n c e to H im . T h i s w a s the m ission w hich e a c h one o f
the p r o p h e ts w a s a ss ig n e d to perform .
At first sight this m ission a p p e a r s to be very s im p le a n d in n ocuou s.
B u t if y o u p r o b e a little d e e p e r a n d e x a m in e the full sig n ifican ce a n d
the lo g ica l a n d p r a c t i c a l im p lic a tio n s o f D iv in e S o v e r e ig n t y a n d the
co n c e p t o f T aw h id (th e U n it y o f G o d h e a d ) , you will soon realize that
the m a t te r is not so s im p le a s it a p p e a r s on the surface, a n d th at there
m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y in a d o c t r i n e w h ic h r o u s e d s u c h
bitter o p p o s itio n a n d s u sta in e d hostility on the p a r t o f the n o n ­
believers. W h a t strik es us m o st in the lo n g h istory o f the p r o p h e ts is
th a t w h en e ve r these serv an ts o f G o d p r o c la im e d that ‘T h e r e is no riah
(o b je ct o f w o rsh ip ) e x c e p t A lla h ’, all the forces o f evil m a d e c o m m o n
c a u s e to c h a ll e n g e th em . I f it were m erely to ca ll to bow d o w n in the
p la c e s o f w o r sh ip befo re on e G o d with perfect fre e d o m o u ts id e these
s a c r e d p r e c i n c t s to o w e a l l e g i a n c e to a n d c a r r y o u t th e w ill o f the
p o w e rs th at be, it w o u ld h av e been the height o f folly on the p art o f the
r u lin g c lasses to su p p re s s the religious liberties o f its loyal su b je c ts f o r a
m i n o r m a t t e r w h ic h h a d n o b e a r i n g o n th e ir a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s the
e sta b lish e d g o v ern m en t. L e t us therefore try to e x p lo r e the real poin t o f
d is p u t e betw een the P r o p h e ts a n d their o p p o n en ts.
T h e r e a re m a n y verses o f the Q u r ’a n w hich m a k e it a b so lu te ly clear
150 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

th at the n on -believers a n d polytheists too, w h o o p p o s e d the P roph ets,

d id not d e n y the existen ce o f G o d , n or th at H e w a s the sole C r e a t o r o f
h ea v e n s a n d earth a n d m a n , nor th at the w hole m e c h a n is m o f n a tu r e
o p e r a t e d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith H i s c o m m a n d s , n o r th a t it is H e w h o
p o u r s d o w n the ra in , driv es the w in ds a n d controls the sun , the m oo n ,
the e a r th , a n d e v e r y th in g else. S a y s the Q u r ’a n :

‘S a y to w h o m ( b e lo n g s) the earth a n d w h oso is in it, if you h ave

kn o w le d g e ? T h e y will say , to A lla h . S a y : Will yo u not then re­
m e m b e r ? S a y : W h o is L o r d o f th e seven h e a v e n s, a n d L o r d o f the
tr e m e n d o u s T h r o n e ? T h e y will say , to A lla h (all that belongs). S a y :
W ill yo u not then keep d u ty ( to H i m ) ? S a y : In w hose h a n d s is the
d o m in io n over all th in g s a n d H e protects, while a g a in s t H im there
is n o p ro tec tio n , if you h av e k n o w ledge? T h e y will say : to A lla h (all
th a t be lon g s). S a y : H o w then are you b e w itc h e d ?” ‘A n d if you were
to ask th e m : W h o cre ate d the h ea v e n s a n d the e a rth , a n d c o n s ­
tra in e d th e sun a n d the m o o n (to their a p p o in t e d task)? T h e y w ou ld
say : A lla h . H o w then are they tu rn ed a w a y ? . . . A n d if you were to
a sk th e m : w h o ca u s e s w ate r to c o m e d o w n from the sky, a n d th ere­
w ith r e v i v e s th e e a r t h a f t e r its d e a t h ? T h e y v e r ily w o u l d s a y :
A ll a h . ’2
‘A n d i f you a sk e d th e m w h o c r e a te d th em , they will su re ly say:
A llah . H o w then a r e they tu rn ed a w a y . ’3

T h e s e v e r s e s m a k e it a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r t h a t th e d i s p u t e w a s not
a b o u t th e e x i s t e n c e o f G o d o r H i s b e i n g th e C r e a t o r a n d L o r d o f
h e a v e n s a n d e a r th . All m e n a c k n o w le d g e d these tru th s. H e n c e there
w as no q u e stio n o f there b ein g a n y d is p u t e on w h a t w as a lr e a d y
a d m i t t e d on a ll h a n d s . T h e q u e stio n arises, then w h at w a s it th a t g a v e
rise to th e t r e m e n d o u s o p p o s i t i o n t h a t e v e r y p r o p h e t w it h o u t a n y
e x c e p tio n h a d to face w hen he m a d e this ca ll? T h e Q u r ’a n s ta te s that
the w h ole d is p u t e cen tred rou n d th e u n c o m p r o m is in g d e m a n d o f the
p r o p h e t s th a t the n on -believers s h o u ld re co g n iz e a s th eir rabb ( L o r d )
a n d ila h ( M a s t e r a n d L a w - g i v e r ) a l s o th e v e r y B e i n g w h o m th e y
a c k n o w le d g e d a s their C r e a t o r a n d th at they sh o u ld assig n this p o si­
tio n to n o n e e lse. B u t th e p e o p l e w e re n o t p r e p a r e d to a c c e p t th is
d e m a n d o f the proph ets.
L e t us n ow try to find o u t the real c a u s e o f this refusal a n d w h a t the

1. al-Qur’an, 23:84-89.
2. Ibid., 29 :61,63.
3. Ibid., 43: 87.
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 151

te r m s ilah a n d rabb m e a n . F u r t h e r m o r e , w h y d i d th e p r o p h e ts insist

th a t A lla h a lo n e s h o u ld be recog n ized a n d a c k n o w le d g e d a s ilah a n d
rabb a n d w hy d id the w hole w orld ra n g e itse lf a g a in s t th e m u p o n this
a p p a r e n t l y s im p le d e m a n d ?
T h e A r a b i c w o r d ilah s t a n d s for m a'bud (i.e. the o b je c t o f w o r s h ip )
which in itse lf is de riv e d from the w ord ‘abd. m e a n in g a serv an t o r slave.
T h e re la tio n sh ip w hich exists between m a n a n d G o d is th a t o f ‘w or­
sh i p p e r ’ a n d ‘th e w o r s h i p p e d ’. M a n is to offer ‘ibadah to G o d a n d is to
live like H is ‘abd.
A n d ‘ibadah d o e s n o t m e r e ly m e a n r i t u a l o r a n y s p e c i fic fo rm o f
prayer. It m e a n s a life o f c o n tin u o u s service a n d u n r e m itt in g o b e ­
d ie n c e like the life o f a s la v e in r e la tio n to his L o r d . T o w ait u p o n a
person in service, to bow d o w n o n e ’s h e a d in a c k n o w le d g e m e n t o f his
e le v a t e d p o s it io n , to e xe rt o n e s e l f in o b e d ie n c e to his c o m m a n d s , to
ca rry o u t his o r d e rs a n d ch eerfu lly s u b m it to all the toil a n d d isciplin e
in v olve d th e rein , to h u m b l e o n e se lf in the presen ce o f the m a s te r, to
offer w h a t he d e m a n d s , to o b e y w h a t he c o m m a n d s , to set o n e ’s face
ste a d ily a g a in s t the ca u s e s o f his d isp le a su re, a n d to sacrifice even o n e ’s
life w h en su ch is his p le a su r e these are the real im p lic a tio n s o f the
te r m ‘ibadah (w o r s h ip o r s erv ice ) a n d a m a n ’s tru e M a'bud ( O b j e c t o f
w orsh ip ) is he w h o m he w orsh ip s in this m an n er.
A n d w h a t is th e m e a n i n g o f th e w o rd rabb? In A r a b i c it lite r a lly
m e a n s ‘o n e w h o n o u r ish e s a n d s u s t a in s a n d r e g u la t e s a n d p e r f e c t s ’.
S in c e the m o r a l co n sciou sn ess o f m a n requ ires th a t one w h o nourishes,
su stain s, a n d p ro v id e s for us has a su pe rior c la im on o u r a lle g ia n c e , the
w ord rabb is a l s o use d in the sense o f m a s te r or owner. F o r this reason the
A r a b i c e q u iv a l e n t for the o w n e r o f p ro p e r ty is rabb al-m al a n d fo r the
ow n er o f a h ou se, rabb al-dar. A p e rso n ’s rabb is on e w h o m he looks u p o n
as his n o u r ish e r a n d p a tr o n ; from w h o m he e xp e cts fa v o u r a n d o b li­
g a tio n s ; to w h o m he looks for h on ou r, a d v a n c e m e n t a n d p e a c e ; whose
d i s p l e a s u r e h e c o n s id e r s to be p r e j u d i c i a l to h is life a n d h a p p i n e s s ;
w h o m he d e c l a r e s to be his L o r d a n d m a s t e r ; a n d la s tly , w h o m he
follows a n d o b e y s.4
K e e p i n g in view the real m e a n in g o f these two w o rd s ilah a n d rabb it
c a n be easily fo u n d w h o is it th at m a y rightfully c la im to be m a n ’s Ilah
a n d Rabb a n d w h o c a n , th erefore, d e m a n d th a t he s h o u ld be s erv ed ,
o b e y e d a n d w o r s h i p p e d . 'Frees, sto n e s , rivers, a n i m a l s , th e s u n , the

4. for a detailed discussion over the meaning and concept of ilah and rabb see:
Abul A i a M au dudf, Quran K i Char Bunyadi htilahen. (Four basic terms of the
Q u r’an). Lahore.
152 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

m o o n a n d th e s t a r s , n o n e o f t h e m c a n v e n t u r e to l a y c l a i m to th is
p o s itio n in r e la tio n to m a n . It is o n ly m a n w h o c a n , a n d d o e s , c l a i m
g o d h o o d in r e la tio n to his fellow -bcin gs. T h e d e sire for g o d h o o d c a n
take root o n ly in m a n ’s m in d . It is only m a n ’s excessive lust for p ow er
a n d d e sire fo r e x p l o i t a t i o n t h a t p r o m p t s h im to p r o je c t h i m s e l f on
o th er p e o p le a s a g o d a n d e x trac t their o b c d ic n c c ; force th e m to bow-
d o w n before h im in reveren tial a w e, a n d m a k e them i n stru m e n ts o f his
s e lf-a g g ra n d ise m e n t. T h e p le a su r e o f p o s in g a s a g o d is m o re e n c h a n t ­
in g a n d a p p e a l i n g t h a n a n y t h in g else th a t m a n h as yet been a b l e to
discover. W h o ev er possesses p o w e r or w ealth or cleverness or a n y oth er
su p e rio r fa c u lty , d e v e lo p s a s tr o n g in clin a tio n to o u ts te p his n a tu r a l
a n d p ro p e r lim its, to e x ten d his a r e a o f influence a n d th ru st his g o d ­
h o o d u p o n su ch o f his fellow m e n a s a r c c o m p a r a t iv e l y feeble, p o o r,
w e a k - m in d e d o r deficient in a n y m an n e r.
S u c h a s p i r a n t s to g o d h o o d a r e o f tw o k in ds a n d a c c o r d in g l y they
a d o p t tw o d ifferen t lines o f a ctio n . T h e r e is a ty p e o f p e o p le w h o a re
c o m p a r a t i v e l y b o ld o r w h o p o ssess a d e q u a t e m e a n s o f fo r c in g their
c l a i m o n th o se o v e r w h o m they w ield p o w e r a n d w h o c o n s e q u e n t ly
m a k e a direct c l a i m to g o d h o o d . F o r in stan ce, there w a s P h a r a o h who
w a s s o i n t o x i c a t e d w ith p o w e r a n d s o p r o u d o f h is e m p i r e t h a t he
p r o c la im e d to th e in h a b i t a n t s o f E g y p t : ‘Ana rabbukum a l - a ‘l a ’ (I a m
y o u r h ig h e s t L o r d ) a n d ‘M a 'ahnitu lakurn min ilahin g h a y r i’ ( I d o not
k n o w o f a n y o t h e r ilah fo r y o u b u t m y s e lf) . W h e n P r o p h e t M o s e s
a p p r o a c h e d h im w ith a d e m a n d for th e lib e r a tio n o f his p e o p le a n d
told h im th a t he too s h o u ld su r r e n d e r h im se lf to the L o r d o f the U n i ­
verse, P h a r o a h replied th at sin ce he h a d the pow er to cast him into the
p rison , M o s e s sh o u ld r a th er a c k n o w le d g e h im a s ila h .b S im ila r ly , there
w a s a n o t h e r k i n g w h o h a d a n a r g u m e n t w ith P r o p h e t A b r a h a m .
P o n d e r c a r e fu lly o v e r the w o rd s in w h ich the Q u r ’a n h as n a rr a te d this
e p isod e. It says:

‘A r e y o u n o t a w a r e o f t h a t k i n g w h o h a d a n a r g u m e n t w ith
A b r a h a m a b o u t h is L o r d b e c a u s e A l l a h h a d g i v e n h im th e
k i n g d o m ? W'hen A b r a h a m s a id : M y L o r d is H e who gives life a n d
d e a t h , he a n s w e r e d : I g iv e life a n d c a u s e d e a t h . A b r a h a m s a i d :
A lla h c a u s e s the sun to rise in the E a s t ; ca u se it, then, to rise in the
W'est. T h e n w a s the d isb e liev e r c o n fo u n d e d .’ 6

5. al-Qur’an, 26: 29; 28: 38; 79: 24.

6. Ibid., 2: 258.
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 153

W h y w a s the u n b e lie v in g king c o n fo u n d e d ? N o t b e c a u s e he d en ied

th e e x i s t e n c e o f G o d . H e d i d b e lie v e th a t G o d w a s th e r u le r o f th e
un iverse a n d th at H e a lo n e m a d e the sun rise a n d set. T h e q u e stio n at
issue w a s not the d o m in io n ov er the sun a n d the m oo n a n d the universe
b u t th at o f the allegiance o f the people; not th at who sho uld be r e g a r d e d a s
c o n tro llin g th e forces o f n a tu re , bu t th at who should have the right to claim
the obedience o f men. H e d id not p u l forth the c la im th a t he w a s A lla h ;
w h a t he a c t u a l ly d e m a n d e d w as th at no ob je ctio n sho uld be ca st over
the a b s o lu t e n e ss o f his a u t h o r ity o v e r his subjects. H is a u t h o r ity a s the
ruler s h o u ld n ot be c h a lle n g e d . T h i s c la im w as b a se d on the fact th at
he held the reins o f g o v e r n m e n t: he c o u ld d o w h a te v e r he liked with the
p r o p e rty o r the lives o f his p e op le : he h a d a b s o lu t e p o w e r to p u n ish his
s u b je c ts w ith d e a t h or to s p a r e th em . H e, th erefore, d e m a n d e d fro m
A b r a h a m th at the l atte r sh o u ld recognize h im a s his m aste r, serve him
a n d d o his b id d in g . B u t w h en A b r a h a m d e c la r e d that he w ou ld o b e y ,
s e rv e a n d a c c e p t n o o n e b u t the L o r d o f th e U n iv e r s e , the k in g w a s
b ew ild ered a n d sh o cked a n d d id not know how to b rin g such a person
u n d e r his co n trol.
T h i s c l a i m to g o d h o o d w h ich P h a r a o h a n d N im r o d h a d p u t forth
w a s b y no m e a n s p e c u l i a r to th em . R u l e r s all o v e r the w o rld in a g e s
p a st a n d presen t h av e a d v a n c e d such c la im s. In Iran the w o rd s Khuda
( M a s t e r ) a n d Khudawand ( L o r d ) were c o m m o n l y e m p lo y e d in relation
to the kin g, a n d all the ce rem o n ies in d icativ e o f servility were p er­
fo rm e d before h im , in sp ite o f the fact th a t n o I ra n ia n looked u p o n the
k in g a s th e lo r d o f th e u n iv e r se , th a t is to s a y G o d , n o r d id the kin g
r e p r e s e n t h i m s e l f a s s u c h . S i m i l a r l y , th e r u l i n g d y n a s t i e s in I n d i a
c la im e d d e sce n t from the g o d s ; the s o la r a n d lu n a r d y n a stie s a rc w'cll
k n o w n d o w n to this d a y . I"he raja w a s ca lle d an-data ( th e p r o v id e r o f
s u s t e n a n c e ) a n d p e o p le p r o s t r a t e d th e m se lv e s b e fo r e h im a l t h o u g h
n ever re co g n iz e d him a s such. M u c h the s a m e w as, a n d still is, the state
o f a ffa irs in all o t h e r coun tries.
W o r d s s y n o n y m o u s with ilah a n d rabb a r e still used in direct refer­
e n c e to ru le rs o f m a n y p la ce s. E v e n w h ere this is n ot c u s t o m a r y , the
a t t it u d e o f the p e o p le to w a r d s their rulers is sim ila r to w h a t is im p lied
by these tw o w ords. It is n ot n ecessary for a m a n w h o c la im s g o d h o o d
th at he s h o u ld o p e n ly d e c la re h im se lf to be an ilah or rabb. All p erson s
w h o exercize u n q u a lifie d d o m in io n ov er a g r o u p o f m en , w h o im pose
their will u p o n oth ers, w h o m a k e th e m their in s tru m e n ts a n d seek to
co n trol their destin ies in the s a m e m a n n e r a s P h a r a o h a n d N i m r o d d id
in t h e h e y - d a y o f t h e i r p o w e r , a r c e s s e n t ia lly c l a i m a n t s to g o d h o o d ,
154 IS L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E SS A G E

th o u g h the c la im m a y be tacit, veiled a n d un expressed. A n d those w ho

serve a n d o b e y th e m , a d m i t their g o d h o o d even if they d o not say so by
word o f m ou th .
In c o n t r a s t to th e se p e o p le w h o d ir e c t ly seek r e c o g n itio n o f their
g o d h o o d there is a n o th e r type o f m en w h o d o not possess the necessary
m e a n s or stre n g th to get th em selves a c c e p te d a s ilah or rabb. B u t they
are resourceful a n d c u n n in g e n o u g h to cast a spell o v er the m in d s a n d
h e a r t s o f th e c o m m o n p e o p l e . B y the use o f s in is te r m e t h o d s , they
invest s o m e spirit, g o d , idol, to m b , p la n t, or tree with the c h a r a c te r o f
ilah a n d d u p e the c o m m o n peop le successfully into believin g th at these
o b je c ts a r e c a p a b l e o f d o in g th e m h a r m a n d b r in g in g them g o o d ; that
they c a n p r o v id e for their needs, an sw e r their prayers a n d a ffo rd them
sh elter a n d p ro te c tio n from evils w hich beset th e m all a r o u n d . T h e y
tell th e m in effect: ‘I f you d o not seek their p le a su re a n d a p p r o v a l , they
will in v o l v e y o u in f a m i n e s , e p i d e m i c s a n d a fflic tio n s . B u t i f you
a p p r o a c h th e m in the p ro p e r w ay a n d solicit their h elp they will c o m e
to y o u r a id . W e kn o w the m e th o d s b y w hich they c a n be p r o p itia te d
a n d their p le a su r e c a n be secured. W e a lo n e ca n show you the m e a n s o f
a c c e s s to th ese de ities. T h e r e fo r e , a c k n o w le d g e o u r s u p e rio r ity , seek
o u r p le a su r e a n d entrust to o u r c h a rg e yo u r life, w ealth a n d h o n o u r .’
M a n y s tu p id p e rson s a r e c a u g h t in this tr a p a n d th us, u n d e r cover o f
false g o d s , is e s t a b li s h e d th e g o d h o o d a n d s u p r e m a c y o f p rie sts a n d
shrine-keepers.
1’here a re s o m e oth ers b e lo n g in g to the sam e ca te g o ry w h o e m p lo y
the a r ts o f so o th sa y in g , astrolog y , fortune-telling, c h a r m s , in c a n t a ­
tions, etc. There a r c yet others who, while o w in g a lle g ia n c e to G o d , also
assert th at one c a n n o t g a in direct access to G o d . They c la im th at they
a r e the in term ed ia ries th rou gh w h om one should a p p r o a c h his th re­
s h o l d ; t h a t a l l c e r e m o n i a l s s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d t h r o u g h t h e ir
m e d ia t io n ; a n d th a t all religious rites fro m o n e ’s birth to d e a th c a n be
p e r f o r m e d o n ly a t th e ir h a n d s . T h e r e a r e still o th e r s w h o p r o c la im
th em selv es to be the b e arers o f the Book o f G o d a n d yet they d e lib e r a ­
tely k e e p th e c o m m o n p e o p le ig n o r a n t o f its m e a n i n g a n d co n te n ts.
C o n s t it u t i n g th em selv es in to m o u th p ie ces o f G o d , they start d ic ta tin g
to o th e r s w h a t is la w fu l (h a la l) a n d w h a t is u n la w fu l (h aram ). In this
w ay their w ord b e co m e s law a n d they force p e o p le to o b e y their own
c o m m a n d s in ste a d o f those o f G o d . This is the sou rc e o f B r a h m a n is m
a n d P a p a c y w hich h as a p p e a r e d u n d e r v a rio u s n a m e s a n d in diverse
f o r m s in a ll p a r t s o f the w o rld fro m t i m e s im m e m o r i a l d o w n to the
p rese n t d a y , a n d in co n se q u e n c e o f w hich c e rta in fa m ilies, ra c e s a n d
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 155

classes h a v e i m p o s e d their will a n d a u t h o rity ov er larg e m a sse s o f m en

an d w om en.
I f yo u were to look a t the m a t te r from this a n g le , you will find that
the r o o t - c a u s e o f all evil a n d m is c h ie f in the w orld is the domination o f man
over man, be it direct or indirect. I'his w as the origin o f all the tro ub les o f
m a n k i n d a n d e v e n to th is d a y it r e m a i n s th e m a i n c a u s e o f a ll the
m isfo rtu n es a n d vices w hich h av e b r o u g h t u n to ld m isery o n the te e m ­
in g h u m a n ity . G o d , o f co u rse, know s all the secrets o f h u m a n nature.
B u t the truth o f this o b se r v a tio n has also been c o n firm ed a n d b ro u g h t
h om e to h u m a n i t y by the experien ces o f th o u s a n d s o f years that m a n
c a n n o t h elp s e ttin g u p s o m e o n e or o th er a s his ‘g o d ’, ilah a n d rabb, a n d
lookin g u p to h im for h elp a n d g u id a n c e in the c o m p le x a n d baffling
a ffa irs o f his life a n d o b e y in g his c o m m a n d s . T h i s fact h as been e s t a ­
b lish ed b e y o n d q u e st io n by the historical exp erien ce o f m a n k in d that
if yo u d o not believe in G o d , som e artificial g o d will take H is p la c e in
y o u r th in k in g a n d b e h a v io u r. It is even possible th at in ste ad o f on e real
G o d , a n u m b e r o f false g o d s , ilahs a n d rabbs m a y im p o s e th e m se lv e s
u p o n you.
E v e n t o d a y m a n is e n c h a in e d in the slavery o f m a n y a false god. M a y
he b e in R u s s i a or A m e r ic a , Italy o r Y u g o s la v ia , E n g la n d or C h i n a , he
is g e n e r a lly u n d e r the spell o f s o m e p a r ty , so m e ruler, s o m e le a d e r or
g r o u p , so m e m o n e y - m a g n a t e o r the like in such a m a n n e r th a t m a n ’s
co n tro l o v e r m a n , m a n ’s w o rsh ip o f m a n , m a n ’s su r v e illa n c e o f m a n
c o n tin u e u n a b a t e d . M o d e r n m a n h as d is c a r d e d n a tu r e -w o rs h ip , bu t
m a n - w o r s h ip he still d o e s. In fine, w h ere ve r yo u tu rn y o u r eyes, you
will find th a t on e n a tio n d o m in a te s a n o th e r, one class holds a n o th e r in
s u b je c t io n , o r a p o lit ic a l p a r ty h a v in g g a i n e d c o m p l e t e a s c e n d a n c y ,
c o n stitu te s itse lf a s the a r b it e r o f m e n ’s destiny, or a g a in in so m e p laces
a d i c t a t o r c o n c e n t r a t e s in his h a n d s all p o w e r a n d in flu e n ce s e ttin g
h im se lf u p a s the lord a n d m a s te r o f the people. N o w h ere h as m a n been
a b le to d o w ith o u t a n ilah !
W h a t a r c th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f this d o m in a t i o n o f m a n by m a n , o f
this a t t e m p t by m a n to p la y the role o f div in ity? T h e s a m e th at w o u ld
follow from a m e a n a n d in c o m p e te n t p erson be in g a p p o in t e d a police
c o m m is s io n e r o r s o m e ig n o r a n t a n d n a rro w -m in d e d p o litic ia n b e in g
e x a l t e d to th e r a n k o f a p r im e m in iste r. F o r on e th in g , th e effect o f
g o d h o o d is so in to x ic a tin g th a t on e w h o tastes this p ow erful drin k ca n
never keep h im se lf u n d e r control. E v en a s s u m in g th a t such self-control
is p o s s i b l e , th e v a s t k n o w l e d g e , th e keen in s ig h t, th e u n q u e s t i o n e d
i m p a r t i a l i t y a n d p e r f e c t d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s w h ic h a r e r e q u i r e d fo r
156 is l a m : it s m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

c a r r y in g out the d u t ie s o f g o d h o o d , will a lw a y s re m a in out o f the reach

o f m a n . T h a t is w h y t y r a n n y , d e s p o t i s m , i n t e m p e r a n c e , u n l a w f u l
e x p lo ita tio n , a n d in e q u a lity reign su p r e m e , w h en ever m a n ’s ov er­
lord sh ip a n d d o m in a t i o n ( ilahiyyah a n d rabubiyyah) ov er m a n are e s t a ­
blished. T h e h u m a n soul is in e vita b ly d e p riv e d o f its n a tu r a l fre e d o m ;
a n d m a n ’s m in d a n d h ea rt a n d his in b orn faculties a n d a p t it u d e s are
s u b je c t e d to s u c h v e x a t io u s re strictio n s th a t the p r o p e r g ro w th a n d
d e v e l o p m e n t o f his p e r s o n a l it y is a r r e s te d . H o w tru ly d i d th e H o ly
P rop h et o bserve:

‘G o d , the A lm ig h ty , says: “ I cre ate d m en with a p lia b le n a tu r e ;

then the d evils c a m e a n d co n triv ed to lead th e m a st r a y from their
faith a n d p r o h ib ite d for th e m w h a t I h a d m a d e law ful for th e m .” ,7

As I h a v e in d ic a te d a b o v e , this is the sole c a u s e o f all the miseries a n d

conflicts from w hich m a n h as suffered d u r i n g the lo n g co u rse o f h u m a n
history. T h i s is the real im p e d im e n t to his progress. T h i s is the ca n k e r
which h as e a te n into the vitals o f his m o ra l, intellectual, p olitical a n d
e c o n o m ic life, d e stro y in g all the v alues w hich a lo n e m a k e him h u m a n
a n d m a rk him o f f from a n im a ls. S o it w as in the re m o te p a st a n d so it is
to d a y . T h e only r e m e d y for this d r e a d fu l m a l a d y lies in the r e p u ­
d i a t i o n a n d r e n u n c i a t i o n b y m a n o f all m a s t e r s a n d in th e e x p l ic i t
reco g n itio n by him o f G o d A lm ig h t y a s his sole m a s te r a n d lord ( ilah
a n d rabb). T h e r e is no w a y to his s a lv a tio n e x c e p t this; for even if he
were to b e c o m e a n a th e ist a n d heretic he w o u ld not be a b l e to sh a k e
h im se lf free o f all these m aste rs {ilahs a n d rabbs).

T h i s w a s the r a d ic a l r e fo rm a tio n cflTcctcd from tim e to tim e by the

P r o p h e t s in th e life o f h u m a n i t y . T h e y a i m e d a t th e d e m o l i t i o n o f
m a n ’s s u p r e m a c y o v e r m a n . T h e i r re al m is sio n w a s to d e liv e r m a n
fro m this in justice, this slavery o f false g od s, this t y r a n n y o f m a n over
m a n , a n d this e x p lo ita tio n o f the w eak by the strong. T h e ir object w as
to th r u s t b a c k in t o th e ir p r o p e r l im it s th o se w h o h a d o v e r - s t e p p e d
them a n d to raise to the p r o p e r level those w h o h a d been forced d ow n
fro m it. T h e y e n d e a v o u r e d to e v o lv e a so c ia l o r g a n iz a t io n b a s e d on
h u m a n e q u a l i t y in w h ic h m a n s h o u l d b e n e ith e r the s la v e n o r the
m a s t e r o f his fe llo w -b e in g s a n d in w h ich all m en s h o u ld b e c o m e the
s e r v a n ts o f o n e real L o r d . T h e m e s s a g e o f all the P r o p h e ts th at c a m e
into the w orld w a s the s a m e , n a m e ly :

7. Hadith Qudsi.
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F ISL AM 157

‘O m y p e o p le , w o rsh ip A lla h . T h e r e is no ilah w h a te v e r for you

e x c e p t H e .’ 8

T h i s w a s p r e c i s e l y w h a t N o a h s a i d ; t h is is e x a c t l y w h a t H u d
d e c la r e d ; S a l ih a ffirm e d th e s a m e tru th ; S h u ‘a y b g a v e the s a m e m e s ­
s a g e , a n d th e s a m e d o c t r in e w a s r e p e a te d a n d c o n fir m e d b y M o s e s ,
J e s u s a n d by P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d (p e a c e be u p o n them all). The last
o f the P rop h e ts, M u h a m m a d ( G o d ’s blessin g a n d p e a c e be u p o n h im )
said :

‘I a m o n ly a Warner, a n d there is n o G o d sav e A lla h , the O n e , the

A b s o l u t e L o r d o f the h ea v e n s a n d the e arth a n d all that is betw een
th e m .’ 9
‘Y o u r L o r d is A lla h w h o c r e a te d the h ea v e n s a n d the earth in six
d a y s , then sat H i m s e l f u p o n the T h r o n e . H e covers the n ig h t with
the d a y , w h ich is in h a s te to follow a n d h a s m a d e the sun a n d the
m o o n a n d th e sta r s su b se rv ie n t b y H is c o m m a n d . H is is all cre atio n
a n d ( H i s is the) c o m m a n d . ’ 10
‘S u c h is A lla h , y o u r L o r d . T h e r e is no G o d sav e H i m , the C r e a t o r
o f a ll th in g s, so w o rsh ip H im . A n d H e takes c a r e o f all th in g s.’ 11
‘A n d th e y a r e n o t e n j o i n e d a n y t h i n g e x c e p t th a t th e y s h o u l d
serve A lla h , b e in g sincere to H im in o b e d ie n c e .’ 12
‘C o m e to a w o rd c o m m o n betw een us a n d betw een y o u, th at we
shall w o rsh ip n o n e bu t A lla h , a n d th at we shall a sc rib e no p a rtn e r
to H i m a n d th at non e o f us shall take oth ers for lords besid e A ll a h .’ 13

T h i s w a s the p r o c l a m a t i o n th a t re le ase d the h u m a n so u l from its

fetters a n d set m a n ’s in te lle c tu a l a n d m a t e r ia l p o w e rs free fro m the
b o n d s o f s la v e ry th at held them in su bjectio n . It relieved them o f the
b u r d e n th a t w eigh e d h eavily u p o n th e m a n d w as b r e a k in g their backs.
It g a v e th e m a real c h a r te r o f liberty a n d fre ed o m . T h e H o ly Q u r ’an
refers to this m a r v e llo u s a c h ie v e m e n t o f the P ro p h e t o f Islam w h en it
says:

‘A n d he (th e P r o p h e t) relieves them o f their b u r d e n a n d c h a in s

th a t were a r o u n d th e m .’ 14
8. al-Qur’i'an 7: 59,65, 73,86; also 11: 50,61,84.
9. ibid., 38: 65-66.
10. ibid., 7: 54.
11. ibid., 6: 102.
12. ibid., 98: 5.
13. ibid., 3: 64.
14. ibid., 7:157.
158 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

III
FIRST PRINCIPLE OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL
THEORY
The b e lie f in the U n it y a n d the sovereignty o f A lla h is the fo u n d a tio n
o f the social a n d m o r a l system p r o p o u n d e d by the P ro p h e ts. It is the
v e ry s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f th e I s l a m i c p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y . T h e b a s ic
p rin ciple o f I sla m is th at h u m a n beings m ust, in d iv id u a lly a n d collec­
tively, su rr e n d e r all righ ts o f o v crlo rd sh ip, legislation a n d exercizin g o f
a u t h o r ity o v e r others. N o one sho uld be allow ed to p a ss ord e rs or m ak e
c o m m a n d s in his own right a n d no on e o u g h t to a c c e p t the o b lig a tio n to
c a r r y o u t s u c h c o m m a n d s a n d o b e y su ch ord e rs. N o n e is e n title d to
m a k e law s o n his ow n a u th o rity a n d none is o b lige d to a b i d e by them .
T h i s right vests in A lla h alo n e :

T h e A u th o r ity rests with none bu t A llah. H e c o m m a n d s you not

to su r r e n d e r to a n y on e save H im . T h is is the right w a y ( o f life).’ 15
T h e y ask: “ h av e we a ls o got som e a u t h o r ity ? ” S a y : “ all a u th o r ity
b e lo n g s to G o d a lo n e ” .’ 16
‘D o not s a y w ron g ly with y o u r ton gues that this is law ful a n d that
is u n la w fu l.’ '
‘W h o s o d o e s n ot e sta b lish a n d d e c id e by th a t w h ich A lla h h as
re v e aled , such are disbeliev ers.’ 18

A c c o r d in g to this theory, sovereignty b e lo n g s to A lla h . H e a lo n e is

the law -giver. N o m a n , even if he b e a Prop h et, h as the right to o rd e r
o t h e r s in his own right to d o or n ot to d o c e r ta in th in gs. T h e P r o p h e t
h im se lf is s u b je c t to G o d ’s c o m m a n d s :

‘I d o not follow a n y th in g exc ep t w h at is revealed to m e .’ 19

O t h e r p e o p l e a r e r e q u ir e d to o b e y the P r o p h e t b e c a u s e he e n u n ­
c ia te s not h is ow n bu t G o d ’s c o m m a n d s :

‘W e sent n o m essen ger save th at he sho uld be ob e y e d by A l l a h ’s

c o m m a n d . ’ 20

15. al-Qur'an, 12: 40.

16. ibid., 3: 154.
17. ibid., 16: 116.
18. ibid., 5: 44.
19. ibid., 6: 50.
20. ibid., 4; 64.
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 159

‘T h e y a r e the p e o p le to w h o m W e g a v e the S c r ip tu r e a n d C o m ­
m a n d a n d P r o p h c t h o o d .’ 21
‘It is not ( p o ssib le ) for a n y h u m a n b e in g to w h o m A lla h h as given
th e S c r ip t u r e a n d the W is d o m a n d the P r o p h e th o o d th at he sho uld
s a y to p e o p l e : O b e y m e in s t e a d o f A ll a h . S u c h a on e ( c o u ld o n ly
say ): be solely d e v o te d to the L o r d .22

T h u s th e m a i n c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f a n I sla m ic s t a t e th a t c a n be d e ­
d u c e d f r o m t h e s e e x p r e s s s t a t e m e n t s o f th e H o l y Q u r ’ a n a r e a s
fo llow s:—

(1 ) N o p e rson , class or g r o u p , not even the entire p o p u la tio n o f the

s t a t e a s a w h o le , c a n la y c l a i m to s o v e r e ig n ty . G o d a lo n e is th e real
sove re ig n ; all oth ers are m erely H is subjects;
(2 ) G o d is the real law -giver a n d the a u th o r ity o f a b s o lu t e leg isla ­
tion vests in H i m . T h e believers c a n n o t resort to to ta lly in d e p e n d e n t
legislation n o r c a n they m o d ify a n y law which G o d h as laid d o w n , even
if the desire to effect such legislation or c h a n g e in D iv in e law s is u n a ­
n i m o u s ; 24 a n d
( 3 ) A n I sla m ic s ta te m u st, in all respects, be fo u n d e d u p o n the law
laid d o w n by G o d th ro u g h H is Proph et. T h e g o v ern m en t w hich runs
such a s t a t e will be e n title d to o b e d ie n c e in its c a p a c i t y a s a p o litica l
a g e n c y set u p to en force th e law s o f G o d a n d only in so far a s it a c ts in
th a t c a p a c it y . I f it d is r e g a r d s the law revealed by G o d , its c o m m a n d s
will not be b i n d in g on the believers.

IV
THE ISLAMIC STATE:
ITS NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS
T h e p r e c e d i n g d is c u s s io n m a k e s it q u it e c le a r th a t I s l a m , s p e a k i n g
fro m th e v ie w -p o in t o f p o lit ic a l p h ilo s o p h y , is th e very a n tit h e s is o f
se c u la r W estern d e m o c r a c y . T h e p h ilosop h ical fo u n d a tio n o f W estern
21. ibid., 6: 90.
22. ibid., 3: 79.
23. Here the absolute right oj legislation is being discussed. In the Islamic political
theory this right vests in Allah alone. As to the scope and extent o f human
legislation provided by the Shari'ah itself please see M aw dudf, A.A., Islamic
Law and Constitution, Chapter II: ‘Legislation and Ijtihad in Islam’ and Chapter
V I : ‘First Principles o f Islamic State.’ — Editor.
160 i s i .a m : it s m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

d e m o c r a c y is the sovereignty o f the people. In it, this type o f a b so lu te

pow ers o f leg islation — o f the d e te r m in a tio n o f v a lu e s a n d o f the n orm s
o f b e h a v io u r — rest in the h a n d s o f the p eop le. L a w - m a k in g is their
p r e r o g a tiv e a n d legislation m ust co rre sp o n d to the m o o d a n d te m p er
o f th e ir o p i n io n . I f a p a r t i c u l a r p iece o f le g is la tio n is d e sir e d by the
m a s s e s , h o w s o e v e r ill-co n ce iv ed , it m a y be from re lig io u s a n d m o r a l
view poin t, steps h av e to be taken to pla ce it on the s ta tu te b o o k ; if the
p e o p le dislike a n y law a n d d e m a n d its a b r o g a tio n , how soever j u s t a n d
rig h tfu l, it m ig h t be, it h a s to be e x p u n g e d forthw ith. T h i s is n ot the
case in Islam . O n this co u n t, Islam h as no trace o f W estern d e m o c r a c y .
Isla m , a s a lr e a d y e x p l a in e d , a lt o g e t h e r r e p u d ia t e s the p h ilo so p h y o f
p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y a n d r e a r s its p o l it y o n th e f o u n d a t i o n s o f the
sovereignty o f G o d a n d the vicegeren cy (K h ilafah ) o f m a n . 24
A m o r e a p t n a m e for th e I s l a m ic p o lity w o u ld b e th e ‘k in g d o m o f
G o d ’ w h ich is d e scrib e d in E n g lish a s a ‘th e o c r a c y ’. B u t Islam ic th e o ­
c r a c y is s o m e t h in g a lt o g e t h e r d iffere n t fro m the th e o c ra c y o f w hich
E u r o p e h a s h a d a b itte r e x p e r ie n c e w herein a p rie stly c la ss, s h a r p ly
m a r k e d o f f from the rest o f the p o p u la tio n , exercises un ch ecked d o m i ­
n atio n a n d enforces law s o f its ow n m a k in g in the n a m e o f G o d , thus
v ir tu a lly im p o s in g its o w n d iv in it y a n d g o d h o o d u p o n th e c o m m o n
p e o p le .25 S u c h a sy ste m o f g o v e r n m e n t is s a t a n ic ra th e r th a n divine.
C o n t r a r y to this, the th e o cra cy b u ilt u p by I s la m is not ruled b y a n y
p a r t i c u l a r r e lig io u s c l a s s b u t b y th e w h o le c o m m u n i t y o f M u s l i m s
in c lu d in g th e r a n k a n d file. T h e e n tire M u s l im p o p u l a t i o n ru n s the
s t a t e in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e B o o k o f G o d a n d th e p r a c t i c e o f H is
Prophet. I f I were p e rm itte d to coin a new term , I w o u ld d e scrib e this
s y ste m o f g o v e r n m e n t a s a ‘t h e o - d e m o c r a c y ’, th a t is to s a y a d iv in e
d e m o c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n t , b e c a u s e u n d e r it the M u s l i m s h a v e b e e n
given a lim ited p o p u l a r sovereignty u n d e r the s u z era in ty o f G o d . 'ITie

24. Here it must be clearly understood that democracy as a ‘philosophy* and

democracy as a ‘form of organization’ are not the same thing. In the form of
organization, Islam has its own system of democracy as is explained in the
following pages. But as a philosophy, the two, i.e. Islam and Western demo­
cracy, arc basically different, rather opposed to each other. — Editor.
25. ‘ Theocracy: a form of government in which God (or a deity) is recognized
as the king or immediate ruler, and his laws are taken as the statute book of
K in gdom , these laws being usually administered by a priestly order as his
ministers and agents; hence (loosely) a system of government by a sacerdotal
order claim in g a divine commission. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary, Vol. II,
Oxford, 1956, S.V. Theocracy.
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 161
exe cu tiv e u n d e r this system o f g o v e rn m e n t is co n stitu te d by the g en e ­
ral will o f the M u s l im s w h o h av e also the right to d e p o se it. All a d m i ­
n istrative m a t te r s a n d all q u e stio n s a b o u t w hich n o e xp licit in jun ction
is to b e fo u n d in th e sharV ah a r e settled by the c o n se n su s o f o p in io n
a m o n g th e M u s l i m s . E v e r y M u s l i m w h o is c a p a b l e a n d q u a li fie d to
give a s o u n d o p in io n on m a tte r s o f I sla m ic law , is entitled to interpret
the law o f G o d w h e n s u c h in t e r p r e ta tio n b e c o m e s n ec essary . In this
sen se th e I s l a m i c p o lit y is a d e m o c r a c y . B u t , a s h a s been e x p l a in e d
a b o v e , it is a th e o cra cy in the sense th at w here a n e xplicit c o m m a n d o f
G o d or H is P r o p h e t a lr e a d y exists, no M u s l im le a d e r o r legislatu re, or
a n y religious s c h o la r c a n form a n in d e p e n d e n t j u d g e m e n t , not even all
the M u s l im s o f the w orld p u t to g eth e r h av e a n y righ t to m a k e the least
a lte r a tio n in it.
Before p r o c e e d in g further, I feel th at I sh o u ld p ut in a w ord o f e x ­
p la n a tio n a s to w h y these lim ita tio n s a n d restrictions h av e been p la ce d
u p o n p o p u l a r s o v e r e ig n t y in I s l a m , a n d w h a t is the n a t u r e o f these
lim ita tio n s a n d restrictions. It m a y be said that G o d has, in this m a n ­
ner, ta k e n a w a y th e lib e r ty o f h u m a n m i n d a n d in tellect in s te a d o f
s a f e g u a r d i n g it a s I w a s t r y in g to p r o v e . M y re p ly is t h a t G o d h as
r e ta in ed the r ig h t o f legislation in H is ow n h a n d not in o rd e r to d e p riv e
m a n o f his n a t u r a l fr e e d o m b u t to s a f e g u a r d th a t very fr e e d o m . H is
p u r p o se is to sav e m a n fro m g o in g a st r a y a n d in v itin g his ow n ruin.
O n e c a n e asily u n d e r s t a n d this point by a t t e m p t i n g a little an alysis
o f th e s o - c a l le d W e s t e r n s e c u l a r d e m o c r a c y . It is c l a i m e d th a t this
d e m o c r a c y is f o u n d e d on p o p u l a r sove re ig n ty. B u t e v e r y b o d y know s
th at the p e o p le w h o c o n s t i t u t c a s ta te d o not all o f th e m take part either
in l e g is la t i o n or in its a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e y h a v e to d e l e g a t e th eir
sovereign ty to their elected represen tatives so th at the latte r m a y m a k e
a n d en force la w s on their beh alf. F o r this p u rp o se , a n electoral system
is set up. B u t a s a div orce h as been effected betw een politics a n d reli­
gion , a n d a s a result o f this secu la riz a tio n , the society a n d p a r tic u la rly
its p olitically a ctive e le m e n ts h av e ce ase d to a tt a c h m u ch or a n y im ­
p o r t a n c e to m o ra lity a n d ethics. A n d this is also a fact th at o n ly those
p e rs o n s g e n e r a lly c o m e to the to p w h o c a n d u p e the m a s s e s by their
w ealth , p ow er, a n d d e ce p tiv e p r o p a g a n d a . A lth o u g h these re pre sen ­
tatives c o m c into p o w e r by the v otes o f the c o m m o n p e op le , they soon
set th em selv es u p a s a n in d e p e n d e n t a u th o r ity a n d a s s u m e the position
o f ov erlo rd s (tlahs). T h e y often m a k e law s not in the best interest o f the
p e o p le w h o raised th e m to p ow e r bu t to fu rth er their ow n sectional a n d
c l a s s in terests. T h e y im p o s e their w ill on the p e o p le b y v irtu e o f the
162 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

a u t h o r ity d e le g a t e d to th e m by th ose ov er w h o m they rule. T h is is the

s i t u a t i o n w h ic h b e s e ts p e o p le in E n g l a n d , A m e r i c a a n d in a ll th ose
co u n tries w hich c la im to be the h av en o f s e c u la r d e m o c r a c y .
E v e n if we ov erloo k this a sp e c t o f the m a t te r a n d a d m i t th at in these
co u n tries law s a r e m a d e a c c o r d in g to the wishes o f the c o m m o n people,
it h as been e sta b lish e d by e x p c ricn ce th a t the g r e a t m a s s o f the c o m ­
m o n p e o p le a r e in c a p a b l e o f p e rc e iv in g th eir ow n true interests. It is
the n a tu r a l w eak n e ss o f m a n th at in m ost o f the affairs co n cern in g his
life he takes into co n sid e r a tio n o n ly so m e on e asp e ct o f reality a n d loses
sig h t o f oth er a sp e cts. H is ju d g e m e n t s a r e u su ally one-sided a n d he is
sw a y e d by e m o tio n s a n d desires to such a n exten t th a t rarely, if ever,
c a n he j u d g e im p o r t a n t m a tte r s with the im p a r tia lity a n d ob je ctivity
o f sc ie n tific r e a s o n . Q u i t e o fte n he re je c ts th e p le a o f r e a s o n s im p ly
b e c a u s e it conflicts with his p a ssio n s a n d desires. I c a n c ite m a n y inst­
a n c e s in s u p p o r t o f this co n te n tio n b u t to a v o id prolixity I shall con tent
m y s e lf with g iv in g on ly one e x a m p le : the P ro h ib itio n L a w o f A m e ric a.
It h as been r a tio n a lly a n d log ically e stab lish e d th a t d r in k in g is in ju ­
rious to h ealth , p r o d u c e s d e le te rio u s effects on m e n ta l a n d in tellectual
facu lties a n d lea d s to d iso rd e r in h u m a n society. T h e A m e r ic a n p u b lic
a c c e p t e d these fa c ts a n d a g r e e d to the e n a c t m e n t o f the P ro h ib it io n
L a w . A c c o r d in g ly the law w a s p a sse d by the m ajo rity vote. B u t w h en it
w a s p u t in t o e ffect, th e very s a m e p e o p le b y w h ose vote it h a d been
p a s s e d , r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t it. T h e w o r s t k i n d s o f w in e w ere illic itly
m a n u f a c t u r e d a n d c o n s u m e d , a n d their use a n d c o n su m p t io n b e c a m e
m o r e w i d e s p r e a d t h a n b e fo r e . C r i m e s i n c r e a s e d in n u m b e r . A n d
e v e n tu a lly d r in k in g w a s legalized by the vote o f the s a m e p e o p le who
h a d p rev io u sly v o te d for its p roh ib ition . T h is s u d d e n c h a n g e in p u b lic
op in io n w as n ot the resylt o f a n y fresh scientific d isco v e ry or the reve­
lation o f new fa cts p r o v id in g e v id e n ce a g a in s t the a d v a n t a g e s o f p r o ­
h ib i t i o n , b u t b e c a u s e th e p e o p l e h a d b e e n c o m p l e t e l y e n s l a v e d by
their h a b it a n d c o u ld not fo rgo the p le a su res o f self-in du lgence. T h e y
d e l e g a t e d th e ir o w n s o v e r e ig n ty to the evil sp irit in th e m a n d set u p
their ow n desires a n d p a ssio n s a s their ilahs (g o d s) a t w hose call they all
went in for the re pe al o f the very law they h a d p a sse d afte r h a v in g been
c o n v i n c e d o f its r a t i o n a l i t y a n d c o r r e c t n e s s . T h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r
s i m i l a r i n s t a n c e s w h ic h g o to p r o v e t h a t m a n is n o t c o m p e t e n t to
b e c o m e a n a b s o lu t e legislator. Ev en if he secures d e liv era n ce fro m the
service o f o t h e r ilahs, he b e c o m e s a slave to his ow n p e tty p a ssio n s a n d
e x a lts the devil in him to the position o f a s u p r e m e L o rd . L im ita tio n s
on h u m a n fre e d o m , p ro v id e d they arc a p p r o p r ia t e a n d d o not d e p riv e
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 163

h im o f a ll i n i t ia t i v e a r e a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y in th e in t e r e st o f m a n
h im se lf.26
'I'hat is w hy G o d h as laid d o w n those lim its w h ich , in I sla m ic p h r a ­
seo lo gy, arc te rm e d ‘d iv in e lim its’ (Hudud-Allah). T h e s e lim its co n sist o f
c e r t a i n p r in c i p le s , c h e c k s a n d b a l a n c e s a n d s p e c ific i n j u n c t io n s in
d iffere n t sp h e res o f life a n d a ctivity, a n d they h ave been prescribed in
o r d e r th a t m a n m a y be train ed to lead a b a la n c e d a n d m o d e r a te life.
T h e y a r e in t e n d e d to la y d o w n the b r o a d fr a m e w o r k w ith in w h ich
m a n is free to l e g is la te , d e c i d e h is o w n a ffa ir s a n d f r a m e s u b s i d i a r y
law s a n d r e g u la tio n s for his c o n d u ct. T h e s e lim its he is not p e rm itte d to
o v e r ste p a n d if he d o e s so, the w h ole s ch em e o f his life will g o aw ry.
T a k e for e x a m p l e m a n ’s e c o n o m ic life. In this sp h e re G o d h as p la ce d
c e rta in restriction s on h u m a n freedom . T h e right to p r iv ate p rop e rty
h as been r e c o g n iz e d , b u t it is q u a lifie d by the o b lig a t io n to p a y Zakah
( p o o r d u e s ) a n d the p ro h ib itio n o f interest, g a m b lin g a n d sp ecu lation .
A specific law o f in h e rita n ce for the d istrib u tio n o f p ro p e rty a m o n g the
largest n u m b e r o f su r v iv in g relation s on the d e a th o f its ow n er h as been
laid d o w n a n d c e rta in fo r m s o f a c q u ir in g , a c c u m u la t i n g a n d sp e n d in g
w ealth h av e b een d e c la r e d un law fu l. I f p e o p le ob se rve these ju s t lim its
a n d r e g u la te their a ffa ir s w ithin these b o u n d a r y w alls, on the one h a n d
their p e rs o n a l liberty is a d e q u a t e l y s a f e g u a r d e d a n d , on the oth er, the
p o ssib ility o f c lass w ar a n d d o m in a tio n o f one c lass ov er an oth er,
w h ic h b e g i n s w ith c a p i t a l i s t o p p r e s s i o n a n d e n d s in w o r k in g - c la s s
d ic ta to r s h ip , is safely a n d co n v e n ien tly e lim in a te d .
S im ila r ly in the sphere o f fa m ily life, G o d h as p ro h ib ited the u n re s­
tricted in te r m in g lin g o f the sexes a n d h as p rescrib e d Pardah, re co g n iz ­
ed m a n ’s g u a r d i a n s h i p o f w o m a n , a n d clea rly d e fin e d the rig h ts a n d
d u tie s o f h u s b a n d , wife a n d ch ildren . 'H ie law s o f div orce a n d s e p a r a ­
tion h av e been clearly set forth, c o n d itio n a l p o l y g a m y h as been p e r­
m itte d a n d p e n a ltie s for fornicatio n a n d false a c c u sa tio n s o f a d u lte r y
h av e been p rescrib e d . H e h as th u s laid d o w n lim its w hich, if observed
by m a n , w o u ld s ta b iliz e his fa m ily life a n d m a k e it a h av en o f peace
a n d h a p p in e ss. T h e r e w o u ld re m a in neither th at ty ran n y o f m a le ov er
fe m a le w hich m a k e s fa m ily life a n in fern o o f c ru elty a n d o p p r e ss io n ,

26. The question however is: Who is to impose these restrictions? According to
the Islamic view it is only Allah, the Creator, the Nourisher, the All-Knowing
Whoisentitled to impose restrictions on human freedom and not any man. No
man is entitled to do so. If any man arbitrarily imposes restrictions on human
freedom, that is despotism pure and simple. In Islam there is no place for such
despotism. — Editor.
164 I S I . A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

n or th a i s a t a n i c flood o f fe m ale liberty a n d licence w hich th re aten s to

de stroy h u m a n civilizatio n in the West.

In like m a n n e r , for the p re se r v a tio n o f h u m a n c u ltu r e a n d society

G o d has, by f o r m u la t i n g the law o f Q isas ( R e t a l ia t io n ) c o m m a n d i n g to
cu t o f f the h a n d s for theft, p r o h ib it in g w in e-drin king, p la c i n g l im ita ­
tions on u n c o v e r in g o f o n e ’s p riv a te p a r ts a n d b y la y in g d o w n a few-
s i m i l a r p e r m a n e n t r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s , c l o s e d th e d o o r o f s o c i a l
d iso rd e r for ever. I h av e n o tim e to present to you a c o m p le te list o f all
the d iv in e lim its a n d show in d e ta il how e ssen tial e a c h one o f th e m is
for m a i n t a i n i n g e q u i l i b r i u m a n d p oise in life. W h a t I w a n t to b r in g
h om e to yo u here is th at th ro u g h these in ju n ction s G o d h as p ro v id e d a
p e r m a n e n t a n d i m m u t a b le c o d e o f b e h a v io u r for m a n , a n d th at it docs
not d e p riv e him o f a n y essential liberty nor d oc s it dull the e d g e o f his
m e n t a l fa c u lt i e s . O n th e c o n t r a r y , it sets a s t r a i g h t a n d c l e a r p a t h
before h im , so th at he m a y not, o w in g to his ig n o ra n c e a n d w eaknesses
w hich he in h eren tly possesses, lose h im se lf in the m a z e o f d estruction
a n d in s te a d o f w a s t in g his fa c u ltie s in the p u r s u it o f w r o n g e n d s, he
m a y follow the r o a d th a t lea d s to success a n d p rog ress in this w orld a n d
the h ereafter. If y o u h av e e ve r h a p p e n e d to visit a m o u n t a in o u s region,
you m u st h av e n otice d th at in the w in d in g m o u n t a in p a th s w h ich are
b o u n d e d b y d e e p e av es on the one sid e a n d lofty rocks on the other, the
b o r d e r o f th e r o a d is b a r r i c a d e d a n d p r o t e c t e d in s u c h a w a y a s to
p r e v e n t tr a v e lle r s fr o m s t r a y i n g t o w a r d s the a b y s s b y m is ta k e . A re
these b a r r ic a d e s in ten d e d to d e p riv e the w a y fa r e r o f his liberty? N o , as
a m a t t e r o f fa c t, they a r e m e a n t to p ro te c t h im fr o m d e s t r u c t i o n ; to
w arn h im a t every ben d o f the d a n g e r s a h e a d a n d to show him the p ath
le a d in g to his d e stin a tio n . T h a t precisely is the p u r p o se o f the restric­
tion s (hudud) w h ich G o d h a s la id d o w n in H is r e v e aled C o d e . T h e s e
lim its d e te r m in e w h a t direction m a n s h o u ld take in life’s jo u r n e y an d
they g u id e h im at every turn a n d pass a n d point out to him the p a th o f
safety w h ich he s h o u ld s te a d fa s tly follow.

A s I h av e a lr e a d y sta te d , this co d e, e n a c te d a s it is by G o d , is u n ­
c h a n g e a b l e . Y o u c a n , if yo u like, r e b e l a g a i n s t it, a s s o m e M u s l i m
c o u n tr i e s h a v e d o n e . B u t y o u c a n n o t a l t e r it. It will c o n t in u e to be
u n a l t e r a b l e till th e l a s t d a y . It h a s its o w n a v e n u e s o f g r o w th a n d
ev o lu tio n , b u t no h u m a n be in g has a n y right to ta m p e r with it. W h e ­
n ever a n I sla m ic S t a t e c o m e s into existen ce , this c o d e w o u ld form its
fu n d a m e n t a l law a n d will co n stitu te the m a i n s p r in g o f all its leg isla ­
tion. E v e r y o n e w h o desires to re m a in a M u s l im is u n d e r a n o b lig a tio n
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 165

to follow the Q u r ’a n a n d the S u n n a h w hich m ust co n stitu te the basic

law o f a n I sla m ic S ta te .

T H E P U R P O S E O F T H E ISL A M IC ST A T E
T h e p u r p o se o f the s ta te th a t m a y be fo rm e d on the b a sis o f the Q u r 'a n
a n d the Sunnah h a s a ls o been laid d o w n by G o d . T h e Q u r ’a n says:

‘W e verily sen t O u r m essen g ers with c le a r proo fs, a n d revealed

w it h t h e m th e S c r i p t u r e a n d th e B a l a n c e , t h a t m a n k i n d m a y
o b se r v e rig h t m e a s u r e ; a n d W e r e v e a le d iron, w h ere in is m ig h ty
p ow er a n d ( m a n y ) uses for m a n k in d . 27

In th is v e r s e s te e l s y m b o l i z e s p o l i t i c a l p o w e r a n d th e v e rse a ls o
m a k e s it c le a r th at the m ission o f the P ro p h e ts is to cre ate c o n d itio n s in
w h ich the m a s s o f p e o p le will be a ssu r e d o f social ju s t ic e in a c c o r d a n c e
with the s t a n d a r d s e n u n c ia te d by G o d in H is B o ok w hich gives explicit
in stru c tio n s for a w ell-d isciplin ed m o d e o f life. In a n o t h e r p la c e G o d
h as sa id :

‘ ( M u s l i m s a r e ) th o se w h o , if W e g iv e th e m p o w e r in th e la n d ,
e st a b lish the system o f Salah (w o r sh ip ) a n d Zakah (p o o r d u e s ) a n d
e n jo in virtue a n d forbid evil a n d in e q u ity .28
‘Y o u a re the best c o m m u n i t y sent forth to m a n k in d ; you enjoin
t h e R i g h t c o n d u c t a n d f o r b i d th e w r o n g ; a n d y o u b e l ie v e in
A lla h .’ 29

It will re ad ily b e c o m e m a n ife s t to a n y o n e w h o reflects u p o n these

verses th at the p u r p o se o f the s ta te v isu alized by the H o ly Q u r ’a n is not
n e g a tiv e b u t p ositive. T h e o b je ct o f the s ta te is not m erely to prevent
p e o p le fro m e x p l o i t i n g e a c h o th er, to s a f e g u a r d th eir lib e rty a n d to
protect its s u b je c ts from foreign invasion. It a ls o a im s at e v o lv in g a n d
d e v e lo p in g th at w e ll- b a la n c e d system o f social ju st ic e w h ich h as been
set forth by G o d in H is H o ly Book. Its o b je ct is to e r a d ic a te all form s o f
evil a n d to e n c o u r a g e all ty p es o f virtue a n d excellence e xpressly m e n ­
tio n e d by G o d in the H o ly Q u r ’a n . F o r this p u r p o s e p o litic a l p o w e r
will be m a d e use o f a s a n d w h en the o c c a sio n d e m a n d s ; all m e a n s o f
p r o p a g a n d a a n d p e a c e f u l p e r s u a s i o n will be e m p l o y e d ; th e m o r a l
e d u c a tio n o f th e p e o p le will a ls o be u n d e r ta k e n ; a n d social influence as
well a s the force o f p u b lic o p in io n will be h arn essed to the task.
27. al-Qur’an, 57: 25.
28. ibid., 22: 41.
29. ibid., 3: 110.
 166 is l a m : it s m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

I S L A M IC S T A T E IS U N I V E R S A L A N D A L L - E M B R A C IN G
A s ta te o f this sort c a n n o t e v id e n tly restrict the sco p e o f its activities. Its
a p p r o a c h is u n iversal a n d a ll-e m b r a c in g . Its sp here o f activity is c o e x ­
tensive with the w h ole o f h u m a n life. It seeks to m o u ld every a sp e ct o f
life a n d a c tiv ity in c o n so n a n c e with its m o ra l n orm s a n d p r o g r a m m e o f
social reform . In su ch a s ta te no one ca n re g a rd a n y field o f his a ffa irs as
p e r s o n a l a n d p r iv a t e . C o n s i d e r e d fr o m this a s p e c t th e I s l a m i c s t a t e
b e a rs a kind o f re se m b la n c e to the F ascist a n d C o m m u n is t states. B u t
you will find la te r on th a t, d e sp ite its all-inclusiveness, it is so m e th in g
v a s t l y a n d b a s i c a l l y d if f e r e n t fr o m th e m o d e r n t o t a l i t a r i a n a n d
a u t h o r it a r ia n states. I n d iv id u a l liberty is not su p p r e s s e d u n d e r it n or is
there a n y trace o f d ic ta to r s h ip in it. It presen ts the m id d le co u rse a n d
e m b o d i e s the best th at the h u m a n society h as ever evolved. T h e e x c el­
lent b a l a n c e a n d m o d e r a t io n th a t c h a r a c te r iz e the I sla m ic system o f
go v e rn m e n t a n d the precise d istin ction s m a d e in it betw een right a n d
w ro n g — elicit fro m all m en o f honesty a n d intelligence the a d m i r a ­
tion a n d the a d m i s s i o n th a t su ch a b a l a n c e d sy ste m c o u ld n ot h av e
been fr a m e d b y a n y o n e b u t the O m n is c ie n t a n d A ll-W ise G o d .

IS L A M IC S T A T E IS AN ID E O L O G IC A L S T A T E
A n o t h e r c h a r a c te r is t ic o f the I sla m ic S t a t e is th a t it is a n id e o lo g ic al
s t a t e . It is c l e a r fr o m a c a r e f u l c o n s id e r a t io n o f th e Q u r ’a n a n d the
Sunnah th at the s ta te in I sla m is b a se d on a n ideology a n d its o b je ctiv e is
to e s t a b li s h th a t id e o l o g y . T h e s t a t e is a n in s t r u m e n t o f r e fo r m a n d
m ust act likewise. It is a d ic ta te o f this very n a tu r e o f the I sla m ic S ta te
th a t s u c h a s t a t e s h o u l d b e ru n o n l y b y th o s e w h o b e l ie v e in th e
id e o lo g y o n w hich it is b a se d a n d in the D iv in e L a w w hich it is assig n ed
to a d m i n is t e r . T h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f the I s l a m ic s t a t e m u st b e those
w hose w hole life is d e v o ted to the o b se r v a n c e a n d e n fo rce m en t o f this
L a w , w h o n ot o n ly a g r e e w ith its r e fo r m a t o r y p r o g r a m m e a n d fully
believe in it b u t th o ro u g h ly c o m p r e h e n d its spirit a n d are a c q u a in t e d
with its d e ta ils. I sla m d oes not recognize a n y g e o g r a p h ic a l, lin gu istic
or c o lo u r b a r s in this respect. It p u t s fo rw ard its c o d e o f g u id a n c e a n d
the s ch em e o f its reform before all men. W h o ev er a c c e p ts this p r o ­
g r a m m e , no m a t te r to w h a t ra ce, n atio n o r co u n try he m a y belon g, can
jo in the c o m m u n i t y th at ru n s the Islam ic state. B u t those w h o d o not
a c c e p t it a r e not e n title d to h av e a n y h a n d in s h a p i n g the fu n d a m e n t a l
p o lic y o f th e s ta te . T h e y c a n live w ith in th e c o n fin e s o f th e S t a t e a s
n o n - M u s l i m c i t iz e n s (D hi mm is ) . S p e c i f ic r ig h ts a n d p r iv ile g e s h av e
been a c c o r d e d to th e m in the I sla m ic L a w . A DhimmVs life, p ro p e rty
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 167

a n d h o n o u r will b e fully p r o tec te d , a n d if he is c a p a b l e o f a n y service,

his services will a ls o be m a d e use of. H e will not, how ever, be allow ed to
influence the b a sic policy o f this ideological state. T h e Islam ic s ta te is
b a se d on a p a r t ic u la r ideology’ a n d it is the c o m m u n ity w hich believes
in the I sla m ic id e o lo g y w hich p ilots it. H e r e a g a in , we notice so m e sort
o f re se m b la n c e betw een the Islam ic a n d the C o m m u n is t states. B u t the
t r e a t m e n t m e t e d o u t b y th e C o m m u n i s t s t a t e s to p e r s o n s h o l d in g s
creeds a n d ideologies o th er th a n its ow n bears n o c o m p a r is o n with the
a tt itu d e o f the I sla m ic sta te . U n lik e the C o m m u n is t state, I sla m d oes
not im p o s e its social p rin cip le s o n oth ers by force, nor d o c s it con fiscate
th eir p r o p e rtie s o r u n leash a reign o f terror by m a s s e x e cu tio n s o f the
p e o p le a n d th e ir t r a n s p o r t a t i o n to th e s la v e c a m p s o f S ib e r ia . I sla m
does not w a n t to e lim in a t e its m inorities, it w an ts to p rotect th e m a n d
g iv e s t h e m th e fr e e d o m to live a c c o r d i n g to th e ir o w n c u lt u r e . T h e
g e n e ro u s a n d j u s t tr e a tm e n t w hich Islam h as a c c o r d e d to non-
M u s l im s in a n I sla m ic S t a t e a n d the fine distinction d r a w n by it b e ­
tw een j u s t i c e a n d in ju s tic e a n d g o o d a n d evil will c o n v in c e all those
w h o a r e n o t p r e j u d i c e d a g a i n s t it, th a t th e p r o p h e t s s e n t by G o d
a c c o m p lis h their task in an a lto g e th e r different m a n n e r — s o m e th in g
r a d ic a lly d iffere n t a n d d ia m e t r ic a l ly o p p o s e d to the w a y o f the false
reform ers w h o stru t a b o u t here a n d there on the sta g e o f h istory .31'

30. This pap er was written in 1939 and in it the author has dealt with the
theoretical aspect of the problem only. In his later articles he has discussed the
practical aspect as well. In his article on th e‘Rights of Non-Muslims in Islamic
State’ (see Islamic Law and Constitution, Chapter VIII, pp. 316-317). He writes:
'H ow ever, in regard to a parliam en t or a legislature o f the modern
conception, which is considerably different from Shura in its traditional
sense, this rule could be relaxed to allow non-M uslim s to become its
members provided that it has been fully ensured in the Constitution that:
(i) It would be ultra vires of the parliament or the legislature to enact any
law which is repugnant to the Q u r’an and thtSunnah.
(ii) The Q u r’an and the Sunnah would be the chief source of the public law
of the land.
(iii) The head o f the state or the assenting authority would necessarily be
a Muslim. With these provisions ensured, the sphere of influence of non-
Muslims would be limited to matters relating to the general problems of
the country or to the interests of minorities concerned and their participa­
tion would not dam age the fundamental requirements of Islam.’
The non-Muslims cannot occupy key-posts posts from where the ideologi
cal policy of the state can be influenced — but they can occupy general adm i­
nistrative posts and can act in the services of the state. Editor.
168 I S L A M : ITS M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

V
T H E T H E O R Y O F T H E C A L IP H A T E A N D THE
N A T U R E O F D E M O C R A C Y IN I S L A M

I will n ow try to give a b rie f exp o sitio n o f the c o m p o sitio n a n d str u c ­

ture o f the I sla m ic state. I h av e a lr e a d y sta te d th at in I sla m , G o d a lo n e
is th e re al s o v e r e ig n . K e e p i n g this c a r d i n a l p r in c i p le in m i n d , if we
c o n sid e r the p osition o f those p erson s w h o set o u t to enforce G o d ’s law
o n e a r th , it is b u t n a tu r a l to s a y th a t they sh o u ld be r e g a r d e d a s re p r e ­
s en ta tiv e s o f the S u p r e m e R u le r . Islam has assig n ed precisely this very
p osition to th em . A c c o r d in g ly the H o ly Q u r ’a n says:

‘A l l a h h a s p r o m i s e d to th o s e a m o n g y o u w h o b e l ie v e a n d d o
r ig h te o u s d e e d s th a t H e will a ss u r e d ly m a k e th e m to s u cce e d (the
p rese n t ru lers) a n d g r a n t th e m v ice g e ren c y in the la n d j u s t a s H e
m a d e those before them to su cceed (oth ers).’

T h e v e r se il lu s t r a t e s v e ry c l e a r ly th e I s l a m ic th e o r y o f s t a t e . T w o
f u n d a m e n t a l p o in ts e m e r g e fro m it.
1. T h e first poin t is th at Islam uses the term ‘v ice ge ren c y ’ (K h ila -
fa h ) i n s t e a d o f s o v e r e i g n t y . S i n c e , a c c o r d i n g to I s l a m , s o v e r e i g n t y
b e lo n g s to G o d a lo n e , a n y o n e w h o holds p ow e r a n d rules in a c c o r d ­
an ce with the law s o f G o d w o u ld u n d o u b te d ly be the v icegerent o f the
S u p r e m e R u l e r a n d w o u ld not be a u t h o r is e d to e x e rcise a n y p ow ers
oth er th a n those d e le g a t e d to him.
2. T h e seco n d p oin t sta te d in the verse is th at the p ow e r to rule over
the earth h as been p ro m ise d to the whole community o f believers; it h as not
b e e n s t a t e d th a t a n y p a r t i c u l a r p e rso n o r c l a s s a m o n g th e m will be
raised to th at p osition . F r o m this it follows th a t all believers are r e p o ­
sitories o f the C a l ip h a t e . T h e C a l i p h a t e g r a n t e d by G o d to the faithful
is the p o p u l a r vicegeren cy a n d not a lim ited one. There is n o re se rv a ­
tion in fa v o u r o f a n y fa m ily , class or race. E v ery believer is a C a l i p h o f
G o d in his in d iv id u a l c a p a c it y . B y virtue o f this p osition he is in d ivi­
d u a l l y r e sp o n s ib le to G o d . T h e H o ly P r o p h e t h as s a i d : ‘ E v e r y o n e o f
y o u is a r u le r a n d e v e ry o n e is a n s w e r a b le fo r his s u b j e c t s .’ T h u s on e
C a l i p h is in no w a y inferior to another.-
T h i s is the re al f o u n d a t i o n o f d e m o c r a c y in I s l a m . T h e fo llo w in g
p o in ts e m e r g e fro m a n a n a ly s is o f this co n cep tio n o f p o p u l a r v icege­
rency:
(a) A s o c i e t y in w h ic h e v e r y o n e is a c a l i p h o f G o d a n d a n e q u a l
p a r t ic ip a n t in this c a li p h a t e , c a n n o t to lerate a n y class division s based
 P O L I T I C A L T H E O R Y O F IS L A M 169

on d istin c tio n s o f birth a n d social p osition . A ll m e n e n joy e q u a l s ta tu s

a n d p osition in s u ch a society. T h e o n ly criterion o f su p eriority in this
so c ia l o r d e r is p e rs o n a l a b i lit y a n d c h a r a c te r . T h i s is w h a t h a s been
r e p e a te d ly a n d exp licitly a sse rted by the H o ly P ro p h e t:

‘N o on e is s u p e rio r to a n o th e r e x c e p t in poin t o f faith a n d piety.

All m en a rc d e sc e n d e d fro m A d a m a n d A d a m w a s m a d e o f c la y .’
‘A n A r a b h as no s u p e rio rity ov er a n o n -A r a b n o r a n o n -A r a b over
a n A r a b ; n e ith e r d o c s a w h ite m a n p o ssess a n y s u p e rio r ity o v e r a
b l a c k m a n n o r a b l a c k m a n o v e r a w h ite o n e , e x c e p t in p o i n t o f
p ie ty .’

A fte r the c o n q u e s t o f M e k k a , w hen the whole o f A r a b i a c a m e u n d e r

th e d o m i n i o n o f th e I s l a m ic s t a t e , th e H o ly P r o p h e t a d d r e s s i n g the
m e m b e r s o f his o w n c l a n , w h o in th e d a y s befo re I s l a m e n jo y e d the
s a m e s ta tu s in A r a b i a a s the B r a h m in s d id in an cien t In d ia, said:

‘O p e o p le o f Q u r a y s h ! A lla h has rooted o u t y o u r h a u g h tin e ss o f

the d a y s o f ig n o r a n c e a n d the pride o f an cestry. O m en , all o f you are
d e s c e n d e d fro m A d a m a n d A d a m w a s m a d e o f c la y . T h e r e is no
p r id e w h a t e v e r in a n cestry ; there is no m erit in a n A r a b a s a g a in s t a
n o n - A r a b n o r in a n o n - A r a b a g a i n s t a n A r a b . V e r i l y th e m o s t
m e r i t o r i o u s a m o n g y o u in th e e y es o f G o d is he w h o is th e m ost
p io u s .’

(b) In s u ch a society n o in d iv id u a l o r g r o u p o f in d iv id u a ls will suffer

a n y d isa b ility on a c c o u n t o f birth, social statu s, or profession th a t m a y
in a n y w a y im p e d e the grow th o f his faculties or h a m p e r the d e v e lo p ­
m e n t o f his person ality .
E v e r y o n e w o u ld e n jo y e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f p r o g re s s . T h e w a y
w o u l d b e le ft o p e n fo r h im to m a k e a s m u c h p r o g r e s s a s p o s s ib l e
a c c o r d in g to his in b orn c a p a c it y a n d person al m erits w ithout p r e ju ­
d i c e to s i m i l a r r i g h t s o f o t h e r p e o p le . T h u s , u n r e s t r i c t e d s c o p e fo r
p e rso n a l a c h ie v e m e n t h as a lw a y s been the h a llm a r k o f Islam ic society.
S la v e s a n d their d e s c e n d a n t s were a p p o in t e d a s m ilita r y officers a n d
gov ern o rs o f prov in ces, a n d n o b le m en b e lo n g in g to the highest f a m i ­
lies d id not feel a s h a m e d to serve u n d e r them . T h o s e w h o used to stitch
a n d m e n d sho es rose in the social s c a lc a n d b e c a m e leaders o f highest
o r d e r (im am s); W e a v e r s a n d cloth -sellers b e c a m e j u d g e s (m uftis) a n d
ju r i s t s a n d to this d a y they a r e re ck o n e d a s the h ero es o f Isla m . T h e
I loly P r o p h e t h as sa id :
31. al-Qur’an, 24: 55.
170 IS L A M : ITS M EA N IN G AN D M E SSA G E

‘L iste n a n d o b e y even if a n e g ro is a p p o in t e d a s a ruler ov er y o u .’

(c) T h e r e is n o r o o m in s u c h a s o c ie ty fo r th e d i c t a t o r s h i p o f a n y
person or g r o u p o f person s since everyon e is a c a lip h o f G o d herein. N o
p e rso n o r g r o u p o f p e rso n s is e n title d to b e c o m e a n a b s o lu t e ru ler by
d e p r i v i n g th e r a n k a n d file o f th eir in h e re n t r ig h t o f c a l i p h a t e . T h e
position o f a m a n w h o is selected to c o n d u c t the affairs o f the s ta te is no
more th a n this; th at all M u s l im s (or, technically sp e a k in g , all ca lip h s
o f G o d ) d e le g a t e their c a lip h a t e to him for a d m in is tra tiv e purposes. He
is answerable to God on the one hand and on the other to hisfellow ‘caliphs’ who
have delegated their authority to him. N o w , if he raises h im se lf to the position
o f a n irrespo n sible a b s o lu t e ruler, th at is to say a d ic ta to r, he a ssu m e s
the c h a r a c t e r o f a u su rp e r r a th er th a n a C a l ip h , b e ca u se d ic ta to rs h ip is
the n eg a tio n o f p o p u l a r vicegercncy. N o d o u b t the Islam ic state is an
a ll- e m b r a c in g s ta te a n d co m p rise s w ithin its sphere all d e p a r t m e n t s o f
life, b u t th is a ll - in c l u s iv e n e s s a n d u n i v e r s a li t y a r e b a s e d u p o n the
u n ive rsality o f D iv in e L a w w hich an Islam ic ruler has to ob se rve a n d
e n f o r c e . T h e g u i d a n c e g iv e n by G o d a b o u t e v e ry a s p e c t o f life will
c e rta in ly be e n forced in its entirety. B u t an Islam ic ruler c a n n o t d e p a r t
fro m th ese in s t r u c t io n s a n d a d o p t a p o lic y o f r e g i m e n t a t i o n o n his
o w n . H e c a n n o t fo rce p e o p le to fo llow o r n ot to fo llow a p a r t i c u l a r
p rofession ; to learn or not to learn a sp ecial a r t; to use or not to use a
certain s crip t; to w e a r or not to wre a r a certain dress a n d to e d u c a te or
not to e d u c a t e th eir c h ild ren in a c e rta in m a n n e r . T h e p ow ers w hich
th e d i c t a t o r s o f R u s s i a , G e r m a n y a n d I t a l y h a v e a p p r o p r i a t e d or
which A t a t u r k h as e xercized in T u r k e y h av e not been g r a n te d by Islam
to its A m ir ( le a d e r ) . B e s id e s this, a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o in t is th a t in
I s la m every individual is held personally answerable to God. T h i s p e r s o n a l
resp on sib ility c a n n o t be sh a re d by a n y o n e else. H e n ce , a n in d iv id u al
e n jo y s full liberty to ch oose w h ich ev er p a th he likes a n d to d e v e lo p his
f a c u l t i e s in a n y d i r e c t i o n t h a t s u i t s h is n a t u r a l g ifts. I f th e l e a d e r
o b stru cts h im o r o b s t r u c t s the grow'th o f his person ality , he will h im self
be p u n ish e d by G o d for this ty ran n y. T h a t is precisely the reason why
there is not the slightest trace o f r e g im e n ta tio n in the rule o f the H o ly
P ro p h e t a n d o f his R ig h t ly - G u id e d C a l ip h s ; an d
(d ) In such a society every san e a n d a d u lt M u s lim , m a le or fe m ale, is
entitled to e x p re ss his or h er o p in io n , for e a c h on e o f th e m is the r e p o ­
sito ry o f the c a li p h a t e . G o d h as m a d e this c a li p h a t e c o n d itio n a l, not
u p o n a n y p a r t ic u la r s t a n d a r d o f w ealth o r c o m p e te n c e bu t only u p o n
faith a n d g o o d c o n d u c t. T h e r e fo re all M u s lim s h a v e e q u a l fre ed o m to
exp ress their opin ion s.
 P O L IT IC A L T H E O R Y O F ISLA M 171
E Q U IL IB R IU M B E T W E E N IN D IV ID U A L ISM A N D
C O L L E C T IV ISM
Isla m seeks to set u p , on the on e h a n d , this su p e rla tiv e d e m o c r a c y a n d
on th e o t h e r it h a s p u t a n e n d to th a t in d i v id u a l is m w h ich m ilita te s
a g a in s t the h ealth o f the b o d y politic. T h e relatio n s betw een the in d i­
v i d u a l a n d th e s o c ie t y h a v e b e e n r e g u l a t e d in s u c h a m a n n e r th a t
n e ith e r th e p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e in d i v i d u a l su ffe rs a n y d i m i n u t i o n , or
corrosion a s it d o e s in the C o m m u n is t a n d Fascist social system , nor is
th e in d i v i d u a l a ll o w e d to e x c e e d his b o u n d s to s u c h a n e x t e n t a s to
b e c o m e h a rm fu l to the c o m m u n i ty , a s h a p p e n s in the W estern d e m o ­
cracies. In I sla m , the p u r p o se o f a n in d iv id u a l’s life is the s a m e a s that
o f th e life o f the c o m m u n ity , n a m e ly , the e xe cu tio n a n d e n fo rc e m e n t o f
D iv in e L a w a n d the a c q u is it io n o f G o d ’s p le a su r e . M o r e o v e r , I sla m
has, a fte r s a f e g u a r d i n g the rights o f the in d iv id u a l, im p o se d u p o n him
c e r t a in d u t i e s t o w a r d s th e c o m m u n i t y . In this w a y r e q u ir e m e n t s o f
in d iv id u a lis m a n d collectiv ism h av e been so well h a rm o n iz e d th at the
in d iv id u a l is a ffo rd e d the fullest o p p o r tu n ity to d e v e lo p his p o t e n ­
tia litie s a n d is th u s e n a b l e d to e m p l o y his d e v e lo p e d fa c u ltie s in the
service o f the c o m m u n i t y a t large.
T h e s e a r e , briefly, the b a s ic p rin cip le s a n d e ssen tia l fe a tu re s o f the
Islam ic political theory.
 11

Objectives o f the Islamic

Economic Order
Muhammad UmarChapra
I S L A M is not a n a sc etic r e lig io n 1a n d does not a im a t d e p riv in g M u s ­
lim s o f the ‘ g o o d th in g s th a t G o d h as p r o v id e d ’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 7: 32). It
t a k e s a p o s i t i v e v iew o f life c o n s i d e r i n g m a n n o t a s a b o r n s in n e r
etern ally c o n d e m n e d for his o r ig in a l sin, b u t a s the vicegerent o f G o d
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 3 0 ) fo r w h o m h a s b e e n c r e a t e d e v e r y t h i n g on e a r t h
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 29). V i r t u e therefore lies not in sh u n n in g the b o u n ties o f
G o d , b u t in e n j o y i n g th e m w it h in th e f r a m e w o r k o f th e v a l u e s for
‘rig h te o u s liv in g ’ th ro u g h w hich I sla m seeks to p r o m o te h u m a n w el­
fare.
T h e v a l u e s for r ig h te o u s living th at Islam p r o p a g a t e s p e r m e a te all
* This chapter is taken from Dr. C h a p ra ’s book Economic System of Islam, Uni­
versity of Karachi, 1971.
1. The Qur'an says: ‘And the monasticism which they have innovated, W cdid
not prescribe it for them’ (al-Qur’an, 57: 27). Once after the Prophet had given
a lecture on the certainty of the D ay of Ju d g m e n t and the accountability
before God. a few o f his Com panions gathered in the house of ‘U thm an bin
Maz'un and resolved to fast everyday, to pray ever)' night, not to sleep on beds,
not to eat meat or fat, not to have anything to do with women or perfume, to
wear coarse clothes, and in general to reject the world. T he Prophet heard of
this and told them:
i have not been directed by God to live in this manner. Your body certainly
has rights over you; so fast but also abstain from fasting, and pray at night but
also sleep. Look at me, I pray at night but I also sleep; I fast but I also abstain
from fasting, I eat meat as well as fat, and I also marry. So whoever turns away
from my way is not from me.’ (Sec the commentary of verse 87 of surah 5 in
al-Kashshaf, Beirut, 1947, v. 1, p. f>7; anti Ibn Kathir Tafsir al-Qur an at- ‘Aztm,
Cairo, n.d., v. 2, pp. 87-8. Sec also Dukhan, Cairo, n.d. v. 3, pp. 49-50; Muslim,
Cairo, 1955 v. 2, pp. 812-18; and Darimf, Damascus, 1349 A.D., v. 2, p. 133).
174 1SI.A M : IT S M E A N IN G AND M E SSA G E

sectors o f h u m a n a ctiv ity . T h e r e is no strictly m u n d a n e s e cto r o f life

a c c o r d in g to Isla m . A ctio n in every field o f h u m a n a ctivity, in cludin g
the e c o n o m ic , is sp iritu a l p ro v id e d it is in h a rm o n y with the g o a ls a n d
v a lu e s o f I sla m . It is re ally these g o a ls a n d v a lu e s th at d e te r m in e the
n a t u r e o f the e c o n o m i c sy ste m o f I sla m . A p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
th e se is th e r e f o r e e s s e n t ia l for a b e t te r p e r s p e c t i v e o f th e e c o n o m i c
system o f Islam . T h e s e g o a ls a n d v a lu e s arc:

(a) E c o n o m ic w ell-bein g w ithin the fram ew ork o f the m o ra l n orm s

o f I sla m ;
(b) U n iv e r sa l b ro th e rh o o d a n d ju stice ;
(c) E q u i t a b l e d istrib u tio n o f in co m e; a n d
(d ) F r e e d o m o f the in d iv id u a l within the co n te xt o f social welfare.

T h i s list o f g o a l s is b y n o m e a n s c o m p l e t e b u t s h o u l d p r o v i d e a
sufficient fra m e w o r k for d iscu ssin g a n d e la b o r a t in g the Islam ic e c o ­
n o m ic system a n d h ig h lig h tin g those ch arac te ristics w h ich distin gu ish
th e I s l a m i c s y st e m fr o m th e tw o p r e v a le n t s y st e m s , c a p i t a l i s m a n d
socialism .

(a) E c o n o m ic w e ll-b e in g a n d the m o r a l n o r m s o f Isla m .

E a t a n d drin k o f th a t which G o d h as p ro v id e d a n d a c t not c o r ­
ru p tly, m a k in g m is c h ie f in the w orld ( a l- Q u r ’a n 2: 60).
O m a n k in d ! E a t o f w h at is law ful a n d g o o d on earth a n d follow
not the fo otstep s o f the devil ( a l - Q u r ’a n 2: 168).
O y o u w h o b e lie v e ! F o r b id n ot the g o o d th in g s w h ich G o d h as
m a d e law fu l for you a n d exceed n ot the limits. S u r e ly , G o d loves not
th o se w h o e x c e e d the lim its. A n d e a t o f the law fu l a n d g o o d th a t
G o d h as g iven y o u, a n d keep y o u r d u t y to G o d in w h o m you believe
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 5: 87-88).

T h e s e verses o f the Q u r ’a n , a n d there a r e m a n y oth ers like th ese,2

strike the keynote o f the Q u r ’a n ic m e ssag e in the e co n o m ic field. Islam
u r g e s M u s l i m s to e n j o y th e b o u n t i e s p r o v i d e d b y G o d a n d sets no
q u a n tit a tiv e lim its to the e x te n t o f m aterial grow th o f M u s l im society.
It e v e n e q u a t e s th e s t r u g g l e for m a t e r i a l w e ll- b e in g w ith a n a c t o f
virtue.
W hen the p r a y e r is e n d e d , then disp erse in the la n d a n d seek o f
G o d ’s b o u n ty . . . ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 62: 10).
I f G o d p rov id es a n y o n e o f you with an o p p o r tu n ity for e a r n in g
2. See, a l’Q u r’an, 2: 172; 6: 142; 7:31 and 160; 16: 114; 20: 81; 23: 51; 34: 15;
and 67: 15.
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISLA M IC ECO N O M IC O RD ER 175

liv e lih o o d , let h im not lea v e it u n e x p lo ite d until it is e x h a u s t e d or

b e c o m e s d is a g r e e a b le to h im .3
A n y M u s l i m w h o p l a n t s a tree o r c u l t i v a t e s a field s u c h t h a t a
b ird , o r a h u m a n b e in g , or a n a n im a l e a ts from it, this a c t will be
c o u n t e d a s a n a c t o f c h a rity .4
H e w h o seeks the w orld law fu lly to refrain fro m b e g g in g , to ca te r
to his fa m ily , a n d to be kind to his n e ig h b o u r, will m ee t G o d with his
face s h in in g like the full m o o n .5
I s la m g o e s e ve n fu rth er th a n this. It urges M u s l im s to g a in m aste ry
o v e r n a t u r e b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g to th e Q u r ' a n , a ll r e s o u r c e s in th e
h e a v e n s a n d the earth h av e been c re ate d for the service o f m an k in d ,"
a n d b e ca u se , a s the P ro p h e t s a id , ‘there is no m a l a d y for w hich G o d h as
not c r e a t e d a c u r e ’.7 F r o m this, on e c a n n o t b u t infer th a t the goal o f
a t t a i n i n g a s u it a b ly h igh ra te o f e c o n o m ic grow th s h o u ld be a m o n g the
e c o n o m ic g o a ls o f a M u s l im society b e c a u s e this w ou ld be the m a n ife ­
sta tio n o f a c o n tin io u s effort to use, th ro u g h research a n d im p r o v e ­
m e n ts in tech n olog y, the resources p ro v id e d b y G o d for the service a n d
b e t t e r m e n t o f m a n k i n d , t h u s h e l p i n g in th e f u lf i lm e n t o f th e v e r y
o b je ct o f their creatio n.
I s l a m h a s p r o h i b i t e d b e g g i n g a n d u r g e d M u s l i m s to e a r n th e ir
liv e lih o o d .” F r o m this p rem ise on e m a y infer th at one o f the e co n o m ic
g o a ls o f a M u s l im society sho uld be to cre ate such an e c o n o m ic e n v i­
r o n m e n t th a t those w h o art* w illing to a n d lookin g for work a re a b le to
find g a i n f u l e m p l o y m e n t in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th eir ab ilitie s. I f this is
n o t a c c o m p l i s h e d th e n M u s l i m s o c ie t y c a n n o t s u c c e e d e v e n in its
sp ir itu a l a im s , b e c a u s e those u n e m p lo y e d w o u ld be s u b jec te d to a life
o f e x t r e m e h a r d s h ip unless they d e p e n d on the d o le , or resort to beg-

3. Ibn M ajah Cairo, 1952, v. 2, p. 727: 2148.

4. Bukharf, v. 3, p. 128; Muslim, v. 3, p. 1189: 12; and Tirmidhf, v. 3, p.
666: 1382.
5. Cited on the authority of B avh aq f’s Shu‘b al-iman in Mishkat Damascus,
1381, A.D., v. 2, p. 658: 5207.
6. S ay s the Q u r 'a n : ‘God has m ade subservient to you whatever is in the
heavens an d w hatever is in the earth and granted you his bounties both
manifest and hidden’ (31: 20). There arc several verses of this meaning in the
Q u r ’an, for example, 14:32-33; 16: 12-14; 22: 65 and 45: 12.
7. Bukharf, v. 7, p. 158; and Ibn M ajah v. 2. p. 1138: 3439.
8. ‘Beg not anything from the people’ (Abu Dawud Cairo, 1952 v. 1, p. 382);
‘The hand that is above is better than the hand that is below’ (Bukharf, v. 2, p.
133 and N isa’f, v. 5, p. 45-46); and ‘A man has not earned better income than
that which is from his own labour’ (Ibn M ajah, v. 2, p. 723: 2138; and Nisa’f,
Cairo, 1964, v. 7, p. 212).
176 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G AND M E SSA G E

g in g or im m o r a l p ra ctices, all o f w hich, p a r tic u la r ly the last tw o, w ou ld

be r e p u g n a n t to th e spirit o f Islam .
T h i s stress o f I s l a m o n e c o n o m i c w ell-b e in g s p r in g s fro m the very
n a t u r e o f its m e s s a g e . I s l a m is d e s i g n e d to se rv e a s a ‘ b l e s s i n g ’ for
m a n k in d , a n d a im s a t m a k in g life richer a n d w orth the living a n d not
poorer, full o f h ard sh ip s. S a y s the Q u r ’an:

W e sent you not b u t a s a blessing for all m a n k in d ( a l- Q u r ’an, 21:

107);
O m a n k in d ! T h e r e h as c o m e to you indeed an a d m o n itio n from
y o u r L o r d , a n d a h e a lin g for w h a t is in y o u r h earts, a n d for those
w h o b elieve a g u id a n c e a n d a blessing ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 10: 57);
G o d d e s i r e s c a s e fo r y o u a n d d e s i r e s n o t h a r d s h i p fo r y o u
( a l ’Q u r ’a n , 2: 185);
G o d d e sire s to a lle v ia te y o u r b u r d e n s , for m a n is c r e a t e d w eak
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 4: 2 8 ); a n d
G o d d esires not to p la c e a b u r d e n on yo u b u t H e w ishes to p u rify
yo u a n d to c o m p le te H is fa v o u r on you so th at you m a y be grateful
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 5: 6).

O n the b a sis o f these verses o f the Q u r ’a n M u s l im J u r i s t s h av e u n a ­

n im o u sly held th at ca te r in g for the interests o f the p e o p le a n d relieving
th e m o f h a r d s h i p s is the b a s ic o b je c t iv e o f the S h a ri ‘ah .9 G h a z a l f , a
g r e a t p h ilo so p h e r-re fo rm e r-su fT co n te n d e d th at the very o b je c tiv e o f
the Shari'ah is to p r o m o t e the w elfare o f the p e o p le w hich lies in s a fe ­
g u a r d in g their faith, their life, their intellect, their posterity a n d their
p r o p e r ty ; a n d th a t therefore w h a t e v e r e n su res the s a f e g u a r d o f these
five serv es p u b lic interest a n d is d e s i r a b le .1" Ibn Q a y y i m e m p h a s i z e d
th at ‘the b a s is o f the S h a r i‘ah is w isd om a n d the w elfare o f the p e o p le in
this w'orld a s well a s the H ereafter. T h is w elfare lies in c o m p le te ju stice,
m e r c y , w e l fa r e a n d w i s d o m ; a n y t h i n g th a t d e p a r t s fr o m j u s t i c e to
o p p re ssio n , fro m m erc y to harsh n ess, from welfare to m isery, a n d fro m
w isdom to folly, h as n o th in g to d o with the Shari'ah . ,M
In th is p u r s u i t o f a n e c o n o m i c a l l y fu lle r a n d p r o s p e r o u s life it is
possible for a M u s l im to go to the e x trem e a n d to m a k e m a te r ia l w el­
fa r e a n e n d in it s e lf by ig n o r i n g s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s , a c q u i r i n g w e a lth
th r o u g h u n f a i r m e a n s , e x p l o i t i n g o t h e r s , s u b j e c t i n g th e m to wrr o n g
a n d injustice, a n d by not p r o m o t in g the g o o d o f others from w h at he

9. See Abu Zahrah Usuiat-b'iqh, Damascus, 1957, p. 355.

10. M. G h azfal-M ustasfaC airo, 1937, v. I, pp. 139-40.
11. Ibn Qayyim /'lam al-Muwaqqi'in, Cairo, 1955.
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISL A M IC E CO N O M IC O RD ER 177

h as e a r n e d o r a c c u m u l a t e d . H e n c e , sin ce I s la m a ls o seeks to 'p u r ify '

life, the Q u r ’a n clea rly w a r n s M u s l im s a g a in s t this d a n g e r : ‘W h en the
p ra y e r is e n d e d then disp erse in the lan d a n d seek o f G o d ’s b o u n ty but
r e m e m b e r G o d m u c h so th a t you m a y be s u c c e s sf u l’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 62:
10). It is g e n e r a lly u n d e rsto o d by M u s l im religious sch o la rs th at ‘re­
m e m b e r in g G o d m u c h ’ does not im p ly s p e n d in g m ost o f o n e ’s tim e in
s a y in g p r a y e r s or recitin g the rosary, bu t th at it im p lies livin g a m o r ­
a lly r e sp o n s ib le life in a c c o r d a n c e with the n o rm s o f I s l a m , ‘‘ e a r n in g
o n ly by the righ t m e t h o d s a n d a b a n d o n i n g all the w ro n g o n e s ,11a n d is
co n sid e rin g w ealth a s a ste w a r d s h ip for w hich a c c o u n t is to be re n d e r­
e d by G o d ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 57: 7).
In this c o n te x t it m a y be e a s ie r to u n d e rsta n d those Q u r ’a n ic verses
a n d ah ad ith th a t e m p h a s i z e the triflin g n a t u r e o f this w o r ld a n d its
p o sse ssio n s.14 T h e s e a r e trifling not in an y a b so lu te sense, bu t in re la ­
tio n to s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s . I f th e w o r l d ly p o s s e s s i o n s c a n be a c q u i r e d
w itho ut sac rific in g sp iritu a l ideals, then there is no virtue in forsaking
th em , a s the P ro p h e t s a id : ‘T h e r e is n o th in g w ro n g in w ealth for him
w h o fears G o d ’. 15 B u t if there is a conflict then, on e m ust be co n te n ted
w ith w h a te v e r c a n be a c q u ir e d rightfully even th o u g h it m a y l>e little,
a s th e Q u r ’a n e x p l a i n s : ‘ S a y th e b a d a n d the g o o d a r e n ot e q u a l ,
th o u g h t h e a b u n d a n c e o f th e b a d m a y fa scin a te y o u ; s o keep y o u r d u ty
to G o d , O m en o f u n d e r s t a n d in g , th at you m a y s u c c e e d ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 5:
100). O n e w h o c a r e s m o re for the eternal v a lu e s o f Islam th a n for the
w orldly p le a su res w ou ld not hesitate to m a k e this sacrifice for he u n ­

12. Ibn K a th ir , while interpreting this verse, says: ‘R em em ber God m uch’
means that ‘While selling or buying and taking or giving, you must remember
God much so that these worldly pursuits do not cause you to lose sight of what
benefits you in the Hereafter’ Tafsir v. 4, p. 367.
13. T he Prophet exhorted: ‘ Fear G od and be moderate in your pursuit of
wealth; take only that which is allowed and leave that which is forbidden.’ Ibn
Majah, v. 2, p. 725,2144.
14. ‘Say: T he wordly possessions arc but trifling, it is the Hereafter which is
better for those who fear G o d ’ (al-Qur’an, 4: 77; see also 29: 64 and 57: 20-21.)
‘ Live in this world as though you are a stranger or a wayfarer, and consider
yourself among those in the grave’ (Ibn M ajah, v. 2, p. 1378: 41 14).
‘What is this world compared to the Hereafter? Thrust your finger in the ocean
and see what you get‘ (Mishkal.v. 2, p. 648: 5156, on the authority of Muslim).
‘ Be detached from the world and God will love you, be detached from what the
people have and they will love you’ (Ibid., v. 2 , p. 654: 5187,on theauthority of
TirmidhTand Ibn Majah).
15. Bukharf, p. 113: 301.
178 ISL A M ; ITS M EA N IN G AND M E SSA G E

d e m a n d s a n d a p p r e c i a t e s w h a t th e P r o p h e t m e a n t by s a y i n g th at
T h e love o f this w orld is the source o f all evilMb, a n d th a t ‘H e w h o loves
th e w o r ld p r e j u d i c e s h is H e r e a f t e r a n d he w h o l o v e s the H e r e a f t e r
receives a s e t b a c k in the w orld ; so prefer that w h ich is eternal to that
w h ich is m o r t a l ’. 1
T h i s e x p l a in s the m a n n e r in w hich Islam cre ate s a h a r m o n y b e ­
tw e e n th e m a t e r i a l a n d th e m o r a l by u r g i n g M u s l i m s to s t r iv e for
m a t e r i a l w e l f a r e b u t s t r e s s in g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h a t th e y p l a c e th is
m a t e r i a l e ffo r t o n a m o r a l f o u n d a t i o n t h u s p r o v i d i n g a s p i r i t u a l
o r ie n tatio n to m a te r ia l effort:

A n d seek to a tt a in by m e a n s o f w h at G o d h as g iv e n you the a b o d e

o f the H e r e a ft e r , b u t n eg lect not y o u r s h a re in this w o rld , a n d d o
g o o d to oth ers a s G o d h as d o n e g o o d to you, a n d seek not to m a k e
m i s c h i e f in th e w o r ld . S u r e l y G o d loves not the m is c h ie f- m a k e r s
( a l ’Q u r ’a n , 2 8 : 77).
T h e best o f M u s l im s is he w h o is c o n cern e d a b o u t th e a ffa ir s o f
this w orld a s well a s the affairs o f the H e r e a ft e r .1U
H e is n o t th e b e s t o f y o u w h o r e n o u n c e s t h is w o r l d fo r th e
I l e r c a f t c r n o r is he w h o n eg lec ts the H e r e a f t e r for this w o r ld ; the
best o f you is he w h o takes fr o m this w orld a s well a s the H e r e a ft e r .Is
T h i s s im u lta n e u s stress on bo th the m a te r ia l a n d the sp ir itu a l a s ­
p e cts o f life is a u n i q u e c h a rac te ristic o f the Islam ic e c o n o m ic system .
T h e s p i r i t u a l a n d th e m a t e r i a l h a v e b e e n so firm ly d o v e t a i l e d with
e a c h o t h e r t h a t th e y m a y se r v e a s a s o u r c e o f m u t u a l s t r e n g t h a n d
to g eth e r c o n tr ib u te to real h u m a n welfare. T h e neglect o f a n y o n e o f
these tw o a s p e c t s o f life c a n n o t le a d m a n k in d to true w elfare. I f only
m a t e r ia l w ell-bein g is c a te r e d for a n d there a rc a c c o m p a n y in g m oral
a n d c u lt u r a l m a l a d ju s t m e n t s , there w ou ld be increased m an ife statio n
o f th e s y m p t o m s o f anomae, s u c h a s f r u s t r a t i o n , c r i m e , a l c o h o l i s m ,
e x t r a - m a r it a l relatio n s, d iv orce, m e n ta l illness a n d suicide, all in d i­
c a t i n g lack o f in n e r h a p p i n e s s in th e life o f i n d i v i d u a l s . I f o n l y th e
sp ir itu a l need o f life is c a te r e d for, the m a s s o f the p e o p le w o u ld find it
im p r a c tib le a n d u n realistic, th u s g e n e r a t in g a d ic h o to m y a n d conflict
16. Cited on the authority of B a yh aq fs Shu‘ab al-iman in Mishkat v. 2, p. 659:
5213).
17. Musnadof Ahmad ibn Hanbal, cited in ibid., v. 2, p. 652: 5179.
18. Ibn M ajah, v. 2, p. 725:2143.
19. Hadith reported by MaTwardi, p. 117; also cited on the authority of Ibn
‘Asakir, but with slightly different wording, by Suvuti in al-Jam i‘ al-Saqhir, v.
2, p. 135)
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISL A M IC ECO N O M IC O RD ER 179

betw een m a t e r ia l a n d sp ir itu a l v a lu e s w hich m a y th reaten to destroy

all v a lu e s in h u m a n society.
T h i s syn th esis o f the m a te ria l a n d the spiritual is w hat is m issin g in
th e o t h e r tw o s y s t e m s , c a p i t a l i s m a n d s o c i a l i s m , a s th e y a r c b o th
b a s i c a l l y s e c u l a r a n d c i t h e r a m o r a l or m o r a ll y n e u tr a l. N o o n e c a n
d e n y th e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f th e c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m in e ffic ie n c y o f th e
p r o d u c tiv e m a c h in e r y a n d s t a n d a r d s o f living, nor c a n a n y o n e d e n y
the a c h ie v e m e n t s o f the socialist sy ste m in rate s o f e c o n o m ic g row th .
B u t b o th th e c a p i t a l i s t a n d th e s o c ia lis t s y st e m s h a v e n e g le c te d the
s p iritu a l n eeds o f the h u m a n p erson ality.

( b ) U n iv e r s a l b r o th e rh o o d a n d ju st ic e .
( ) m a n k in d ! W e cre ate d y o u fro m a m a le a n d a fem ale a n d m a d e
you into n a tio n s a n d tribes th a t you m a y know e a c h other. Verily,
the m ost h o n o u re d o f you before G o d is the m ost rig h teous o f y o u;
surely G o d is K n o w in g , A w a r e ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 49: 13);
Y o u r G o d is one, y o u are fro m A d a m a n d A d a m w as from d u s t;
an A r a b h a s no s u p e rio rity ov er a n o n - A r a b n o r a w hite o v er a black
e x c e p t by rig h te o u sn e ss.20
M a n k i n d is from A d a m a n d E v e a n d all o f you arc alike in your
de sce n t from them . O n the D a y o f J u d g e m e n t , G o d will not a sk you
a b o u t y o u r n ob le descen t or yo u r lin eag e; r ath er the m ost h on ou red
o f you before G o d on th a t D a y will be the m ost rig h teous o f you.’ 1
I s la m a i m s at e s t a b li s h in g a social o r d e r w h ere all in d i v id u a l s a r c
u n i t e d by b o n d s o f b r o t h e r h o o d a n d a ffe ctio n like m e m b e r s o f on e
sin gle fa m ily c r e a te d by O n e G o d from one co u ple . T h is b ro th e rh o od is
u n i v e r s a l a n d n o t p a r o c h i a l . It is n ot b o u n d b y a n y g e o g r a p h i c a l
b o u n d a r ie s a n d e n c o m p a s s e s the w hole o f m a n k in d a n d not a n y one
fam ilial g r o u p or tribe or race. T h e Q u r ’a n asserts, ‘S a y : O m a n k in d !
S u re ly I a m a m essen g er o f G o d to you a l l ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 7: 158); a n d the
P ro p h e t stressed: ‘I h av e been sent to all alike, the w hite or the b la c k ’. "
A n a t u r a l c o r o l l a r y o f th is c o n c e p t o f u n i v e r s a l b r o t h e r h o o d is
m u tu a l co -o p e ratio n a n d h elp , p a r tic u la r ly a m o n g M u slim s w ho,
beside b e in g u n ite d to e ach o th er a s to the rest o f m a n k in d by a c o m ­
m on o rigin , a re fu rth er un ited by b o n d s o f c o m m o n ideology, a n d h ave
been c h a r a c te r iz e d by the Q u r ’a n a s ‘broth ers-in-faith ’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 9:
20. Prophet M u h am m ad quoted on the authority of al-T abaranf in M ajma1
al-Zawa’ id, v. 8, p. 84; the quotation is the combination of twohadilhs.
21. Ibn Kathfr, I'afsfr, v. 4, p. 218, see the commentary of verse 13 of surah 49.
22. S h a tib / al-MuwaJiqat J7 Usui al-Shari'ah, Cairo, n.d., v. 2, p. 244, on the
authority of Bukharf, Muslim and N isa’f.
180 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

1 1)*3 a n d ‘m erc ifu l a m o n g th em selves' ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 4 8 : 29). T h e P ro ­

phet stressed:

M a n k i n d is the fa m ily o f G o d a n d the m ost beloved o f them before

H im is one w h o is the best o f H i s F a m i l y .'4
Be k in d to th ose on e a r th a n d H e w h o is in th e H e a v e n will be
kind to y o u / *
In m u t u a l c o m p a s s i o n , lo v e , a n d k i n d n e s s y o u w ill fin d th e
fa ith fu ls like a b o d y , so that if o n e p a r t feels p a i n , the w h ole b o d y
r e sp o n d s with w ak efu ln e ss a n d fever.2b
A M u s l im is the b ro th e r o f a n o th e r M u s l im ; he n eith er w ron gs
h im , n o r leave s him w itho ut help, nor h u m ilia te s h i m /

C lo se ly linked to, a n d in se p a r a b le from, this c o n ce p t o f b ro th e rh o o d

is the e m p h a s i s o f Islam on ju stic e , the e sta b lish m e n t o f w hich on earth
is u n e q u i v o c a l l y d e c l a r e d by the Q u r ’a n to be o n e o f th e p r in c i p a l
ob je ctive s o f the te a ch in g s o f all the p ro p h e ts o f G o d in clu d in g
M u h a m m a d ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 57: 25). F a it h th at is m in g le d with injustice
will not really be recogn ized by G o d a s the Q u r ’a n p ro c la im s: ‘T h o se
who h a v e faith a n d m ix not their faith with injustice, for them is p e ac e
a n d they a r e the on es rightly g u i d e d ’ (a l-Q u r 'a n , 6: 83). M u s lim s are
therefore not m erely e xh o rte d but persistently u rg ed by the Q u r ’a n to
estab lish ju s t ic e : “G o d c o m m a n d s ju st ic e a n d the d o in g o f g o o d ’ (al-
Q u r ’ a n , 16: 9 0 ) , a n d ‘w h e n yo u j u d g e b e tw e e n p e o p l e , j u d g e w ith
j u s t ic e ’ ( a l- Q u r 'a n , 3: 58).
J u s t i c e c o m m a n d s a p la c e o f such p a r a m o u n t im p o r ta n c e in Islam
that be in g j u s t is co n sid e re d to be a necessary co n d itio n for be in g p io u s
a n d G o d - f e a r i n g , th e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a M u s l i m . S a y s the
Q u r ’a n :

C) you w h o be lie ve ! B e u p righ t for G o d , b e a re rs o f w itness with

j u s t i c e , a n d let n ot th e h a t r e d o f o t h e r s m a k e yo u s w e r v e fro m
ju stic e . B e ju s t , this is n eare r to piety, a n d fear G o d , for G o d is A w are
o f w h at you d o ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 5: 8).

23. See also al-Qur’an, 33: 5; and 49: 10.

24. Mishkat v. 2, p. 613: 4998, the authority of Bayhaqf’s Shu'ab al-iman.
25. Ibid., 608: 4969, on the authority of Abu Dawud and Tirmidhf.
26. Bukharf, v. 8, p. 12; and Muslim, v. 4, p. 1999: 66, see also hadith numbers
65 and 67.
27. Muslim, v. 4, p. 1986:32.
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISL A M IC E CO N O M IC O R D E R 181

M o r e o v e r , the c o u r s e o f ju s t i c e is to be fo llo w ed even if this h urts

o n e ’s ow n interest or the interests o f o n e ’s near-ones. ‘A n d when you
sp e a k , s p e a k ju s t ly , even th o u g h it be ( a g a in s t ) a relativ e’ (a l-Q u r'a n ,
6: 152), a n d ‘ Be the e stab lish e rs o f ju st ic e a n d w itnesses to G o d . even il
this be a g a in s t yourselves, or y o u r p a ren ts o r y o u r near-ones w h ether
they be rich or poor, for G o d can best protect both. S o follow not your
low desires, lest you d e v ia te . A n d if you swerve or declin e to d o ju st ic e
then r e m e m b e r that G o d is a w a r e o f w h a t you d o ’ ( a l- Q u r 'a n , 4: 135).
T h e im p lic a tio n s o f j u s t ic e in Islam w ou ld be clearer when discussed
in the fo llow in g sectio n s o n social a n d e c o n o m ic justice.

SO C IA L JU S T IC E
S i n c e I s l a m c o n s i d e r s m a n k i n d a s o n e f a m i l y , a ll m e m b e r s o f th is
fa m il y a r e a li k e in th e e y es o f G o d a n d before the L a w r e v e a le d by
I lim . T h e r e is no difference betw een the rich a n d the p oo r, betw een the
high a n d the low, or betw een the w h ite a n d the black. T h e r e is to be no
d isc r im in a tio n d u e to race or co lo ur or position. T h e on ly criterion o f a
m a n ’s w orth is c h a r a c t e r , a b i lit y a n d se rv ic e to h u m a n i t y . S a i d the
H o ly P ro p h e t:

C e r ta in ly G o d looks not a t y o u r faces or y o u r w e a lth ; in stead He

looks a t y o u r h ea rt a n d y o u r d e e d s ; '8
T h e noblest o f you are the best in c h a r a c t e r / '
T o b e e v e n m o r e e m p h a t i c the P r o p h e t w a r n e d o f the d is a s t r o u s
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a n d i n e q u a l i t y b e fo r e L a w fo r an
in d iv id u a l o r a n a tio n :
C o m m u n i t i e s before you strayed b e cau se when the high c o m ­
m itte d theft they were set free, bu t when the low c o m m it t e d theft
the L a w w as e n forced on th em . By G o d , even if F a t i m a h , d a u g h t e r
o f M u h a m m a d , c o m m it te d theft, M u h a m m a d w ou ld ce rtain ly cut
her h a n d . 50
W h o ev er h u m ilia te s or d e sp ise s a M u s lim , m a le or fe m ale for his
poverty or p a u c ity o f resources, will be d is g r a c e d by G o d o n the D a y
o f J u d g e m e n t . 31
‘U m a r the seco n d C a l i p h , w rote to A b u M u s a a l-A s h ‘a r f , one o f his
governers, a sk in g h im to ‘treat every-one before you alike in respect so

28. Muslim, v. 4, p. 1987:34.

29. Bukharf, v. 8, p. 15.
30. Ibid., p. 199; and N isa’f, v. 8, p. 65.
31. XtusnadUu&m A lf al-Rida, Beirut, l%(i, p. 474.
182 ISLA M ! ITS M EA NIN G AND M E SSA G E

that the w ea k d o e s n ot d e s p a ir o f ju stice from you a n d th a t the high

d o e s not c r a v e for a n u n d u e a d v a n t a g e ’. T h i s spirit o f social ju s t ic e
t h o r o u g h ly p e r m e a t e d M u s l im society d u r i n g the p e rio d o f the first
four C a l i p h s a n d even in the later period th ough a little s u b d u e d , d id
not fail to find its full m a n ife s t a t io n o n several o c c a sio n s. It m a y be
p e r t in e n t to q u o t e w h a t th e r e n o w n e d ju r i s t A b u Y u s u f w r o t e in a
letter a d d r e s s e d to the C a l i p h H a r u n a l - R a s h f d : ‘treat a like all in d ivi­
d u a l s ir re sp e c tiv e o f w h e th e r they a r e n e a r yo u or r e m o te fro m yo u'
a n d th a t ‘th e w e l fa r e o f y o u r s u b j e c t s d e p e n d s o n e s t a b l i s h i n g the
D iv in e L a w a n d e lim in a t in g in ju stice ’.33

E C O N O M IC JU S T IC E
T h e c o n c e p t o f b ro th e rh o o d a n d e q u a l tre atm en t o f all in d iv id u a ls in
society a n d before the L a w is not m e a n in g fu l unless a c c o m p a n ie d by
e c o n o m ic ju s t ic e such th at everyon e gets his d u e for his c o n tr ib u tio n to
society o r to the social p r o d u c t a n d that there is no e x p lo ita tio n o f one
in d i v id u a l b y a n o th e r . T h e Q u r ' a n u rg e s M u s l i m s to ‘ W ith o ld not
th in g s j u s t l y d u e to o t h e r s ’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 26: 183),34 im p l y in g th e reb y
th at e v e ry in d i v id u a l m u st get w h a t is really d u e to h im , a n d not by
d e p riv in g oth ers o f their share. T h e P rop h et a p tly w a r n e d : ‘ B e w are o f
in ju s tic e fo r in ju s t ic e will b e e q u i v a l e n t to d a r k n e s s on th e D a y o f
J u d g e m e n t . ’ 35 T h i s w a r n in g a g a in s t injustice a n d e x p lo ita tio n is d e ­
sig n ed to p rotec t the rig h ts o f all in d iv id u als in society (w heth er c o n ­
s u m e r s or p r o d u c e r s a n d d i s t r i b u t o r s , a n d w h e t h e r e m p l o y e r s o r
e m p lo y e e s) a n d to p r o m o t e gen eral w elfare, the u ltim a te g o a l o f Islam .
O f sp ecial sig n ifican ce here is the re la tio n sh ip between the e m p lo y e r
a n d the e m p lo y e e w h ich Islam p la c e s in a p r o p e r settin g a n d specifies
n orm s for the m u t u a l tr e a tm en t o f both so a s to estab lish ju st ic e b e ­
tween them . A n e m p lo y e e is intitled to a ‘j u s t 1 w a g e for his c o n tr ib u ­
tion to o u tp u t a n d it is u n law fu l for a M u slim e m p lo y e r to exploit his
e m p l o y e e ’. T h e P ro p h e t d e c la r e d th at three p erson s w h o will certain ly
face G o d ’s d i s p l e a s u r e on th e D a y o f J u d g e m e n t a r e : on e w h o d ie s
without fulfilin g his c o m m it m e n t to G o d ; one w h o sells a free person

32. Abu Yusuf, Kilabat-Kharaj, Cairo, 1367 A.H.

33. Abu Yusuf, pp. 4 and 6.
34. See also al-Qur’an 83: 1-3, (‘Woe to the cheaters; who when they take the
measure (of their dues) from men, take it fully. And when they measure out to
others or weigh out for them, they give less than is due’).
35. Reported on the authority of Musnad of Ahmad and Bayhaqi’s Shu‘ab
al-iman by Suyuti, v. 1, p. 8.
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISLA M IC ECO NO M IC O RD ER 183

a n d e n jo y s th e p r ic e ; a n d o n e w h o e n g a g e s a l a b o u r e r , re ceive s d u e
work from h im bu t does not p a y h im his w a g e .30This/rarffM, b y p la c in g
the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f l a b o u r a n d the e n s l a v i n g o f a free p e rso n on an
e q u a l fo o tin g, su g g e sts how a verse Islam is to e x p lo ita tio n o f lab our.
W h a t a ‘j u s t ’ w a g e is a n d w h at c o n stitu te s ‘e x p lo ita tio n ' o f l a b o u r
n eeds to be d e te r m in e d in the light o f the te a ch in g s o f the Q u r ’an a n d
thcSuwifl/i.37 Islam d o e s not recogn ize the co n tr ib u tio n to o u tp u t m a d e
by fa cto rs o f p ro d u c tio n oth er th an la b o u r a n d therefore the c o n c e p t o f
e x p lo ita tio n o f la b o u r in I sla m w o u ld h ave no relation with the c o n ­
c e p t o f s u r p l u s v a l u e a s p r o p o u n d e d b y M a r x . It c o u l d b e a r g u e d
th eoretically th at ‘j u s t ’ w a g e sh o u ld be e q u a l to the v a lu e o f the c o n ­
tribu tion to o u tp u t m a d e b y the lab o u re r. B u t this is difficult to d e te r ­
m in e a n d w ou ld h ave little p ra c tic a l v a lu e in r e g u la tin g w ages. T h e re
a r e h ow ever a n u m b e r o f ahadith fro m which rnay be inferred q u a l i t a ­
tiv e ly th e lev el o f ‘ m i n i m u m ’ a n d ‘ i d e a l ’ w a g e s . A c c o r d i n g to th e
P ro p h e t, ‘a n e m p lo y e e ( m a le or fe m a le ) is entitled to at least m o d e r a ­
tely g o o d fo od a n d c lo t h in g a n d to not b e in g b u r d e n e d with l a b o u r
e xc ep t w h a t he (or she) ca n b e a r ’.38 F ro m this hadith it rnay be inferred
that ‘ m i n i m u m ’ w a g e sho uld be such th a t it resem b les a n e m p lo y e e to
get a su ffic ie n t q u a n t i t y o f r e a s o n a b l y g o o d fo o d a n d c l o t h i n g for
h im se lf a n d his fa m ily w ith o u t o v e r b u r d e n in g himself. T h is w as c o n ­
s id e r e d b y th e P r o p h e t ’s C o m p a n i o n s to b e th e m i n i m u m e v e n to
m a in ta in the sp iritu a l s t a n d a r d o f M u s l im society. ‘ U t h m a n , the third
C a l ip h , is re po rte d to h av e said :

D o not o v e r b u r d e n y o u r unskilled fe m ale e m p lo y e e in her pursuit

o f a living, b e c a u s e if you d o so, she m a y resort to im m o r a lity ; a n d
d o n ot o v e r b u r d e n a m a l e s u b o r d i n a t e , for if y o u d o so, he m a y
resort to stealin g. Be c o n sid e ra te with y o u r e m p lo y e e s a n d G o d will
be c o n sid e ra te w ith you. It is in c u m b e n t u p o n you to p rov id e them
g ood a n d law ful fo o d .39

T h e ‘id e a l ’ w a g e m a y likewise be inferred from the follow ing hadith

to be a w a g e th a t w o u ld e n a b l e th e e m p l o y e e to e a t fo o d a n d w e a r
c loth in g j u s t like the e m p lo y e r is h im se lf c a p a b l e of:*
36. Bukharf, v. 3, p. 112.
37. Some of the quotations (hadith or otherwise) used in the discussion, relate
to slaves, but the term ‘employees’ is used in the translation. If a humane and
ju st treatm ent is expected to be meted out to slaves, then employees are
certainly entitled to an even better treatment.
38. Malik Muivatla Cairo, 1951, Malik, v. 2, p. 980: 40.
39. Malik, Muwatta, v. 2, p. 981: 42.
184 I S L A M : I T S M E A N I N G A N I) M E S S A G E

Y o u r e m p l o y e e s a r e y o u r b r o th e r s w h o m G o d h a d m a d e y o u r
s u b o r d i n a t e s . S o he w h o h a s his b r o t h e r u n d e r h im , let h im feed
w ith w h a t he fe e d s h i m s e l f a n d c lo th e h im w ith w h a t he c lo t h c s
h im s e lf. .

T h e ‘j u s t ’ w a g e c a n n o t therefore be below the ‘m i n u m u m ’ w ag e . Its

d e s i r a b l e level w o u ld o f c o u r s c b e c lo s e r to th e ‘ i d e a l ’ w a g e so a s to
m in im iz e the in e q u a litie s o f in co m e a n d to brid ge the g u l f betw een the
livin g c o n d itio n s o f the e m p lo y e r s a n d the e m p lo y e e s w h ich ten ds to
c r c a t c t w o d i s t i n c t c l a s s e s o f th e ‘ h a v e s ’ a n d th e ‘ h a v e - n o t s ’ , t h u s
w e a k e n in g th e b o n d s o f b r o th e r h o o d w h ich c o n st itu te s a n e ssen tia l
fea tu re o f a tru ly M u s l im society. Betw een the tw o lim its, the a c tu a l
level w ou ld b e d e te r m in e d by the in teraction o f s u p p ly a n d d e m a n d ,
the e x t e n t o f e c o n o m i c g r o w t h , the level o f m o r a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s in
M u slim society, a n d the exten t to w hich the s ta te p la y s its leg itim ate
role.
B esides b e in g p a id a t least ‘m i n i m u m ’ w ag e s a n d p refera b ly ‘ideal'
w ag e s, I s la m r e q u ir e s th a t la b o u r e r s s h o u ld not be m a d e to w ork so
hard or in such m ise r a b le c o n d itio n s th at their h ealth d e te rio ra te s or
t h e ir a b i l i t y to e n j o y i n c o m e o r p a r t i c i p a t e in f a m i l y life g e t s
i m p a ir e d .41 I f they a r e m a d e to p e rfo rm a task w h ich is b e y o n d their
c a p a c it y they s h o u ld be p ro v id e d with sufficient h elp to e n a b le th e m to
d o th e j o b w it h o u t u n d u e h a r d s h i p . In th e h ad ith q u o t e d a b o v e in
w hich the p r o p h e t a d m o n is h e s e m p lo y e rs to co n sid e r the e m p lo y e e s a s
their broth ers, he said further:

. . . a n d d o not b u r d e n them with w h at ov erp o w ers them . I f you

do so, then h elp t h e m .42

F r o m this lia d ilh it m a y be inferred th at fixation o f m a x i m u m h ours

o f work, cre atio n o f p ro p e r w ork in g co n d ition s, a n d en fo rce m en t o f
p r e c a u tio n a ry m e a s u r e s a g a in s t in d u stria l h a z a rd s , w ou ld be fully in
co n fo rm ity with the spirit o f Islam ic teachings.

W h i l e th is is th e t r e a t m e n t e x p e c t e d o f a n e m p l o y e r f o r h is
e m p lo y e e s, I s l a m , b e c a u s e o f its c o m m it m e n t to ju s t ic e , p ro te c ts the
e m p l o y e r b y p l a c i n g c e r t a i n m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n s on th e e m p l o y e e a s

40. Bukharf, p. 15, and v. 3, p. 185; and Muslim, v. 3, p. 1283:38.

41. ‘I wish not to be hard on you. God willing you will find me am o n g the
righteous’. (al-Qur’an, 28: 27). This statement of Shu‘ayb while hiring Mosey
is an exhortat:on in the Q u r’an for all employers.
42. Bukharf, v. 1, p. 16, and v. 3, p. 185; and Muslim, v. 3, p. 1283: 38 and 40.
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISLA M IC E CO N O M IC O RD ER 185

well. T h e first o b lig a t io n is to d o the jo b co n scien tio u sly a n d diligently

w ith m a x i m u m p o s s i b l e d e g r e e o f c a r e a n d skill. T h e P r o p h e t e x ­
h o r te d : ‘G o d h a s m a d e b e n e fice n ce o b li g a t o r y u p o n y o u ’41 a n d that
‘G o d loves th at when a n y on e o f you d o e s a j o b , he d o c s it perfectly. '**
T h e r e c a n b e n o q u e stio n that social a n d e c o n o m ic ju s t ic e , w h ich Islam
s tr e s s e s u n a m b i g u o u s l y , r e q u i r e s th e e fficien t p e r f o r m a n c e o f the
fu n ctio n for w h ich on e h a s been e m p lo y e d . O n a n o th e r o c c a sio n the
P rop h et said:

A n e m p lo y e e w h o excels in his d e votio n to G o d a n d also renders to

his m a s te r w h a t is d u e to him o f d u t y , sincerity a n d o b e d ie n c e , for
him there is d o u b l e re w a rd s (with G o d ) .45

A seco n d o b lig a t io n on the e m p lo y e e is to be honest a n d trustworthy.

T h e Q u r ’a n s a y s th a t th e best p e rso n a n y o n e c a n hire is th e s tr o n g
(a b le ) a n d th e h o n e st(2 8 : 26), a n d the P rop h et h as said :

H e w h o m we h a v e a p p o i n t e d for a j o b a n d h a v e p r o v id e d with
livelihood, then w h a te v e r he a p p r o p r ia t e s b e yo n d this is ill-
g o tte n .46

T h u s if Islam h as p la c e d a n u m b e r o f o b lig a tio n s on the e m p loyer,

the e m p lo y e e is a ls o e x p e c te d to d o the j o b co n scien tiou sly a n d d ili­
g e n t ly , a n d be h o n e s t a n d t r u s t w o r t h y . T h e g o a l is j u s t i c e to b o th
e m p lo y e r s a n d e m p lo y e e s in all e c o n o m ic re la tio n sh ip s. It is only by
such a h a r m o n io u s r e g u la tio n o f m u t u a l respon sibilities e m p h a s i z in g
c o -o p e ratio n a n d c o n sc ie n tio u s fulfilm ent o f o n e ’s o b lig a t io n s , in an
e n v ir o n m e n t o f b r o th e rh o o d , ju stic e , a n d s u p r e m a c y o f m oral values,
that th ere c a n be h o p e o f e lim i n a t in g la b o u r - e m p lo y e r co n flict a n d
friction a n d e st a b lish in g in d u stria l peacc.
( c ) E q u i t a b l e d is tr ib u tio n o f in c o m e
W ith the intense a n d u n iq u e c o m m it m e n t o f I sla m to h u m a n b ro ­
t h e r h o o d a n d to s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c j u s t i c e , g r o s s i n e q u a l i t i e s o f
i n c o m e a n d w e a l t h c o u l d n ot b u t b e r e p u g n a n t to its s p ir it . S u c h
in e q u a litie s c o u ld o n ly de stroy ra th er th an foster the feelings o f b r o ­
th erh o od th at I sla m w ishes to cre ate . B esides, sin ce all resources arc,
a c c o r d i n g to th e Q u r ’a n , ‘g ift s o f G o d to all h u m a n b e i n g s ’ (2 : 29),
there is n o re aso n w hy they s h o u ld r e m a in co n c e n tr a te d in a few h an d s.

43. Muslim, v. 3, p. 1348: 57.

44. Cited on the authority o f B ayh aqi’s Shu'abal-iman by Suyutf, v. 1, p. 75.
45. Bukharf, v. 3, p. 186.
46. Abu Dawwud, v. 2, p. 121.
186 isla m : its m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

l i e n e e , I s la m e m p h a s i z e s d is t r i b u t iv e ju s t i c e a n d in c o r p o r a te s in its
system a p r o g r a m m e for re d istrib u tio n o f in co m e a n d w ealth so that
every in d iv id u a l is g u a r a n t e e d a s t a n d a r d o f living that is h u m a n e a n d
r e s p e c t a b le , a n d in h a r m o n y w ith the r e g a rd for the d ig n it y o f m a n
in h eren t in the te a c h in g s o f Islam (G o d 's vicegerent on e a r t h , al-
Q u r ’a n , 2: 30). A M u s l im society that fails to g u a r a n t e e such a h u m a n e
s t a n d a r d is really not w orthy o f the n a m e a s the Proph et d e c la r e d : ‘H e
is not a true M u s l im w h o e a ts his fill w h en his next-door n e ig h b o u r is
h u n g r y .’ *'
‘ U m a r , the s e c o n d C a l i p h , e x p l a i n i n g th e r e d ist r ib u tiv e j u s t i c e in
Islam , e m p h a s i z e d in o n e o f his p u b lic a d d resse s that everyon e h ad an
e q u a l right in the w ealth o f the c o m m u n ity , that no one, not even he
him self, e n jo y e d a g re a te r right in it th an a n y on e else, a n d that if he
w ere to liv e l o n g e r , he w o u ld see to it th a t e v e n a s h e p h e r d o n th e
M o u n t S a n a ' received his s h a re from his w e a lth .48 T h e C a l ip h ‘A l f is
reported to h av e stressed th at ‘G o d has m a d e it o b lig a t o r y on the rich
to p ro v id e the p oo r with w h a t is a d e q u a t e l y for th e m ; if the p o o r are
h u n g ry or n ak e d or tro u b le d it is b e ca u se the rich h av e d e p riv e d them
( o f their righ t), a n d it will be p ro p e r f o r G o d t o a c c o u n t them for it an d
to p u n ish th e m .'4' T h e ju r is t s h av e a lm o s t u n a n im o u sly held the posi­
tion th at it is the d u t y o f the whole M u slim society in general a n d o f its
rich in p a r t ic u la r to take care o f the b asic needs o f the p oo r a n d if the
well-to-do d o not fulfil this respon sib ility in spite o f their a b ility to d o
so the s ta te ca n a n d should c o m p e l th em , to a ss u m e their
re sp on sib ility .50
T h e I s l a m ic p r o g r a m m e for r e d istr ib u tio n co n sists o f three parts.
O n e , a s d i s c u s s e d e a r l ie r , I s l a m i c t e a c h in g s im p l y the r e n d e r in g o f
a s s is ta n c e in fin d in g g a in fu l e m p l o y m e n t to th ose u n e m p lo y e d a n d
th ose lo o k in g for w ork a n d a ‘j u s t ’ r e m u n e r a tio n for those w o rk in g ;
two, it e m p h a s iz e s the p a y m e n t o f zakat for r e d istrib u tin g in co m e from
the rich to the p o o r 51 w h o, b e c a u s e o f person al d isa b ility or h a n d ic a p s

47. Bu kh an, p. 52: 112.

48. Haykal, al-Faruq ‘Umar, Cairo, 1964, v. 2, p. 233.
49. Abu ‘Ubayd Kitab al-Amwal, Cairo, 1353 A.D., p. 595: 1909; for slightly
different wording, see N afj al-Balaghah Cairo n.d.,v. 3, p. 231.
50. For some relevant details, sec Siddiqi, Islam kaNazflnyya-eMilkiyat, Lahore,
1968, pp. 272-79.
51. ITie Prophet, while appointing M u‘adh as Governor of the Yemen, enu­
merated to him a list of duties, one of which was ‘to educate people that God
had m ade it obligatory upon them to pay the zakat which is to be collected
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISLA M IC ECO NO M IC O RD ER 187
( p h y s i c a l o r m e n t a l o r c o n d i t i o n s e x t e r n a l to t h e m e .g . u n e m ­
p lo y m e n t ) , a r e u n a b l e to a t t a i n a re sp e c ta b le s t a n d a r d o f liv in g by
their ow n effort, ‘so t h a t ’, in the w ords o f the Q u r ’a n ; 'w ealth d o e s not
circ u late only a m o n g your rich ’ (59: 7); a n d three d iv is io n s o f the estate
o f a d e c e a s e d p e rs o n , in a c c o r d a n c e w ith a g iven f o r m u l a , a m o n g a
n u m b e r o f in d iv id u a ls so a s to intensify a n d acce le ra te the distribu tio n
o f w ealth in society.
T h i s I s l a m i c c o n c e p t o f e q u i t y in the d i s t r i b u t io n o f in c o m e a n d
w ea lth a n d its c o n c e p t o f e c o n o m i c ju stic e , d o e s n ot h ow ever requ ire
th at ev e ry o n e be r e w a rd e d e q u a l ly , irrespective o f his c o n tr ib u tio n to
society. Islam tolerates so m e in e q u a litie s o f in co m e b e c a u s e all m e n are
not e q u a l in their c h a r a c te r , a b ilit y a n d service to society ( a l - Q u r a n , 6:
1 65; 16: 71 a n d 4 3 : 3 2 ). T h e r e f o r e , d i s t r i b u t i v e j u s t i c e in I s l a m i c
society, a fte r g u a r a n t e e in g a h u m a n e s t a n d a r d o f living to all m e m b e rs
th ro u g h the in stitu tion o f zakat, a llow s such differentials in e a r n in g s a s
a r c in k e e p in g with the differences in the v a lu e o f the c o n trib u tio n s or
services r e n d e re d , e a c h in d iv id u a l receivin g a n in co m e c o r re s p o n d in g
to the social v a lu e o f the services he c o n trib u te s to society.
T h e I sla m ic stresses on d istrib u tiv e ju s t ic e is so e m p h a t i c that there
h a d b e e n s o m e M u s l i m s w h o h a v e b e e n led to b e l ie v e in a b s o l u t e
e q u a lit y o f w ealth. A b u D h a r , a C o m p a n i o n o f the Proph et, w as o f the
o pin ion th at it is u n law fu l for a M u s l im to possess w ealth b e y o n d the
essential n ee d s o f his fam ily. H o w e ve r, m ost o f the P r o p h e t’s C o m p a ­
nions d id not a g r e e with h im in this e x tre m e view a n d tried to prev ail
u p o n him to c h a n g e his p o sitio n .M B u t even A b u D h a r w as not a p r o ­
tag on ist o f e q u a l it y o f flows ( in co m e). H e w as in fa v o u r o f e q u a lit y o f
stocks (w ealth a c c u m u la tio n s ). T h is, he asse rted , c o u ld be a tt a in e d if
th e e n t ir e s u r p l u s o f i n c o m e o v e r ‘g e n u i n e ’ e x p e n s e s ( a t- ‘afw ) w a s
spent by the in d iv id u a l in im p ro v in g the lot o f his less fo rtu n a te b ro ­
thers. T h e c o n c e n s u s o f M u s l im sch olars, in spite o f be in g intensely in
fa v o u r o f d is tr ib u t iv e ju stic e , h as h ow ever a lw a y s been that if a M u s ­
lim e a r n s b y rightful m c a n s a n d from his ow n in co m e a n d w ealth fulfils
his o b l i g a t i o n s to w a r d the w elfare o f his society by p a y in g zakat a n d
o th er r e q u ir e d c o n trib u tio n s, there is n o th in g w r o n g in his possessing
m o r e w ea lth th a n o t h e r fe llo w - M u s lim s .13 In reality, h ow ever, if the
52. See the comments on verse 34 of surah 9 of the Q ur’an in the commentaries
of Ibn Kathfr, v. 2, p. 352, and Jassas,/lA/;<ima/-(?ur an, Cairo, 1957, v. 3, p. 130.
53. See the commentary of Ibn Kathfr, v. 2, pp. 350-53.

from their rich and distributed to their poor’ (Bukharf, v. 2, p. 124; Tirmidhf,
v. 3, p. 21: 625, and N isa’f , v. 5, pp. 3 and 41).
 isla m : its m e a n i n g a n d m e s s a g e

I s l a m ic t e a c h i n g s o f l l a i a l a n d //aru m in the e a r n i n g o f w e a lth are

follow ed, the n o rm o f ju s t ic e to e m p lo y e e s a n d c o n su m e r s is a p p lie d ,
p rov ision s for re d istrib u tio n o f in co m e a n d w ealth a r e im p le m e n te d
a n d the I s l a m ic la w o f in h e r ita n c e is e n f o r c e d , there c a n n o t be a n y
gross in e q u a litie s o f in co m e a n d w ealth in M u slim society.
( d ) F r e e d o m o f the in d iv id u a l within the co n te x t o f so c ia l w e lfa r e
T h e m ost im p o r t a n t p illa r o f M u slim faith is th e b e lie f th at m a n has
been c re a te d by G o d a n d is su b se rv ie n t to n on e b u t I l im ( a l ’Q u r ’a n ,
13: 3 6 a n d 31: 22). T h i s p rov ides the essence o f the Islam ic c h a r te r o f
f r e e d o m fro m all b o n d a g e . H e n c e th e Q u r ' a n s a y s th a t o n e o f the
p r im a r y o b je c tiv e s o f M u h a m m a d ’s P rop h etic mission w as to 'release
them ( m a n k in d ) from the b u r d e n s a n d c h a in s u p o n th e m ' (7: 157). It is
this s p irit o f fr e e d o m w h ich p r o m p t e d ‘ U m a r , the seco n d C a l i p h , to
d e clare : ‘S in c e when h ave you e n slav ed peop le a lth o u g h their m others
h a d b o r n e t h e m free*. ’ ’ S h a f ' f , th e f o u n d e r o f the S h a P f s c h o o l o f
M u slim ju r is p r u d e n c e , e x p r e sse d the s a m e spirit w hen he s a id : ‘G o d
h as c re a te d yo u free a n d therefore be n oth in g but free.’51
B e c a u s e m a n is born free, no one, not even the sta te , has the right to
a b r o g a t e this fr e e d o m a n d to subject his life to re g im e n ta tio n . T h e r e is
a co n sen su s a m o n g M u slim ju rists that restrictions c a n n o t be im p o se d
on a free, m a t u r e , a n d s a n e person. A b u H a n f f a h , the fo u n d e r o f the
H a n a f f school o f M u slim ju r is p ru d e n c e , goes fu rth er a n d feels that
re stric tio n s m a y not be im p o s e d on a free, m a t u r e , a n d san e person
even if he h urts his ow n interest by, to q u o te his ow n e x a m p le , ‘s p e n d ­
ing m on ey a im le ssly w itho ut a n y ben efit.’ T h e reason he gives for this is
th a t d e p r i v i n g h im o f th e f r e e d o m o f c h o i c e is ‘ like d e g r a d i n g h is
h u m a n i t y a n d t r e a t in g h im like a n a n im a l . T h e in jury d o n e by this
w ould be grea te r th a n the in jury d o n e by his e x t r a v a g a n c e . A greater
loss sh o u ld not be inflicted to a v o id a sm a lle r loss.’5*
T h i s d if fe r e n c e o f o p i n i o n , h o w e v e r , e x ist s o n ly if a n in d i v id u a l
h u rts his o w n in te r e st, w it h o u t , o f c o u r s e , o v e r - s t e p p i n g the m o r a l
b o n d s o f Islam . B u t if the in d iv id u a l hurts the interests o f others, then
there is n o d iffe r e n c e o f o p i n io n th at re stric tio n s c a n a n d s h o u l d be
i m p o s e d on h im . All j u r i s t s a llo w r e st r ic tio n s to be im p o s e d if this

54. ‘Alf al- T an taw f and N a jf al- Tantawf, Akhbar '( mar, Damascus, 1959, p.
268.
55. Quoted without reference to the original source, by Yusufuddm Islam kt
M a'ashi Sa^anyye, Hyderabad, India, v. 1, p. 140.
56. al-Hidayah, Cairo, 1965, v. 3, p. 281; see a ls o j a z f r f , Kilab al-Fiqh 'ala al-
Madhdhibal-Arba‘ahf Cairo, 1938, v. 2, p. 349.
 O B J E C T I V E S O F T H E I S I .A M I C E C O N O M I C O R D E R 189
p r e v e n t s i n j u r y to o t h e r s o r s a f e g u a r d s p u b l i c in t e r e s t , a s in A b u
H a n f f a h ’s w o rd s, ‘co n tr o ls on a n u n tr ain e d d o c to r, o r a careless j u d g e ,
o r a b a n k r u p t e m p lo y e r , b e c a u s e such co n trols re m o ve a g rea te r h arm
by in flictin g a s m a l le r h a r m . ” ' S o c i a l w elfare h as a p la c e o f a b s o lu t e
i m p o r t a n c e in I s l a m a n d i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m , th o u g h o f p r i m a r y
significan ce, is not in d e p e n d e n t o f its social im plication s.
T o set into a p r o p e r p erspective the rig h ts o f the in d iv id u al vis-a-vis
oth er in d iv id u a ls a n d society, the ju r is ts h av e a g re e d u p o n the follow ­
ing b a sic p r i n c i p l e s : >H

(1 ) T h e larg er interest o f society takes preceden ce ov er the interest o f

the in d iv id u al.
(2 ) A lth o u g h ‘relieving h a r d s h i p ’ a n d ‘p r o m o tin g be n e fit’ are both
a m o n g the p r im e o b je ctiv e s o f the S h a ri 'ah, the form er takes p re ­
ced en ce o v e r the latter.
( 3 ) A b i g g e r loss c a n n o t be in flicte d to relieve a s m a l l e r loss or a
b ig ge r benefit c a n n o t be sacrificed for a sm a lle r one. C o n versely , a
sm a lle r h a r m c a n b e in flicted to a v o id a b ig g e r h a r m or a sm a lle r
lx-nefit c a n be sacrificed for a larg er benefit.
I n d iv id u a l fr e e d o m , w ithin the e th ical lim its o f I sla m , is therefore
sacred only a s lon g a s it d o c s not conflict with the larger social interest
or a s lon g a s the i n d iv id u a l d oes not tran sgress the rights o f others.

II

N A T U R E O F T H E E C O N O M IC S Y S T E M O F ISLA M .

T h e d is c u ss io n o f the g o a ls o f the I sla m ic e c o n o m i c sy ste m show s

that m a te r ia l w ell-bein g b a se d on the u n sh a k a b le fo u n d a tio n o f sp iri­
tual v a lu e s c o n stitu te s a n in d isp e n sa b le plan k o f the e c o n o m ic p h ilo ­
s o p h y o f I s l a m . T h e v e ry f o u n d a t i o n o f the I s l a m i c s y s t e m b e in g
different fro m th at o f c a p it a lis m a n d socialism , w hich are both earth-
b o u n d a n d not o r ie n t e d to s p ir it u a l v a lu e s, the s u p e r s tr u c tu r e m u st
n ecessarily be differen t. A n y a t t e m p t to show the sim ilarity o f Islam
with e i t h e r c a p i t a l i s m or s o c i a l is m c a n o n ly d e m o n s t r a t e a lack o f
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e basic ch a rac te ristics o f the three systems.
T h e I sla m ic sy ste m is, b e sid e s, u n flin ch in g ly d e d ic a t e d to h u m a n
57. Al-Ihdayah, v. 3, p. 281; and Ja z fr f, v. 2, p. 349.
58. For a discussion of this subject, see Shatibf, v. 2, pp. 348-6-1, Abu Zahrah,
pp. 350-64; and D a w a lfb f, al-Madkhal da 4Urn I'su l al-Fiqh, Beirut, 1965.
pp. 447-49.
190 i s i .a m : its m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

b ro th e rh o o d a c c o m p a n ie d by social a n d e co n o m ic ju st ic e a n d e q u it ­
a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f in c o m e , a n d to in d i v i d u a l fr e e d o m w ith in the
con text o f social w elfare. T h is d e d ic a tio n is, it m ust be stressed, s p ir i­
tually o rien ted a n d finely interw oven in to the w h ole fabric o f its social
a n d e c o n o m ic norm s. In co n trast with this, the o r ie n tatio n o f m odern
c a p it a lis m to social a n d e co n o m ic ju st ic e a n d to e q u it a b le d istrib u tio n
o f in c o m e is o n ly p a r t i a l r e s u lt i n g fro m g r o u p p r e s s u r e s , is n ot the
o u tc o m e o f a s p iritu a l g oal to estab lish h u m a n bro th e rh o o d , a n d does
not c o n s t i t u t e a n in t e g r a l p a r t o f its o v e r a ll p h i l o s o p h y ; w h ile the
orien tation o f so cialism , th ough cla im e d to be the p ro d u ct o f its basic
p h ilo so p h y , is not really m ea n in g fu l b e cau se of, on the one h a n d , the
a b se n c e o f a d e d ic a tio n to h u m a n b ro th e rh o od a n d o f spiritually-
b a s e d fa ir a n d i m p a r t i a l c r it e r i a for j u s t i c e a n d e q u i t y , a n d on the
other h a n d , the loss o f in d iv id u al d ig n ity a n d iden tity resu ltin g from
the n eg a tio n o f the b asic h u m a n need for freedom .
The c o m m i t m e n t o f I s l a m to in d i v id u a l fr e e d o m d is ti n g u is h e s it
s h a r p l y fr o m s o c i a l i s m or a n y s y s t e m w h ic h a b o l i s h e s i n d i v i d u a l
freedom . Free m u t u a l con sen t o f the b u yer a n d the seller is, a c c o r d in g
to all sch ools o f M u slim ju ris p ru d e n c e , a n ecessary c o n d itio n for an y
b u s in e s s t r a n s a c t io n . T h i s c o n d it i o n s p r i n g s fro m the verse o f the
Q u r ’a n : ‘O you w h o h ave faith! D e v o u r not the p rop e rty o f a n y o n e o f
you w ron g fu lly , e xcep t that it be tr a d in g by your m u t u a l co n se n t’ (4:
29). T h e P r o p h e t is a ls o repo rted to h ave sa id : ‘L e a v e p eop le a lo n e for
G o d gives them provision th rou gh e ac h o th er.’60T h e only system that
w ou ld co n fo rm to this spirit o f freedom in the I sla m ic w ay o f life is one
where the c o n d u c t o f a larg e p a rt o f the p ro d u ctio n a n d d istribu tio n o f
g o o d s a n d s e r v ic e s is left to i n d i v i d u a l s o r v o l u n t a r i l y c o n s t i t u t e d
g ro u p s, a n d w here e ach in d iv id u al is p e rm itte d to sell to o r b u y from
w h o m he w a n ts a t a price a g r e e a b le to bo th the b u y e r a n d the seller.
F r e e d o m o f en te rp rise , in co n trast with socialism , offers such a p o ssi­
bility a n d it h a d been recog n ized by Islam a lo n g with its co n stitu en t
e lem en ts, the in stitu tion o f p r iv a te property.
T h e Q u r ' a n , th e Sunna/i a n d t h e Jiq h l i t e r a t u r e h a v e d i s c u s s e d in
s i g n i f ic a n t d e t a i l th e n o r m s r e la t e d to a c q u i s i t i o n a n d d i s p o s a l o f
p rivate a n d business p rop erty, a n d the p u rch a se a n d sale o f m e r c h a n ­
dise, a s a ls o the in stitution s o f zakal a n d in h eritan ce, w hich w ou ld not
h ave been d o n e in such d etail if the in stitution o f p r iv ate o w n e rsh ip o f
m ost p r o d u c tiv e resources h a d not been recogn ized by Islam . Besides,
59. Ja z f r f , v. 2. pp. 153-168.
6 0 . C i l c d b y I b n R u s h d in B id a y a l al- M u jta h id , C a i r o , 1 9 6 0 , v. 2 , p . 167.
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISLA M IC ECO N O M IC O R D E R 191

th r o u g h -o u t the M u s l im h istory , this p r in c ip le h as been u n iv e rsa lly

u p h e ld b y M u s l i m s w ith ra re e x c e p t io n s , a n d these c x c c p t io n s h av e
not been recog n ized to b e w ithin the m a in str e a m o f Islam ic th ought. A
n e g a t i o n o f this r ig h t o f p r i v a t e o w n e r s h ip c o u ld n o t, th e r e fo r e , be
c o n sid e re d to be in c o n fo rm ity with the te a ch in g s o f Islam .
T h e m a r k e t m e c h a n is m m a y a ls o be c o n sid e r e d to be a n in teg ra l
p a rt o f th e I s l a m i c e c o n o m i c s y s t e m b e c a u s e , on th e o n e h a n d , the
institution o f p r iv a te p ro p e rty is not w ork a b le w itho ut it; a n d , on the
oth er, it offers the c o n su m e r s a c h a n c e to e x p re ss th eir d esires for the
p r o d u c tio n o f g o o d s o f their liking by their w illingness to p a y the price,
a n d a ls o gives resource-ow ners a n o p p o r tu n ity to sell their resources in
a c c o r d a n c e with their free will.
Profit m otive , w h ich is essential for the successful o p e ra tio n o f a n y
system in c o r p o r a tin g freedo m o f enterprise, h as also been recognized
by Isla m . J a z f r f , in his well-known work on theJiqh p osition o f the four
S u n n ite sch ools of ju r is p r u d e n c e says:

B u y in g a n d selling are a llo w e d by the SharVah so th at p e o p le rnay

profit m u tu a lly . T h e r e is no d o u b t that this c a n a ls o be a sou rce o f
in justice, b e c a u s e b o th the b u y e r a n d the seller desire m o re profit
a n d the L a w g iv e r h as not p ro h ib ited profit nor h as H e set lim its to
it. H e h as, h ow ever, p ro h ib ited fr a u d a n d c h e a t in g a n d a sc rib in g to
a c o m m o d i t y a tt r ib u te s it d oes not possess.61

T liis is b e c a u s e profit p ro v id e s the necessary incentive for efficiency

in the use o f resources w hich G o d h as g iven to m a n k in d . T h is efficiency
in the a llo c a t io n o f resources is a n ecessary ele m e n t in the life o f an y
san e a n d v ig o r o u s society. B u t since it is possible to convert profit from
an in s t r u m e n t in t o a p r i m a r y g o a l th u s l e a d i n g to m a n y so c ia l a n d
e c o n o m ic ills, I sla m p la c e s c e rta in m o ra l re stra in ts on this m o tiv e so
th at it fosters in d iv id u a l self-interest w ithin a social c o n te x t a n d does
not v iolate the I sla m ic g o a ls o f social a n d e co n o m ic ju s t ic e a n d e q u it ­
a b le d is tr ib u tio n o f in co m e a n d wealth.
R e c o g n i t io n b y I s l a m o f th e fr e e d o m o f e n te rp rise a l o n g with the
in stitution o f p r iv ate p ro p e rty a n d the profit m otive , d oes not m a k e the
Islam ic system a k in to c a p it a l is m w hich is b a se d on freedo m o f e n te r ­
prise. T h e differen ce is sig n ifican t a n d is d u e to tw o im p o r t a n t reasons.
F irstly , in the I s l a m ic sy ste m , e ve n t h o u g h p r o p e r ty is a llo w e d to be
p r iv a t e l y o w n e d it is to b e c o n s id e r e d a s a tru st fro m G o d , b e c a u s e
e v e r y th in g in the h e a v e n s a n d e a rth really b e lo n g s to G o d a n d , m a n
61. Ja z f r f , v. 2, pp. 283-84.
192 I S L A M : I T S M E A N I N G A N I) M E S S A G E

b e in g the v icegeren t o f G o d , e n jo y s the righ t o f o w n e r sh ip o n ly a s a

trust. S a y s the Q u r ’a n :

T o G o d b e lo n g s w h atev er is in the heavens a n d w h atev er is in the

earth (2: 28 4 );
S a y : T o w h o m b e lo n g the e a r th a n d w h o e v e r is th erein, if you
kn o w ? T h e y will say : T o G o d . S a y : W ill you n ot then m i n d ? (23:
84 -5 ).;
A n d g iv e th e m o f th e w e a lth o f G o d w h ic h H e h a s g iv e n you
(24: 33).

S e c o n d ly , b e c a u s e m a n is the vicegeren t o f G o d a n d the w ealth he

ow n s is a trust from H i m , he is therefore b o u n d by the co n d itio n s o f the
trust, or m ore specifically, the m o ra l v a lu e s o f I sla m , p a rtic u la rly the
v a lu e s o f h alal a n d haram, b ro th e r-h o od , social a n d e c o n o m ic ju stic e ,
e q u ita b le d istrib u tio n o f in co m e a n d w ealth , a n d fostering the c o m ­
m on g o o d . T h e w ealth he ow n s sh o u ld be a c q u ir e d in a c c o r d a n c e with
the te a ch in g s o f Islam a n d should be used for the ob je ctive s for w hich it
h as b e e n c r e a t e d . S a i d the H o ly P r o p h e t : ‘T h i s w e a l t h is c e r t a in l y
green a n d sweet ( e n ticin g); b u t he w h o a c q u ir e s it rightfully, for h im it
is a n excellent a ssista n t, while he w h o a c q u ir e s it w itho ut his right, is
like on e w h o c a ts b u t never sa t ia te s.’62
W h a t difference d o the two factors - h o ld in g p rop e rty a s a trust from
G o d , a n d th e c o m m i t m e n t to s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s - m a k e , will b e c o m e
a p p a r e n t if so m e o f the lim ita tio n s o f the m ark et system , in the c a p i ­
talist fr a m e o f reference, are discussed.
First, the m ark e t system represen ts a p leb iscite w h ere e a c h unit o f
cu rren cy spent by an in d iv id u a l represen ts a ballo t a n d where n a tio n al
re so u rce s g et a u t o m a t i c a l l y a ll o c a t e d a m o n g differe n t w a n t s on the
b a s is o f to ta l b a l lo t s c a s t by all in d i v id u a l s . I f m o r e m o n e y is b e in g
spent on liq u o r th an on milk, it is b e cau se the desire for liq u o r is m ore
urgent a n d so m ore o f the n a tio n al resources get a llo c a te d to the p r o ­
d u c tio n o f liquor. T h is, a c c o r d in g to the price system , brings a b o u t an
o p t im u m a llo ca tio n o f n a tio n al resources. T h e m arket system is th e­
refore a j u d g e w h o is m o ra lly n eu tral a n d m ak e s decisions only o n the
b a sis o f the re su lts o f this p leb iscite. H o w e v e r , th e I sla m ic e c o n o m ic
system c a n n o t be m o ra lly n eu tral. In Islam , the a llo ca tio n o f resources
is o p t i m u m if it is first in co n fo rm ity with the n orm s o f Islam a n d then
in a c c o r d a n c e w ith c o n s u m e r s ’ preferences. In a truly I sla m ic society
there is no likelihood o f an y div erg e n c e between the two. B u t, if there is
62. Muslim, v. 2, p. 728: 122.
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISLA M IC E CO N O M IC O RD ER 193

a n y d iv e r g e n c e , th en th e s t a t e c a n n o t be a p a ssiv e o b se rv e r. It m u st
e d u c a t e p u b lic o p in io n in a c c o r d a n c e with the te a ch in g s o f l s l a m an d
g u id e a n d r e g u la te the m a c h in e ry o f p ro d u ctio n a n d d is tr ib u tio n so as
to b r in g a b o u t a n a llo c a t io n o f resources w hich is in co n form ity with
the g o a ls o f Islam . T h e r e arises the q u e stio n o f w h o will d e c id e w hether
the a llo c a t io n o f resources is o r is not in c o n fo r m ity with the te ach in g s
o f I sla m . T h i s w o u ld not be d o n e by the h ie r a rc h y o f a n y o r g a n iz e d
ch u rc h , w hich I sla m h a s n ot e sta b lish e d , but by the d e m o c r a tic p ro ­
cess o f d ecision m a k in g inherent in the p olitical te a ch in g s o f l s l a m .
S e c o n d the m a r k e t sy stem a ss u m e s th at the w a n ts o f different in d i­
v i d u a ls c a n be c o m p a r e d w ith re sp e ct to th e ir u r g e n c y by th e use o f
prices b e c a u s e e a c h unit o f c u rre n cy represen ts a ballo t. T h e w il­
lin gn e ss o n the p a r t o f tw o in d i v id u a l s to s p e n d a n e q u a l a m o u n t o f
m on ey is a s s u m e d to in d ic a te w a n ts o f e q u a l urgency. Ev en if such an
in t e r - p e r s o n a l c o m p a r i s o n o f th e u r g e n c y o f w a n t s is p o s s i b l e , the
f r c e - p l a y o f th e m a r k e t fo r c e s fo r a d e s i r e d a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s
w o u ld r e q u ire th a t there exist an e q u i t a b l e d is tr ib u t io n o f in c o m e in
the e c o n o m y . In the a b s e n c e o f such a n e q u it a b le d istrib u tio n o f in­
c o m e in the e c o n o m y , a llo c a t io n o f resources p r o d u c e d by the m ark et
system m a y n ot be in c o m f o r m i t y with the w ishes o f the m a jo r i t y o f
co n su m e rs. It w o u ld a llo w the u p p e r s tr a ta o f in co m e g ro u p s, g ettin g a
share o f n a tio n a l in c o m e s ig n ific an tly m o re th a n in p rop o rtio n to their
n u m e r ic a l size, to d iv e rt sca rc e n a tio n a l resources, b y the sheer w eight
o f their votes, into p r o d u c ts co n sid e re d socially less desirab le. T h e r e ­
fore, the r e s u lta n t a ll o c a t io n o f re so u rce s w o u ld a ls o be so c ia lly less
d e sira b le . O f itself the price system is not co n c e rn e d with how m a n y
votes a n in d iv id u a l h as; it is co n cern ed with the a g g r e g a t e o f votes in
fa v o u r o f a n y o n e g o o d or service relative to so m e o th er g o o d or service.
I'h erc fo rc, a n e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f in c o m e , w h ic h is o n e o f the
g o a l s o f th e I s l a m i c s y s t e m is a p r e r e q u i s i t e to th e a t t a i n m e n t o f a
d e sira b le a llo c a t io n o f resources th ro u g h the fu n c tio n in g o f the price
system.
T h i r d , there m a y be im p e r fe c tio n s in the efficient o p e r a tio n o f the
m ark e t forces in tro d u c ed by m o n o p o lies or m o n o p so n ies, or c o n d i­
tions in w h ich prices m a y not reflect real costs or benefits. N o t o n ly that
prices o f g o o d s or services m a y be far a b o v e o p p o r tu n ity c osts or that
p a y m e n t s to re so u rce ow n e rs m a y be fa r a b o v e or below the v a lu e o f
th e ir c o n t r i b u t i o n to re al o u t p u t , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e s o c ia l c o s t s a n d
b e n e f it s m a y b e d i s r e g a r d e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e i r a c c o u n t i n g
a lth o u g h these costs or benefits m a y be very im p o r t a n t from the point
194 i s i .a m : its m e a n i n g a n d m e s s a g e

o f view o f social w elfare w hich carries a significant w eigh t in the Isla­

m ic s y stem . T h e self-correctin g te n d e n c ie s in the price system w hich
tends to e lim in a t e the d iv erg e n c e betw een p riv ate a n d social interests
m a y take a n in to lera b le lon g tim e b e ca u se o f the im p e rfec tio n s usually-
fo u n d in the o p e r a tio n o f the m a r k e t, a n d the lim ited horizon o f in d i­
v id u a ls a n d firms. In the face o f such im p erfectio n s, the m ark e t system
a lo n e , w itho ut so m e g u id a n c e , re g u la tio n , a n d co n trol from a welfare-
oriented g o v e rn m e n t, m a y not be a b le to a ch ie v e a n o p t im u m a ll o c a ­
tion o f resources.
F o u r th , in the c a p it a l is t m ark e t system , since the in d iv id u a l is the
p r im a r y o w n e r o f his ow n g o o d s ,h e m a y d o w h at he p le a se s with them.
H en ce there is no m o r a l san ctio n a g a in s t d e stru ctio n o f o u tp u t by. say
b u r n i n g o r d u m p i n g in t o th e o c e a n , in o r d e r to r a is e p r ic e s o r to
m a i n t a i n th e m a t a h ig h er level. B u t in the I sla m ic s y ste m , sin ce all
w ealth is a trust from G o d . it w ou ld be a g rav e m o ra l c r im e to d o so.
D e stro y in g bo th life a n d p rop e rty h as been d e c la r e d by the Q u r ’a n to
be e q u i v a l e n t to s p r e a d i n g m is c h ie f a n d c o r r u p ti o n in the w orld (2:
205). It w a s this te a c h in g o f the Q u r ' a n , w h ich p r o m p t e d A b u B akr,
the first C a l ip h , to instruct his gen eral, Y a z f d ibn A b f S u f y a n , g oin g on
a w a r a ss ig n m e n t, not to kill in d iscrim in ately , or to d e stroy v e g e ta b le
or a n i m a l life e ve n in e n e m y territory.M I f this is n ot a llo w e d in w ar,
there is n o q u e s t i o n o f its b e in g a ll o w e d in p e a c e , a n d th a t to o for
raisin g prices! T h e social cost o f such a n act is m u ch too high a n d the
I s l a m ic s t a t e j u s t c a n n o t a llo w it. F ifth , by itself the m a r k e t sy ste m ,
even u n d e r c o n d itio n s o f h ealth y c o m p e titio n w h ich is a prereq uisite
for its efficient o p e r a tio n , has m a n ife s t e d no inherent te n d e n c y to solve
the e c o n o m ic p r o b le m s o f u n e m p lo y m e n t, e c o n o m ic flu c tu a tio n s a n d
s t a g n a t i o n , o r to b r in g a b o u t a n e q u i t a b l e d is tr i b u t io n o f th e social
p ro d u ct. T h e re has, therefore, to be so m e direction a n d re gu la tio n by a
g oal-orien ted gov ern m en t.
S ix t h , su cce ss in the c o m p e titiv e s tr u g g le m a y be p o ssib le th rou g h
m e a n s w h ich a r e m o r a ll y q u e s t io n a b le , a n d w h ich conflict with the
g o a l s o f s o c i a l <fnd e c o n o m i c j u s t i c e a n d e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
in c o m e . T h e r e f o r e , u n l e s s th e r e a r e m o r a l c h e c k s on i n d i v i d u a l s
a c c o m p a n i e d by e f f e c t i v e r e g u l a t i o n s b y a m o r a l l y - o r i e n t e d
g o v e r n m e n t , c o m p e t i t i o n m a y n o t n e c e s s a r i l y e l i m i n a t e th e
inefficient, rew ard so cially useful b e h a v io u r, en force social a n d e co ­
n o m ic ju st ic e a n d foster a n e q u it a b le d istrib u tio n o f incom e.
63. (p. 26) M alik Aiuwatta. v. 2, p. 448: 10. See also M a w a r d f at-Ahkam al-
Sultamyah, Cairo, 1960, p. 34
 O B JE C T IV E S O F T H E ISLA M IC ECO NO M IC O RD ER 195

T h e r e f o r e , a l t h o u g h th e m a r k e t s y s t e m h a s b e e n r e c o g n is e d b y
I s l a m b e c a u s e o f th e f r e e d o m it o ffers to i n d i v i d u a l s it is n ot to be
c o n s id e r e d s a c r e d a n d in a lt e r a b le . It is the g o a ls o f M u s l i m so cie ty
w hich are m o re im p o r t a n t . T h e m ark e t system is only one o f the m e a n s
to a tt a in these g o a ls , p a r tic u la r ly the g o a l o f in d iv id u a l feeedom . T h e
m a r k e t s y s t e m m u s t th e r e f o r e b e m o d if ie d a s n e c e s s a r y to m a k e it
co n fo rm to the id e als o f Islam a s m u ch a s possible. A n activ e role o f the
g o v e rn m e n t h as been recog n ized by I slam for the p u r p o se of a ch ie v in g
the desired m o d ific a tio n s in the o p e r a tio n o f the m ark et. But g o ­
v e rn m en t in terv en tion a lo n e c a n n o t create a h ealth y m ark e t e co n o m y
orien ted to ju s t ic e a n d social w elfare even th o u g h it ca n re m o ve som e
o f th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e m a r k e t s y st e m . O t h e r s h o r t c o m i n g s o f the
m arket system ca n be re m o v e d on ly by the e m e rg en ce o f social health
at a d e e p e r level to be a t t a i n e d by d o v e t a ili n g the e c o n o m ic sy ste m
with a m o r a l p h il o s o p h y th a t a ls o i n c o r p o r a t e s n o r m s o f so c ia l a n d
e c o n o m i c j u s t i c e , e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t io n o f in c o m e a n d w e a lth a n d
social welfare. H e n c e the s h a r p distin ction betw een Islam a n d c a p i t a ­
lism w h i c h , in s p i t e o f its p r e s e n t r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e ro le o f th e
g o v e r n m e n t in th e e c o n o m y , is n e v e rth eless e ss e n t ia lly s e c u l a r a n d
lacks a m o r a lly -b a s e d p h ilo so p h y for social a n d e c o n o m ic ju st ic e a n d
pub lic w elfare.
 Part IV
Islam and the W orld
 12

W hat Islam Gave to Humanity*

Abdul Hamid Siddiqui

I S L A M , a s it h a s b e e n d e c l a r e d by th e H o ly Q u r ’a n , is the p erfect
religion a n d in fa c t the c o m p le tio n o f the L o r d ’s fa v o u r u p o n m a n so
far a s the re g u la tio n o f his life is co n cern e d .

'T h is d a y I h a v e p e rfecte d y o u r religion for y o u, c o m p l e t e d M y

fa v o u r s u p o n you a n d h av e chosen for you A l-Islam a s y o u r religion.
( a l - Q u r ’a n , 5 : 4).

T h is verse e lo q u e n t ly s p e a k s o f the fact that the f a v o u r s o f A lla h in

th e fo rm o f D in ( C o d e o f life) h a v e been p e r f e c te d in A l-lsla m a n d
n o th in g th at is not rooted in it, w h eth er in the fo rm o f b e lie f or in the
fo rm o f i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c ia l b e h a v i o u r , is a c c e p t a b l e to A ll a h . A
religion a s self-co n tain ed a n d realistic a s I sla m is, m u st p ro v id e a n s w ­
ers to all sp ir it u a l a n d s e c u la r q u e st io n s a n d s h o u ld offer to h u m a n ity
not only a new m e ta p h y s ic a l ou tloo k, but a c o m p r e h e n siv e p ro ­
g r a m m e o f revolu tion in h u m a n life b o th in its in d iv id u a l a n d social
aspects.
L e t us start with the very b a sic c o n ce p t o f religion. T o a n o n -M u s lim
n urtu red on a tr a d itio n a l c o n ce p t o f religion, it is o n ly a p riv ate rela­
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a n a n d h is C r e a t o r . B u t f o r a M u s l i m r e lig io n
c o m p r e h e n d s the w h ole o f life its p a tte r n o f th o u g h t a n d b e h a v io u r.
It posits the ideal o f a life in w hich, fro m the c r a d le to the g rav e , not a
sin gle m o m e n t is sp en t o u t o f tu n e with or m erely u n p r o v id e d for by a

* This article was published in The Criterion, Journ al of the Islamic Research
A cadem y, K a ra c h i, Vol. 3, No. 3. M av -Jun e, 1968. R eproduced with the
permission of the editor.
200 isla m : its m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

religio us rulin g. N o sphere is left in which the th o u g h ts a n d d e e d s o f a

M u s l im bo th in his p e rso n a l a n d p u b lic life — a r c in co n se q u e n tia l
fo r h is fa te in th e h e r e a fte r. In short in I s l a m , o n e c a n n o t find a no
m a n ’s lan d to w h ic h religion d o e s not lay a c l a im . T h a t is the reason
why A lla h e x h o rts p e o p le to a c c e p t I sla m in its entirety:

‘O you w h o believe! c o m e all o f you

into s u b m iss io n (to H i m ) ;
follow not the fo o tste p s o f the devil.
H e is a n o p e n e n e m y for y o u .’ ( a l- Q u r 'a n , 2: 208).

I sla m is the o n ly religion o f the w orld w hich know s no d istin ctio n

b etw en the re lig io u s a n d secu la r, bu t views in on e sw eep the entire life
o f m a n . T h e p h ilo so p h y o f ethics, law a n d m orals, m a n n e r s a n d m ores,
arts a n d sciences, fo rm s o f social, p olitical a n d e c o n o m ic o r g a n iz a tio n
in c lu d in g the n a tu r e o f fa m ily a n d m a r r ia g e sid e by side with the
p r o b le m s o f w orsh ip a n d th eology — h ave their le g itim a te p la c e in the
all-in clusive sy ste m o f Isla m . T h e Q u r ’a n calls u p o n M u s l im s to say :

‘V e rily m y p r a y e r s a n d m y sacrifices a n d m y life a n d d e a t h a r e all

for A ll a h .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 6: 163).

It m e a n s that the w h o le life o f m a n in all its s p h e r e s s h o u ld be an

expressio n o f c o m p l e t e su b m issio n to A lla h , the C r e a t o r o f this U n i ­
verse a n d the R ig h tfu l M aste r.
T h e w o rd ‘Ibadah d o e s not sig n ify w orsh ip only. It s t a n d s for s u b ­
m ission a n d p ra y er, a n d w o rsh ip is only a sy m b o l o f su b m ission .

‘ Follow th at w h ich is sent d o w n to w ard s you fro m y o u r L o r d ; a n d

follow not a n y p a tr o n s b e sid e H i m . ’ ( a l- Q u r 'a n , 7: 3).

It im p lies that o n ly by o b e y in g the c o m m a n d s o f A lla h v o u ch sa fe d

to h u m a n i t y th ro u g h the H oly P ro p h e t, on e proves o n e ’s fidelity a n d
loyalty to G o d .
T h e n th e Q u r ' a n a l s o e x p l a i n s th a t A ll a h o u t o f H is b o u n d l e s s
fa v o u rs a n d infinite m ercy h as revealed e v e r y th in g that a m a n n eeds in
fo llow in g the p a th o f righteousness.

‘S h a ll I then seek a j u d g e o th er th an A llah when I le it is w h o has

sent d o w n to you the B o ok fully e x p l a in e d .’ ( a l- Q u r 'a n , 6: 115).

I h e p e o p le w h o c a s t a s i d e the t e a c h in g s o f A lla h a n d th ose o f the

A p o stle a n d follow the o t h e r p a t h s d e v ia t i n g from the one sh o w n by
G o d A lm ig h ty arc in fact the w ron g d oe rs:
 W H A T ISL A M G A V E TO H U M A N ITY 201

‘O r h av e they a sso c ia te s w h o h av e p rescribed for them a n y reli­

gion th at A lla h d oes not s a n c tio n ? A n d were it not, for the w ord o f
j u d g e m e n t , it w o u ld h av e been d e c id e d betw een them . A n d surely
for the w r o n g d o e r s is a p a in fu l c h a stis e m e n t.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 42: 21).
T h e Q u r ’a n e m p h a t i c a l ly asserts th a t o n ly Islam is to be follow ed in
every sp h e re o f life a n d those w h o ta k e a co u rse o f a c tio n o th er th an the
one s a n c t io n e d by A lla h a r e w r o n g d o e r s since they, besides G o d , look
to so m e o th er deities for h elp a n d g u id a n c e .
T h e b a sic c o n c e p t o f religion in Islam is that it is a s vital a necessity
a s the su n sh in e a n d air. J u s t a s the S u s ta in e r a n d the N o u rish e r o f the
world h as m a d e prov ision o f all those th in gs which a m a n needs for his
p h ysical d e v e lo p m e n t, in the s a m e w ay , I le h as v o u c h s a fe d to h im the
D iv in e k n o w le d g e not on ly for the satisfaction o f his religious y e a r ­
nings, b u t for the fullest g row th o f his sp ir itu a l a n d m o ra l self.

‘ H is is the cre a tio n a n d the C o m m a n d .* ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 7: 54).

T h e L o r d w h o h a s cre ate d this w orld a n d all th at exists in it a n d has

c re a te d resources to m a in ta in it a n d lead it to perfection , has also given
al-Islam , a C o d e o f life by fo llo w in g w h ich m a n c a n find p e a c e a n d
h a p p in e s s in this w orld a n d the w orld to com e. T h e m a n w h o d o e s not
follow it in letter a n d spirit a n d ta k e s m a n - m a d e law s for g u id a n c e is
d e scrib e d by the Q u r ’a n a s on e w h o h as taken oth ers a s his L o r d s in
d e r o g a tio n o f A llah .

‘T h e y take their priests a n d their a n ch o rite s to be their L o r d s in

d e r o g a t io n of A ll a h .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 9: 31).

M o s t o f the c o m m e n t a t o r s a g r e e th a t it d o e s n ot m e a n th e y took
them a c t u a l ly for g o d s a n d w o rsh ip p e d th e m ; the m e a n in g is th at they
looked u p o n them a s th e m a in s ource o f g u id a n c e a n d show ed u n c o n ­
dition al o b e d ie n c e to them . T h e y d id w h atev er they w ere c o m m a n d e d
to d o b y th eir p r ie sts a n d d id not see w h eth e r these c o m m a n d s w ere
based on the H o ly Book. It is related in a Hadith that w h en this verse
w as re v e aled , ‘A d f Ibn H a t i m , a convert from C h r istia n ity , a sk ed the
H o ly P r o p h e t a s to th e sig n ific an ce o f this verse, for he s a i d , ‘W e d id not
w orsh ip o u r priests a n d m o n k s .’ T h e H o ly P r o p h e t’s reply w as: ‘W a s it
not th at the p e o p le c o n sid e re d law ful w h at their priests d e c la r e d to be
law fu l, th o u g h it w a s fo r b id d e n by G o d . ’ H a t i m replied in the
a ffirm a tiv e , w h a t the P rop h et s a id , w a s w h at the verse m e a n t .2
T h e e xp o sitio n o f the H o ly P rop h et is clearly in d icativ e o f the fact
2. Tirmidhf.VflA/7?. Kilab J'u/siral-Qur’an. Delhi. 1353 H. p. 117.
202 ISLAM: ITS M EA N IN G AND M E SSA G E

that if a m a n takes the findings o f a n y person or institution which are

not s u b s t a n t i a t e d by th e r e v e l a t i o n s , a s fin al a n d a c c e p t s th e m a s
gospel tru th s he is c o m m it t i n g the g r a v e offence o f a s s o c ia tin g o th er
gods with A lla h . The L o r d s h ip o f A llah is unriv alled a n d it necessitates
the c o m p le t e s u b m iss io n o f m a n to H im in all w alks a n d sp heres o f life
a n d the rejection o f e v e ry th in g which is not su p p o r te d b y the Shari'ah.
T h e Islam ic co n cep t o f religion a s a c o m p le te C o d e o f Life has in fact
s p ir itu a liz e d all a sp e c t s o f h u m a n existence. It w as h ith erto th o u g h t
that the spirit a n d m a t t e r are entities essentially o p p o se d to e ac h other.
R elig ion is co n c e rn e d only with t h e s o u l a n d h as n o th in g t o d o with the
m u n d a n e a c t i v i t i e s o f h u m a n life w h ic h a r e n o t h i n g b u t evil. T h e
highest g o o d , in the eyes o f n o n -M u s lim th eologian s, w as therefore to
sp u r n the w o rld ly a ffa ir s o f m a n a n d s p e n d o n e ’s life in a co n v e n t or
cave, seeking o n e ’s r e d e m p tio n by freeing on e's spirit from the e n t a n ­
g le m en ts o f m a t te r a n d restoring it to its ideal s ta te from which it has
lapsed by a n in c o m p re h e n s ib le a c t o f perv ersity ca lle d the ‘O r ig in a l
S i n '. It w a s d u e to th is n o t io n th a t s e l f - t o r t u r e r e m a i n e d fo r s o m e
cen tu ries the c h ie f m e a s u re o f h u m a n excellence in M e d ie v a l E u ro p e
a n d t e n s o f th o u s a n d s o f the m ost d evoted m en fled to the w ilderness to
in ducc g od lin ess by laceration . All h u m a n relation s were rent a su n d e r
a n d the r e l i g i o u s m a n took his a b o d e in th e g h o s t ly g lo o m o f th e
se p u lc h r e , a m i d m o u l d e r i n g c o r p se s, w h en the d e se rt w in d s o b b e d
roun d his lonely cell, a n d the cries o f w ild beasts were born e u p o n his
ears.
A new c o n c e p t o f p ir t v b a s e d on self-denial c a m e in to bein g . The
d e p r a v it y o f h u m a n n a tu r e , e sp e c ia lly th e s u p p o s e d essen tial evil o f
the b o d y , led to the a b s o l u t e s u p p r e ssio n o f the w hole s e n su a l side o f
m an . I’he c h ie f form o f virtue w hich entitled m a n to salv a tio n , w as a
p e rp e tu a l stru g g le a g a in s t all c a r n a l im pulses. R elig io n thus a ssu m e d
a very s o m b r e hue in w hich there w as no hope, n o joy. T h e p io u s m a n
dissatisfied with the w orld a n d its glory felt h im se lf a s tr a n g e r on the
earth a n d led his life on the b e lie f th at he w as d r e a d fu lly fettered by his
b o d y a n d s a w in it a w re tch e d p rison a n d g r a v e . T h e th o u g h t o f the
an cien t o rp h ic p la y on the G reek word for ‘ b o d y ’ ( S o m a - S e i m a ) b o d y
prison, w hich P la to a p p r o p r ia t e d , ru n s th rou gh the religious literature
o f all C h r is tia n coun tries. T h e fettered soul, it w as believed, m ust yearn
for freedo m from the b o u n d s o f ph ysical o r g a n is m in o r d e r to s o a r to
h e a v e n ly h eigh ts. This c o u l d be a c h ie v e d only if a m a n tore h im se lf
forcibly fro m all the e n s n a r in g c h a r m s o f the o u te r w orld a n d in fact
the w hole w orld o f senses, in cludin g all types o f h u m a n relations.
 W H A T ISL A M G A V E TO HU M A N ITY 203

T h e id e a o f a religio us m a n w as th at o f a n e x trem e ly in d ivid u alistic,

un-social being. T o flee from the social order, a n d take u p the solitary
life is the p r e su p p o sitio n o f salv a tio n . It is in a b s o lu te loneliness, iso­
lated fro m all o t h e r h u m a n b e in g s th at the re lig io u s a n d p io u s m a n
s ta n d s face to face w ith h im se lf a n d w ith G o d . T h e u rg e s o f the flesh
a n d th e h u m a n r e l a t i o n s o b s t r u c t th e e l e v a t i o n o f th e s o u l. L e c k y
writes:

‘T o bre a k by in g r a tit u d e the heart o f the m o t h e r w h o h a d borne

h im , to p e r s u a d e the w ife w h o a d o r e d h im th a t it w as her d u t y to
s e p a r a t e fro m h im for ever, to a b a n d o n his c h ild r e n , u n c a r e d for
a n d b e g g a r s to the m ercies o f the w orld, w a s r e g a r d e d by the true
herm it a s the m ost a c c e p ta b l e offering he c o u ld m a k e to his G o d .,J

T h i s type o f religious c o n ce p t im p lies religion, a s an esoteric life fit

only for a few gifted p erson s w h o jo u r n e y to G o d a sid e from the b r o a d
h ig h -w a y on s o lita r y p a t h s o f their ow n. T h e y h a v e n o co n c e r n with
society. T h e i r bu sin ess is o n ly to sa v e their ow n souls. The severity o f
th eir d e v o tio n s h o u ld in no w ay be im p a ir e d by the d is c h a r g e o f the
s im p le r d u t ie s to h u m a n ity . T h e e x h o rta tio n o f a K e m p i s ’ ‘im itatio n o f
J e s u s ' is ‘T h i s is s o v e r e i g n w i s d o m to s t r i v e a f t e r th e k i n g d o m o f
H e a v e n b y d is p e n s in g with the w o r ld .’
W e m a y c o n c l u d e th at th e f u n d a m e n t a l p sy c h ic e x p e r ie n c e in all
o th er r e lig io n s e x c e p t I sla m is th at o f d e n i a l o f the im p u ls e o f life, a
d e n ia l born o u t o f th e w ea rin e ss o f life. T h e c a se o f I sla m is h o w e v e r
different. It l e a c h e s m a n to live w ith assertion a n d will. T h i s religion in
co n trast to the p a ssiv e, q uie te st, resign ed a tt itu d e to w a r d s e veryth in g
that is g o in g on in the w orld, e x h o rts a m a n to b e a n a c tiv e p a r tic ip a n t
in the str u g g le o f life. H e re the w orld o f m a t te r or that o f the senses is
not to be d e s p i s e d or h a t e d , b u t s h a p e d a c c o r d i n g to the will o f the
L o r d . T h e w o r l d a c c o r d i n g to I s la m is not a t o r t u r e cell w h e r e an
e le m e n ta l ly w ic k e d h u m a n i t y is to live for the p u r g a t io n o f its soul.
T h i s w o r ld w ith a ll its r e s o u r c e s is a s a c r e d tru st fr o m th e L o r d by
m e a n s o f w h ich m a n c a n show his true w orth. It m u st not therefore be
s p u r n e d , b u t p ro p e rly used. T h i s b o d y is not a prison bu t a n effective
in s tr u m e n t fo r th e spirit to a c h ie v e its g o a l. I sla m s t a n d s in strik in g
c o n tra st to m ost religion s o f the w orld in this a sp e ct. In o th er religions
piety is s y n o n y m o u s with the d e n ia l o f life, on the c o n tr a ry a c c o rd in g
to I s la m p ie ty s t a n d s for b e l ie f in life a n d its a sse rtio n a n d th ro w in g
on eself jo y fu lly a n d resolutely in its a r m s . O n the on e h a n d there is an
3. Ix;cky, History oj European Morals, Longman, 1910, Vol. II, p. 125.
204 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

u n c o m p r o m is in g d e n ia l, o n the o th er there is a n in c o m p a r a b l e h ope

a n d will.
T h e first th in g th at Islam im p resses on the m i n d s o f t h e p e o p le is that
this w orld a n d all th a t exists in it h av e been cre ate d not for m ere trilling
but h av e been b r o u g h t into existence with definite a i m s a n d p urposes.

‘A n d we cre ate d not the h eaven a n d the earth a n d w h at is b e ­

tween them for sport. H a d we wished to take a p a stim e , we w ould
h ave it fro m before O u rse lve s, b u t by no m e a n s w ou ld we d o (so).’
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 21: 16. 17).

T h e n in the Surah a l Dukhan, the H o ly Q u r ’a n e m p h a tic a lly says that

this w orld is c r e a te d with a D ivin e purp ose.

‘ W e c r e a t e d n o t th e h e a v e n s , the e a r t h a n d all b e tw e e n th e m
m erely in (idle sp ort). W e cre ate d them not e xcept for ju s t e n d s ; but
m ost o f th e m d o not u n d e r st a n d .' ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 44: 3 8 ,3 9 ) .

Then a d d r e s s in g the h u m a n beings the H o ly Q u r 'a n observes:

‘D o you then think th at W e h av e cre ate d you in v a in ? ’ (al-

Q u r ’a n , 23: 115).

E v e r y th in g th at h a s been cre ate d by the L o r d has not only a divine

p u rp o se to serve, bu t it h as been s h a p e d into perfect form. T h e r e is no
flaw o r d e fe c t in it. T h e w o n d e r fu l b e a u t y o f c r e a t io n fro m the tiny
a t o m to the brillian t s ta r in the r ealm o f m a tte r , a n d from the sm allest
a n d to the m ost d e v e lo p e d form o f life all sp e a k to the L o r d ’s perfect
wisdom .

‘S u c h is th e K n o w e r o f th e u n s e e n a n d th e s e e n , th e M i g h t y ,
M ercifu l, w h o m a d e b e a u tifu l e v e ry th in g th at H e c r e a t e d .’ (al-
Q u r ’a n , 32: 6, 7).

All these verses clearly sp e a k o f the fact that there is n oth in g evil in
the c r e a t io n o f th e w o rld a n d th a t o f m a n . It is b e a u t if u l, in p r o p e r
p ro p o r tio n a n d a d a p t e d for the fu n ctio n s it h as to perform .
M a n , a c c o r d in g to I sla m , is m a d e o f the goo dliest fa b ric,4 he w hom
even the M a la ’ik ( a n g e ls) were m a d e to offer o b eisan ce, a n d for w hom
w h atso e v e r is in the e arth is m a d e to d o service."
A c c o r d in g to I s l a m there is no s t i g m a a t t a c h e d to a n y in d i v id u a l
a n d he shall not suffer for a n y sin c o m m it te d by a n y o f his ancestors.
4. al-Qur’an, 95:4.
5. Ibid., 2: 29,34.
 W H A T ISL A M G A V E T O H U M A N ITY 205

‘ E v e r y soul e a r n s o n ly to its o w n a c c o u n t: no b e a r e r o f b u r d e n s
c a n b e a r the b u r d e n o f a n o th e r .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 6: 164).

Elsew here we h av e:

‘T h a t n o b e a r e r o f b u r d e n s h e a v e s th e b u r d e n o f a n o t h e r , a n d
th at m a n sh all h ave n o th in g b u t w h at he strives for.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 53:
38, 39).

T h e s e v e r s e s c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e p u d i a t e th e C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e o f
a to n e m e n t a n d the in b orn in dign ity o f e arth ly life. M a n is responsible
for h is o w n a c t i o n s a n d his s t a t u s in p ie ty is d e t e r m i n e d by his ow n
d e e d s a n d m isd e e d s. H e is n eith er born sinful a c c o r d in g to C h r is tia n
id e a n or is he o rig in a lly low a n d im p u r e a n d h as p a in fu lly to sta g g e r
th r o u g h a l o n g c h a i n o f i n c a r n a t i o n s t o w a r d s t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l o f
perfection.

T h e r e is n o c o n flic t b e t w e e n th e b o d y a n d sou l o f m a n in I sla m .

Physical u rg e s a r e a n in tegral p a r t o f m a n ’s n a tu r e : not the result o f the
o r i g i n a l sin , a n d th e r e fo re th e y a r e p o s it iv e , G o d - g iv e n forces to be
a c c e p t e d a n d se n s ib ly u sed for the s p ir it u a l g ro w th o f m a n . P iety in
Islam d o e s not co n sist in su p p r e s s in g the d e m a n d s o f the b o d y , it a im s
at c o -o r d in a tin g th e m with the d e m a n d s o f the spirit in such a w ay that
life m ig h t b e c o m e full a n d rig h te o u s. T h e M u s l im s h av e been a sk ed
not to fo rb id th e m se lv es the use o f the b o u n tie s o f the L o rd .

‘S a y : W h o h as fo r b id d e n the b e a u tifu l g ifts o f G o d , w h ich he has

b r o u g h t fo rth fo r H i s s e r v a n t s ? A n d the t h in g s , c l e a n a n d p u re ,
which H e h as p r o v id e d for su ste n a n ce . M y L o r d fo rbids only in d e ­
cencies such o f th e m a s a r e a p p a r e n t a n d such a s a re co n c e a le d a n d
sin a n d h ig h h a n d e d n e s s w itho ut ju stic e , a n d that ye a sso c ia te with
A llah that for w hich H e h as not sent d o w n an y a u t h o r ity a n d that
you s a y o f A lla h w h at you know n o t .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 7: 3 2 ,3 3 ) .

It m e a n s th at d e m a n d s o f th e b o d y arc the integral p a rts o f h u m a n

p e rso n a lity a n d m a n ’s sp ir itu a l g row th is in tim a te ly linked u p with all
o th er a sp e c t s o f his n a tu re , in c lu d in g urges o f th e flesh. T h e d e n ia l o f
the b o u n tie s o f th e L o r d in the form o f the m a te r ia l w orld is n o virtu e in
I sla m , b u t the real virtu e lies in a v o id in g a n d re je ctin g e v e ry th in g that
the L o r d h as fo r b id d e n . I slam d o e s not c o n d e m n o u tr ig h t the a p p e t ite s
o f m a n ; it ju stifie s them to th e exten t w here a m a n ca n p ut a restraint
u p o n th e m a n d co n tro l th e m a c c o r d in g to the m o ra l co n sciou sn ess a n d
thus use th e m for sp ir itu a l d e v e lo p m e n t.
206 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

‘O you a p o stles! E a t o f th ings that are good a n d d o w h at is right;

o f y o u r g o o d th in g s I a m c o g n iz a n t.’ (a l-Q u r 'a n , 23: 51).

A M u s l im h as been a sk e d to beg from his L o rd the g o o d o f this world

a n d the w orld to c o m e 6 b e c a u s e his sa lv a tio n d e p e n d s u p o n his right
a n d p ro p e r b e h a v io u r in this m a te r ia l world a n d the w ay in which he
e xp lo its the m a te r ia l resources for the a d v a n c e m e n t o f his sp iritu a l self.
T h e a tt itu d e o f Islam to w ard s the ph ysical needs o f a m an ca n be well
ju d g e d fro m the fo llo w in g H adith. It is n a r r a t e d on the a u t h o r it y o f
‘A b d A llah b. ‘A m r b. al-‘A s th at he w a s on ce a sk ed by the H o ly P r o ­
phet w h eth e r it w a s correct that he ob se rve d fasts d u r in g the d a y s a n d
sp en d n ig h ts s ta n d in g in prayer. ‘A b d A lla h affirm ed that. T h e H oly
P ro p h e t o b s e r v e d : ‘ D o n ’ t d o th at. K e e p fast at tim es a n d bre a k it at
tim e s , o ffer p r a y e r a n d g o to b e d a ls o . Y o u r b o d y h a s a rig h t u p o n
y o u .’7
T h i s H a d ith s p e a k s in u n e q u iv o c a l te r m s o f the fact th a t I s la m is
e m p h a tic a lly o p p o s e d to those p seu do-m ystics, oth er w orldly idealists
a n d self-centred ascetics w h o co m p lete ly ignore the urges o f the flesh. It
b o ld ly say s ‘yes’ to the w orld o f m a t te r a n d a c c e p ts it with all its lim i­
t a t io n s a n d risks, b u t it t e a c h e s u s, n o n e th e le s s , n ot to a t t r i b u t e to
e a rth ly life th at e x a g g e r a t e d v a lu e which m o d e rn civilization a tt r i­
bu tes to it.
‘ M o n a s t i c i s m ’, the cult o f re tire m en t from the w orld into solitu de,
o n ly to le a d a life o f p r a y e r a n d m e d i t a t i o n , is a li e n to th e s p irit o f
Islam .
‘ B u t the m o n a s t ic is m w hich they in n o v a te d for th em selv es, We
d id not p re s c r ib e for them . (W e c o m m a n d e d ) only the see k in g for
the p le a su re o f G o d , bu t that they d id not foster, a s they sh o u ld h ave
d o n e .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 5 7 : 27).

G o d c e rta in ly say s th at m a n sh o u ld re n o u n ce the idle p le a su re s o f

life a n d keep his urges a n d im p u lse s u n d e r full control. But that does
not m e a n g lo o m y life, nor p e r p e tu a l a n d fo rm a l p ra y e rs in isolation.
G o d ’s service is d o n e th ro u g h p u re lives in the tu rm o il o f this w orld.
‘N o rahbamyya in I s l a m ’ is the oft q u o te d s a y in g of the H o ly Prop h et. It
is n a r r a t e d on the a u t h o r it y o f S a ‘d bin A b f W a q q a s th a t w h en the
wife o f ‘ U t h m a n bin M a z ' u n c o m p l a i n e d of b e in g n eg lec te d by her
h u s b a n d , M u h a m m a d (p e a c e be upon h im ) a d v ise d him , say in g,
‘ M o n a s t ic is m w as not prescribed to us. D o you detest the n orm g iven to
6. a l-Q u r’an, 2: 201.
7. Bukharf, Sahih: Kitab al-Sawm.
 W H A T I S L A M G A VF. T O H U M A N I T Y 207

you by m e .’ H e r e p lie d in th e n e g a tiv e . U p o n this the H o ly P r o p h e t

re m a rk e d : ‘ M y p r a c tic e is that I offer p ra y e r a n d e n joy sleep, I o b serve
fast a n d relish food, I m a r r y a n d divorce; he w h o d e v ia te s from the p ath
show n by m e h as n o th in g to d o with me. O , ‘U t h m a n , y o u r fa m ily has
a right u p o n you. Y o u r ow n se lf h as a right u p o n y o u . ' 1
T h e very c h a p t e r from w hich the a b o v e m en tion e d Ifadith is q u o te d
stresses the point th at the H o ly P ro p h e t fo rb a d e p e o p le to retire from
the w orld a n d d e v o te th em selv es exclu siv ely to p ra y er a n d m ed ita tio n
a n d to d e n y all w orldly p le a su res for themselves.
I sla m is not a religion o f self-denial, b u t that o f self-assertion u p to
the lim it p rescrib e d by A llah . It in spires co n fid e n ce in m a n a n d p e r ­
s u a d e s h im to lea d his life in a cre a tiv e m a n n e r , a n d thus strengthen his
i n d i v id u a l it y th r o u g h a c tiv e c o n t a c t with his m a t e r ia l a n d c u lt u r a l
e n v ir o n m e n t. T h i s stron g , a c tiv e p e rso n a lity is how ever to be d e d i c a t ­
ed to the servicc o f the L o rd .
‘ W hile the C h r is t i a n o u tlo o k ,’ say s M u h a m m a d A s a d , ‘im p lie s th at
e a r t h l y life is a b a d b u s i n e s s , the m o d e r n W e st — a s d is t i n c t fro m
C h ristian ity a d o r e s life in e x a c t l y th e s a m e w a y a s th e g l u t t o n
a d o r e s his fo o d : he d e v o u r s it, bu t h a s n o respect for it. Isla m , o n the
o th er h a n d , looks u p o n e arth ly life with respect. It d o e s not w o rsh ip it,
but r e g a r d s it a s a n o r g a n ic s ta g e on o u r w a y to a h igh er existence. But
just b e c a u s e it is a s t a g e , a n d a n e c e ssa r y s ta g e , m a n h a s n o rig h t to
d e s p is e or e ve n to u n d e r r a t e the v a l u e o f his e a r t h l y life. O u r travel
th rou g h this w orld is a n ecessary, p ositive part in G o d 's plan . H u m a n
life, therefore, is o f tr e m e n d o u s v a lu e ; but we m ust never forget that it
is p u r e l y o f i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e . In I s la m th e r e is n o r o o m fo r the
m a t e r ia l o p t im is m o f the m o d e r n West w hich says: ‘ M y K in g d o m is o f
this w orld a lo n e ,' nor for the life c o n te m p t o f the C h r is tia n s a y in g , ‘ M y
K i n g d o m is not o f this w o r ld .’ Islam goes the m id d le w ay. T h e Q u r ’an
te a ch es us to p ra y :

‘O u r L o r d , g iv e us the g o o d in this W o rld a n d the g o o d in the

I l e r c a ft e r .’ ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 2: 201).

A n ideal p r a y e r , fa v o u r it e o f the H o lv P ro p h e t, su ccin tly s u m s u p

the ideal o f a M u s l im . T h e b l e s s in g s o f this w orld a n d those o f the world
to c o m e a r e b e g g e d for.
It s h o u ld , how ever, be noted th at the o b je ct desired a n d s o u g h t fo r is
not the ‘w o rld ’ at all bu t ‘g o o d ’ a n d g o o d only w h eresoever it m a y be
found — w h eth e r in this world or in the next.
8. Darimf,5u;/«an. K it iib - u n - S ik a h .
208 ISL A M : ITS M EA NIN G A N D M E SSA G E

T h i s r e m o v e s the p u z z lin g p a r a d o x th at m ost o f the hostile critics o f

I slam find in it. A s to recog n izin g , u sin g a n d e n jo y in g this w orld, Islam
is a m ost p ra c tic a l religion. B u t on its d oc trin e o f sa lv a tio n it is a b s o ­
l u te ly a n d e n t ir e ly o t h e r - w o r l d l y . 9 T o a n o n - M u s l i m it is in d e e d
s tr a n g e th a t b o th m a t e r ia l benefits a n d sp ir it u a l sa lv a tio n s h o u ld be
desired in on e bre a th . T h e fact is th at for a M u s l im ‘good* is the m ain
o b je ctiv e o f his life a n d it is a ch ieved by p e rfo rm in g righ teous d e ed s in
the m a te r ia l w orld. T h e a im before a M u s l im is sp ir itu a l th rou g h a n d
th ro u g h b u t a c c o r d i n g to I s l a m , it is n ot by b i d d i n g g o o d b y e to the
w orld o f m a tte r , b u t by u sin g it in a c c o r d a n c e with the D ivin e C o m ­
m a n d s th a t on e c a n a t t a i n s p ir it u a l h eigh ts. T h u s th is w orld a n d its
p le a su res a r e n o t a n e n d in th em selv es bu t these p rov id e o p p o rtu n itie s
to th e p e o p le to tr a in th e ir m o r a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h u s resist the
w e ll- n ig h i r r e s i s t ib le t e m p t a t i o n s o f th e flesh in f a c e o f th e L o r d ’s
c o m m a n d s . T h e m a te r ia l world sho uld not therefore be d e sp ise d a n d
c o n d e m n e d b u t m u st be used a s a tra in in g g r o u n d for h igh er ends.

S u re ly we h av e m a d e w h atso ev er is on the e arth a s a n a d o r n m e n t

fo r it, t h a t we m a y test th e m w h ic h o f th e m is b e st in c o n d u c t .
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 18: 7).
A n d strain not yo u r eyes to w ard s th at with w hich W e h av e p r o ­
v id ed different classes o f th e m ( o f ) the s p le n d o u r o f this w o r ld ’s life,
th a t W e m a y th e reb y try th e m . But the p ro v isio n o f y o u r L o r d is
b e tte r a n d m o re e n d u rin g . ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 20: 131).

T h u s a d o r n m e n t a n d the s p le n d o u r o f this w orld ly life — w orldly

riches, g lo ry , pow er, w ea lth , p o sitio n a n d all that the w o rsh ip p e rs o f
the w orld s c r a m b le for — are not a n e n d in th em selves for the M u slim s.
T h e possession or w an t o f th e m does not betoken a m a n 's real v a lu e or
position in the sp ir itu a l w orld , the w orld which is to e ndu re. Yet they
h ave their uses. T h e y m e a s u r e the true w orth o f m a n . H e w h o m ak es
use o f th e m a c c o r d in g to the c o m m a n d s o f A llah a n d d o e s not be co m e
a s l a v e to th e m is s u c c e s s f u l in the e y es o f A l l a h a n d he w h o y ie ld s
before these w orldly a llu r e m e n ts m isera b ly fails in this test. T h is is how
I sla m h a r m o n i z e s the c o n flic tin g d e m a n d s o f m a t t e r a n d sp irit a n d
m ak es the entire life o f a m a n a sp iritu a l whole. It is in deed on e of the
m a r v e l l o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f I s l a m t h a t it h a s s p i r i t u a l i z e d a ll the
s ecto rs o f h u m a n life a n d h as thus b r o u g h t h a r m o n y a n d co h e re n c e
a m o n g s t the a p p a r e n t l y co n flictin g spheres o f life. I sla m in cu lc ates an
9. V ide D uncan Black M acd o n ald : The Religious Attitude unit Life in Islam.
Khayyat, Beirut, 1965, p. 43.
 W H A T ISLA M G A V E TO H U M A N ITY 209

intense g o o d co n sciousn ess, not b y the re n u n cia tio n o f e x tern a l forces

but by a p r o p e r a d ju s t m e n t o f m a n ’s relatio n s to these forces in view o f
the lig h t r e c e iv e d b y th e m fro m I s l a m . H e r e th e s p i r i t u a l i t y is not
s o m e t h in g d iv o r c e d fr o m social r e sp o n s ib ilitie s b u t it rests on m a n ’s
u n d e r ta k in g th e m p rop erly . ‘I s l a m ,’ ob serves W ilfred C a n tw e ll S m ith ,
‘ is by t r a d i t i o n a n d b y c e n t r a l g e n i u s a p r a c t i c a l r e lig io n o f e th ic s
in c lu d in g social ethics, a n d o r g a n iz e d , legalized ethics. T h e practical
a n d th e s o c i a l a s p e c t o f I s l a m c a n be well r e a liz e d fro m th e p r a y e r
which is the m ost effective m e a n s to d e v e lo p G o d co n scio u sn e ss.’
U n l ik e o t h e r r e lig io n s , I s l a m h a s n o t c o n fin e d its p r a y e r o n ly to
inner m e d ita tio n . It h as e n jo in e d a lo n g with m e d ita tio n the m o v e ­
m ents o f the b o d y a n d th at too u n d e r the C o m m a n d o f a n I m a m in the
c o m p a n y o f h is fe llow -b roth ers. T h e p o in t th a t I sla m stresses is th at
when G o d h a s c r e a te d bo th soul a n d b o d y together, bo th sh o u ld s u b ­
mit before H i m in unison for their salvation .
S e c o n d ly , it is in s ocial e n v iro n m e n t a n d not in a con vent or a ca v e
that one c a n a t t a i n true piety. Islam not only d e te rm in e s the relation
w ith G o d , b u t on the b a s is o f this relation it d e te rm in es m a n ’s relation
with m a n a n d m a n ’s relatio n with the universe.
‘T h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f the Q u r a n , is to a w a k e n in m a n the h igh er
co n sciou sn ess o f his m a n ifo ld relation s w ith G o d a n d the universe. It is
in view o f this essen tial a sp e ct o f Q u r a n i c te a c h in g that G o e th e , while
m a k i n g a g e n e r a l r e v ie w o f I s l a m a s a n e d u c a t i o n a l fo r c e , s a i d to
E c k e r m a n : ‘Y o u see this t e a c h in g n ev e r fa ils; with all its s y stem , we
c a n n o t go, a n d g e n e ra lly s p e a k i n g n o m a n c a n g o , fu r th e r th a n that.
I'he p r o b le m o f Islam w a s really s u g g e s te d by the m u t u a l conflict, a n d
a t the s a m e tim e m u t u a l a tt r a c t io n , presen ted b y tw o forces o f religion
a n d civilization . T h e s a m e p r o b le m conf ron ted early C h ristian ity . 'I’he
great p o w e r in C h r is tia n ity is the search for an in d e p en d e n t co n te n t for
s p ir it u a l life, w h ich a c c o r d i n g to the in sig h t o f its fo u n d e r , c o u ld be
e le v a te d , not b y th e forces o f a w orld e x tern a l to the soul o f m a n , but by
the re v e la tio n o f a new w orld w ithin his soul. Islam fully a g r e e s with
this in sigh t a n d s u p p le m e n t s it by the fu rth er insigh t th at the illu m i­
n ation o f the new w orld thus revealed is not so m e th in g foreign to the
w orld o f m a t t e r but p e rm e a te s it th ro u g h a n d th r o u g h .’ 10
G o d co n scio u sn e ss in Islam d oes not d e v e lo p in a total b re a ch with
the real life a n d its d iv erse p r o b le m s, but is a n i m a t e d a n d intensified
by g r a p p l in g with that in the w a y in w hich G o d h as d irected his m en to
do. It is in this m a n n e r th at the o r g a n ic w hole o f h u m a n life has been
10. Wilfred C. Smith, Pakistan as an Islamic Slat*, Lahore, p. 24.
210 ISL A M : ITS M E A NIN G A M ) M ESSA G E

e m in e n tly preserved by the M u slim s . ‘T h e w hole o f th ise a rth h as been

m a d e a m o s q u e for m e' is a well-known sa y in g o f the H o ly P rop h et a n d
it gives u s a n idea o f san c tity that is a t t a c h c d both to the p h y sical world
a n d the social relation s. M o s q u e is a s a c re d p la ce o f w orsh ip w here all
M u s l im s w ith o u t a n y d istin ction o f caste , creed a n d co lo u r m eet a n d
bow to g eth e r before their L o rd . It m e a n s that all te m p o r a l a ctiv itie s
w hich a r e c a r r ie d o n in this w orld h av e the san c tity o f w orsh ip if these
arc p u r s u e d in this spirit.
I sla m , like all o th er religions, a ffirm s R ea lity , not d iv o r c e d from the
e x t e r n a l w o r l d , b u t by a c t i v e a n d i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t w ith th a t . T h e
M u s l i m is e x h o r t e d by the Q u r ’a n to see the s ig n s o f R e a l i t y in the
p h y sica l w orld , in the p rocess o f history a n d in his ow n in n er self b e ­
c a u s e it is the s a m e R e a li t y w h ich is a r t ic u la t e d in all these sp h e res.
G o d reveals 11 is sig n s in the inner {Anfus) a n d o u te r (A jaq ) exp erien ce
a n d we sh o u ld try to u n d e r st a n d the will o f th at G r e a t e r R e a lity which
is reflected in all these p h e n o m e n a .

‘ V erily in the cre atio n o f the h eaven s a n d o f the e a r th , a n d in the

succession o f the night a n d o f the d a y , a r e sig n s for m en of u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g . w h o , s t a n d i n g a n d s i t t i n g a n d r e c li n i n g , b e a r G o d in
m in d a n d reflect on the cre atio n o f the h e a v e n s a n d o f the e a r th ; a n d
say : O O u r L o r d ! T h o u hast not cre ate d this in v a in .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 3:
190-191).

H e r e th e M u s l i m h a s b e e n a s k e d to see t h ? m a g n i f i c e n t s ig n s o f
R e a lity in n a t u r e a n d not to p a ss by them a s i f he is d e a f a n d blin d a n d
affirm the truth th at the w hole o f n a tu re a s revealed to the sense p e r ­
ce p tion o f m a n i s a c h a lle n g in g testim o n y o f the M ig h t y Lord W h o has
c r e a t e d th is u n i v e r s e . T h e M u s l i m s h a v e , t h e r e f o r e , c o n f e r r e d on
science, s o m e th in g o f the san ctity o f w orship. N o w o n d e r that m a n y o f
the o u t s t a n d i n g th e o lo g ia n s, w h ose n a m e s a re now h o u se h o ld w o rd s
all ov er the w orld, were at the s a m e tim e the great pion eers o f scientific
know led g e a n d they w ork e d in their l a b o r a to rie s w ith the s a m e zeal
a n d fe r v o u r a s in th e re lig io u s c e n tre s. R o m L a n d a u , a u t h o r of the
well-known book, Islam and the Arabs, while d iscu ssin g the m a in sp rin g s
of the A r a b 's scientific a c h ie v e m e n ts, observes, T h e y m igh t be s u m ­
m a r i z e d a s the a r d e n t d e sire to g a i n a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the
world a s c r e a te d by A lla h ; an a c c e p ta n c e o f the p h y sical un iverse, as
not inferior to the sp iritu a l b u t co-valid with it; a stron g realism that
f a it h f u l ly reflects th e u n s e n t im e n t a l n a t u r e o f th e A r a b m i n d : a n d
finally their in s a tia b le cu riosity. E v e r y th in g th at w a s in the universe
 W H A I ISLA M G A V E T O H U M A N ITY 211

w as A l l a h ’s, fro m the m y stic ecstasy a n d a m other's love to the flight of

a rrow s, the p la g u e th a t d e stro y s a n en tire co u n tr y a n d the stin g o f a
m o sq u ito . E a c h o n e o f these m a n ife sts the pow er o f G o d a n d thus each
is w orth y o f stu d y . In Islam religion a n d science d o not go their s e p a ­
rate w ays. In fact the fo rm e r p ro v id e d o n e o f the m ain in cen tives for
the latte r.’
‘T h e M u s l im history thus furnish es no in stan ce o f the p ersecution o f
scien tists. W e, o n the o t h e r h a n d , find a s m a n y m en o f g e n iu s in the
m id d le a g e s a s now. T h e list is too lon g to be p resen ted in this article. It
will suffice here to evoke a few glo riou s n a m e s w itho ut c o n te m p o r a r y
e q u iv a le n t s in the W est: J a b i r Ibn H a y y a n , a l- K i n d f , a l- K h a w a r i z m f,
a l - F a r g h a n f , a l - R a z f , I h a b i t I b n Q u r r a , a l - B a t t a n f , H u n a y n Ibn
Ish a q , a l - F a r a b f , I b r a h i m Ib n S in a n , a l - M a s ‘u d f , a l- T a b a r f , A b u ’l-
W a f a ’, ‘A ll Ibn ‘A b b a s , A b u ’l- Q a s im , Ibn a l - J a z z a r , a l - B f r u n f , Ibn
S f n a , Ibn Y u n u s , A l- K a r k h f , Ibn a l-H a y th a r n , ‘All* Ibn ‘Isa, al-
G h a z z a l f , a l - Z a r q a b , ‘ U m a r K h a y y a m ! A m ag n ificen t a r r a y o f n a m e s
w h ich it w o u ld not be difficu lt to e x t e n d . ’ 1 B u t this d o e s n ot c o m e
w ithin the sc o p e of m y su b je c t. I a m c o n cern ed only with the fact that
Islam is not o p p o s e d to science; it rath er in culcates in its followers the
greatest respect for lea rn in g a n d lea rn in g in cludes every type o f
kn o w le d ge p ro v id e d it is a c q u ir e d with sincerity a n d d e votio n a n d for
the service a n d w elfare o f h u m a n ity . It is therefore q u it e n a tu r a l that
the p rog ress o f M u s l im s in the realm o f science w as not lop -sid ed, a s is
the case in the W est to d a y . S in c e a M u s l im is co n cern ed with a ch ie v in g
a c o m p le t e view o f R e a lity , he c a n n o t re m ain co n ten t with the p a rtia l
o n e -sid e d , in t e lle c t u a lis tic a p p r o a c h w h ich g ive s o n ly a s n a p s h o t o f
force in R e a lity a n d misses its kindness a n d spirituality. 1’he M u s lim s
con trolled science b y e th ical prin ciples o f Islam a n d it d id n ot p rov e to
be a sheer d riv e for pow er. S c ie n c e w as su b o r d in a te d to L a w in ord e r to
e n su r e th a t the tr e m e n d o u s p ow e r w h ich it is c a p a b l e o f re le asin g is
used for h u m a n a n d co n stru ctive p urposes. T o p u t it differently, it can
be said th at the M u s l im s h u m a n iz e d science a n d the spirit o f G o d w as
b re a th e d into it, to use the p h rase o f the Q u r ’an.
T h i s a ll-in clu siv e a n d syn th etic a tt itu d e o f I sla m , to w a rd s life a n d
its p r o b le m s w a s a ls o a r tic u la te d in a political system fu n d a m e n t a lly
differen t fr o m b o th th a t o f th e o c r a c y a n d W este rn D e m o c r a c y . T h e
sta te in Islam is not a c o n d e m n a b le o r g a n iz a t io n a n d its fo u n d in g is
n ot th e s e r v ic e o f th e d e v il. I s la m is a s in g le u n a n a l y z a b l e R e a l i t y
11. George Sarton: Introduction to the History of Science, Washington, 1950, Vol. 1.
p. 17. Src also pp. 165-66.
212 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

w h ich loses m u c h o f its force a n d b e a u t y w h en it is fr a g m e n t e d into

w ater-tigh t c o m p a r t m e n t s . T h u s in Islam it is the s a m e R e a lity which
a p p e a r s a s the C h u r c h , looked a t from one point o f view a n d the state
fr o m a n o t h e r ’ . . . T h e s t a t e fr o m th e I s l a m i c s t a n d p o i n t , is a n
e n d e a v o u r to tr a n s fo rm th ose id e a l p rin cip le s in to sp a c e -tim e forces,
an in sp ira tio n to realize th e m in a definite h u m a n o r g a n iz a t io n . ' u
It is a d m i t t e d th at the p r im a r y or im m e d ia t e co n cern o f Islam is to
d e v e lo p the p e r s o n a l it y o f the in d i v id u a l a s a G o d fe a rin g m a n a n d
e q u ip him with the talen t to live in p e a c e with h im se lf a n d p e ac e with
the e x t e r n a l w o rld o f r e la tio n s. J e s u s r ig h tly s a i d : ‘T h e k i n g d o m o f
h e a v e n is w ith in y o u . ’ T h e id e a is p e rfe c tly c o rre ct a n d I s l a m fu lly
s u b s c r ib e s to this view, sin ce n o ju s t k in g d o m c a n be fo u n d e d on the
earth b y u n ju st m e n , w h o h av e not first cre ate d the k in g d o m o f h eaven
in the r e a l m o f th e ir h e a r t. B u t I s l a m s a y s, 'T h i s is n ot e n o u g h ; the
k in g d o m o f h ea v e n m u st be e x tern a liz ed so that the h ealth y political
a n d social s tr u c tu r e m a y h elp m en a n d w o m e n to d e v e lo p their p e rs o ­
nalities a c c o r d in g to Isla m . T h e S t a t e is a n a g e n c y w h ereby the ethical
a n d sp ir itu a l v a lu e s o f I sla m find exp ressio n in c o r p o r a t e life. T h e H o ly
Q u r ’a n says:

‘T h o s e who, if we estab lish them in the lan d , will keep u p p rayer

a n d p a y the p o o r-ra te a n d enjoin g o o d a n d fo rb id evil. A n d A ll a h ’s
is the e n d o f affairs." ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 22: 41).

T h i s verse clearly sp e a k s o f the fact that the s ta te is not the creatio n

o f the d e v i l ’s m in d . It h a s s o m e very n o b le fu n c tio n to p e r f o r m ; the
o r g a n i z i n g o f a c o m m u n i t y on s u c h m o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l b a s e s th a t
p iety a n d g o o d lin e ss thrive a n d w ick ed n e ss in all its fo r m s is w ee d e d
out.
T h i s a t t e m p t to e x t e r n a l i z e t h e g o o d l i n e s s a n d p i e t y is v e ry
sig n ifican t in I sla m . It m e a n s th at the religious p iety serves its true end
when it is c a lc u l a t e d to tra n sfo rm the h u m a n world. T o flee from the
social ord e r, a n d ta k e u p the solitary life is not virtue in Islam . T o be
s ure a M u s l im s ta n d s in the presence o f G o d a s an in d iv id u a l, b u t he is
never iso la te d from o th er m en. T h e distress w hich vexes is not his own
only; it is th a t o f his breth ren a s w ell; the sa lv a tio n for w hich he longs
ca n b e a t t a i n e d when he p a v e s the w ay for the sa lv a tio n o f his fellow
b e lie v e rs , n a y , t h a t o f e n t ir e h u m a n i t y ; the v a l u e s , s t a n d a r d s , a n d
ta s k s w h ic h he, in h is r e lig io u s d e v o t i o n , l e a r n s to r e c o g n iz e a s a n
in e sc a p a b le necessity, are seen to be d u tie s not for him o n ly b u t for all
1'2. Iqbal: Reconstruction oj Religious Thought in Islam, p. 154.
 W H A T ISL A M G A V E T O H U M A N ITY 213

m en . H e n c e th e s e l f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the M u s l i m h a s a n a c t i v e a n d
social q u a lity . This m e a n s th at w h atev er a M u s l im d o c s in life h as its
valu e in history a n d its w orth c a n be j u d g e d from the type o f m a n h o o d
th at it h as cre ate d a n d the g o o d that it h as b ro u g h t to the m a x i m u m
n u m b e r o f people.
T h i s is the reason w hy so m u ch stress has been laid to reflect on the
p a st a n d present e x p e rie n ce o f m a n k in d a n d to see for th em selves the
m o ra l a n d social o u tlo o k w h ich led to their rise a n d the e th ical d is in ­
te g ratio n w hich b r o u g h t a b o u t their ruin.

A lr e a d y befo re y o u r tim e h a v e p re c e d e n ts been m a d e . T r a v e r s e

the e a r t h th en , a n d see w h a t h as been the e n d o f th ose w h o falsify
the sig n s o f G o d . ( a l - Q u r ’a n , 3: 136).
S e e they not h o w m a n y a g en e r a tio n we d e stro y e d before them ,
w h o m we h a d e sta b lish e d o n the e a r th in strength su ch a s we h ave
not g iven to you — for w h o m we p o u r e d out rain fro m the skies in
a b u n d a n c e , a n d g a v e s t r e a m s flo w in g b e n e a t h th eir feet, yet for
their sins we d e stro y e d th e m , a n d raised in their w ak e fresh g e n e r a ­
tions (to su cce e d th em ). ( a l- Q u r 'a n , 6: 6).
A n d how m a n y a g en e ratio n h av e we destroyed before th em , w ho
h a d b e tte r possession a n d a p p e a r a n c e ; say a s for h im w h o is in error,
the B en eficien t will p r o lo n g his len gth of d a y , until they see w h a t
they w e re t h r e a t e n e d w it h , e it h e r the p u n i s h m e n t or th e H o u r .
T h e n they will kn o w w h o is worse in position a n d w eaker in force.
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 19: 74, 75).

T h e s e v e rses m a k e c l e a r the role o f o b s e r v a t io n a n d r e a s o n in g in

Islam . It is th r o u g h o b s e r v a t io n th at we c a n see the forces w h ich are
w o r k in g in e l e v a t i n g a n d d e g r a d i n g the differen t h u m a n g r o u p s in
history.
B u t m e re o b se rv a tio n is not en o u g h . T h a t w hich is great a n d vital,
the d r a m a o f the h u m a n soul is co m p le te ly h id d e n from direct o b se r ­
vation. The M u s l i m ’s task in Islam is not to see the o u t w a r d m a n ife ­
statio n s o f the different even ts o f h u m a n life bu t to s tu d y the in n er life
o f the a c to r s in e v e n ts a n d give a n a c c o u n t o f their m otive s a n d a im s. It
im plies th a t k n o w le d ge o f history, unlike th at o f n a tu r e a n d her law s is
not a b i o l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t y ; it is a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d , a b o v e a l l , a
s o ciolo g ical need.
T h e h isto r ic a l references a n d the a c c o u n ts o f the p a st a r e g iven in
the Q u r ’a n not so m u c h to fill in the m a n y g a p s in o u r fa c tu a l kn o w ­
le d g e a s to m a k e se n se o u t o f th e v a s t d e a l th a t w e d o kn o w . F o r a
2 14 I S L A M : I T S M E A N IN G ANL) M E S S A G E

h isto rica l fa c t is n ot a n isolated p h e n o m e n o n . It h as so m a n y c a u s a l

re la tio n sh ip s th a t their sig n ifican ce c a n be d e term in ed.
T h e H o ly Q u r 'a n treats the events o f the p a st not o n ly to revive them
in o u r m e m o r y , b u t to m a k e th e m m e a n i n g f u l for us. It s e le c ts the
sig n ifican t e ve n ts, in terp re ts them in the light o f m o r a l law a n d then
e v a l u a t e s t h e m a c c o r d i n g to e t h i c a l j u d g e m e n t s a n d in th e w h o le
process o f selectin g , in terp re tin g , a n d e v a lu a t in g the fa cts it a n sw e rs
the u n a v o id a b l e q u e st io n s , how, w hy a n d w h a t o f it a n d this reveals
the n a tu re o f m a n a n d the w orld, his possible or p ro p e r destiny.
T h i s a t t i t u d e o f I s l a m t o w a r d s h is t o r i c a l k n o w l e d g e is o f g r e a t
sig n ifican ce in h u m a n u n d e r sta n d in g . T h e M u slim h istorian s not only
kept the h igh ideal o f o b je ctiv ity a n d e x a c titu d e in surveyin g the whole
c o u r s e o f h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t b u t s o u g h t to d e t e r m i n e its o r ig in ,
course a n d g oal.
T h i s c a n be illu strated from the fact th at the fa m o u s world history o f
Ibn K h a l d u n is e n title d Kitab-at-'Ibar. T h e w ord ‘Ibr here s t a n d s a s a
p r o m in e n t key w o rd w hich reveals the u n d e rly in g id ea for w hich the
history w a s stu d ie d by the M u slim s.
7 bar is the p lu r a l o f 'Ibrah, a n ou n derived from the root V-A-r w hich
m e a n s to travel, to cross, to g o b e yo n d the b o rd e r s o f the city or a land.
It a ls o m e a n s to p a ss from the o u tsid e to the inside o f a thing. A r a b ic
d ic tio n a r ie s e la b o r a t e exten sively o n the idea o f e x p re ssin g , e x p la in in g
a n d in te rp re tin g the m e a n in g o f s o m e th in g ; a n d o f w o n d e rin g a b o u t,
e n q u i r i n g in t o , c o n t e m p l a t i n g a n d p e n e t r a t i n g to th e in n e r m o s t
sig n ifican ce o f a n object.
I m a m k a g h i b in his f a m o u s book Mufradat say s it is the state u n d e r
which a m a n on the b a sis o f co n crete fa cts d e d u c e s unseen co n clu sion s.
It a ls o m e a n s to learn a lesson, to take w arn in g or to take a n e x a m p le .
T h e I io ly Q u r ’a n a n d the Hadith on v a r io u s oc ca sio n s h av e ure:ed us
to view p a st e ve n ts, bo th re po rte d a n d exp e rie n ce d , a s in d ic a tio n s that
sh o u ld a w a k e n in us m oral sense a n d e n h a n c e its a b ility to a c t a c c o r d ­
ing to the d e m a n d s o f G o d : to p e n e tra te b e h in d the a p p a r e n t l y
m e a n in g le s s succession o f events a n d discern the ever-present d esign o f
the C re a to r.
A c c o r d in g to the Q u r ’a n G o d d oes not un fo ld H i m s e l f in history, as
H e g el b e lie v e d , b u t there is no d e n y in g the fact th at it is not without a
p u rp o se th at the L o r d gives d o m in a n c e to certain p e o p le s at on e tim e
a n d d e p r iv e s th e m o f this p riv ileg ed p osition at a n o th e r occasion . T h is
e b b a n d rise o f the fo rtun e or m isfortun e o f p e op le s h as a div in e p u r ­
pose to serve. T h e 1 Ioly Q u r ’a n observes:
 W H A T ISLA M G A V E TO H U M A N ITY 215

I f a w o u n d has afflicted you, a w o u n d like it h as also afflicted the

(d isb e lie v in g ) p e op le . A n d w e b rin g these d a y s to m en b y turn, that
A lla h m a y know those w h o believe a n d take w itnesses from a m o n g
you. A n d A lla h loves not the w rong-doers. ( a l- Q u r a n , 3: 139).

T h e use of h istorical e ven ts a s a w a r n in g a g a in s t certain p a tte r n s o f

a c t i o n , a n d e x h o r t a t i o n to a d o p t a c e r t a i n c o u r s e o f life, is n o t a n
a b so lu te ly new co n cep t. All the revealed books h a v e c le a r in d icatio n s
o f this. There is e n o u g h in the historical n a rra tiv e s a n d literature o f the
p r e - I s la m ic p e r i o d w h ic h e m b o d y this tr e n d , b u t th e w a y in w h ich
a lo n g with the o b je ctiv ity a n d e x a c t it u d e of e ven ts the m o ra l a sp ect is
d e e p e n e d is a p urely p ost-Isla m ic d e v e lo p m e n t.

It w-erc th e M u s l i m s o n l y w h o t a u g h t the w o r ld to p r e s e r v e th e
h is to r i c a l e v e n t s w ith p e rfe c t a c c u r a c y a n d th en to s t u d y th e m for
Vbrah, i.e. for sp ir itu a l tr a in in g a n d p r e p a ra tio n for the final a c c o u n t ­
ing. T h e f a m o u s history o f Ibn K h a l d u n is a testim ony o f this a ttitu d e.
H e n ot only n a rr a t e d facts, bu t linked them in the c h a in o f c a u s e a n d
effect, in terp re te d them a n d fo r m u la te d general law s that lay behind
th e m . H i s f a m o u s M uqaddim ah is a n i l l u m i n a t i n g d is c u s s i o n o f his
in terp re ta tio n s o f h istorical n arratives.
T h e fo reg o in g d iscu ssio n m a k e s it a b u n d a n t l y clear that the interest
o f the H o ly Q u r ’a n a n d the Surmah in history, r e g a r d e d a s a so u r c e o f
H u m a n know ledge, e x t e n d s furth er th a n m ere in dicatio n o f historical
facts. T h i s h as m an ife ste d itself in v a r io u s a sp e c t s o f h u m a n c u ltu re. It
has given u s o n e o f the m o st fu n d a m e n t a l p rin ciples o f historical criti­
cism . S in c e a c c u r a c y in r e c o r d in g fa cts w h ich c o n st itu te m a t e r ia l o f
h isto ry is a n in d i s p e n s a b l e c o n d i t i o n o f h isto ry a s a s c ie n c e a n d a n
a c c u r a t e k n o w le d g e o f fa cts u ltim a te ly d e p e n d s on those w h o report
them, the very first p rin ciple o f historical criticism is th at the reporters'
person al c h a r a c t e r is a n im p o rtan t factor, in ju d g in g his testim ony.

‘O believers! if a n y b a d m a n c o m e s to you with a report, verify it’

( a l - Q u r ’a n , 49: (i).

It w a s th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e p r in c ip le e m b o d i e d in this v erse to
r e p o r t e r s o f th e P r o p h e t ’s t r a d i t i o n s o u t o f w h ich w ere g r a d u a l l y
evolved the c a n o n s o f historical criticism .
This is on e a s p e c t o f th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f M u s l i m s in history . T h e
seco n d a sp e c t, i.e. the tr e a tm en t o f historical kn ow ledge a s a n 'ibrah in
w h ich the e v e n t s c r o ss e d fr o m h isto r ic a l e v e n ts to th e ir n a t u r e a n d
c a u s c s a n d a n effort to g r a s p the unseen reality o f w h ich these even ts
216 ISL A M : ITS M EA N IN G AND M E SSA G E

w ere m e re m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , is f a r m o r e im p o r t a n t . T h i s is a n a r e a in
w h ic h th e M u s l i m s m a d e u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n s . T h e y i n t e r p r e t e d
facts, c o m p r e h e n d e d the forces th a t w orked beh in d th e m a n d in ter­
p rete d th e m a n d thus m a d e th e m m e a n in g fu l a n d p urp o sive.
T h e g row th o f the h istorical sense in I sla m is a f a s c in a tin g su b jec t
a n d it le a d s to a n i m p o r t a n t p o in t: th e role a n d p la c e o f in tellect in
Islam . T h e o b se r v a tio n o f the signs o f G o d in n a tu r e a n d history a n d
on th e b a ses o f these o b se r v a tio n s the p e rcep tion o f u ltim a te R e a lity
r e q u ires a lo n g with seein g (n azr), the re aso n in g a n d u n d e r s t a n d in g
(fah m ).

H a v e you not seen how G o d m ak es the clo u d s m o v e gently, then

jo in s th e m together, then m ak e s th e m into a h e a p ? then you see the
r a in p o u r i n g fo r th fr o m th e ir m i d s t . A n d H e s e n d s d o w n fr o m
heaven m o u n t a in m a sse s ( o f c lo u d s) wherein is hail. H e strikes with
it w h o m H e p le a se s a n d tu rn s it a w a y from w h o m H e p le a se s a n d
the v iv id flash o f H is lig h tn in g w clln igh b lin d s th e sight. It is G o d
w h o a l t e r n a t e s the n ig h t a n d the d a y . S u r e ly in these th in g s is a n
in stru ctiv e e x a m p l e for those w h o h av e vision. ( a l - Q u r a n , 24: 43,
44).
 13

The Western W orld and its

Challenges to Islam *
Seyyed Hossein Nasr

N O W A D A Y S it is in the n a tu r e o f th in g s that if one w ishes to discuss

the c h a lle n g e s p rese n te d to Islam by the W est a n d , in fact, by m o d e rn
civilization in g e n e ral, on e m u st b e g in b y usin g the sw o rd o f d is c r im i­
n a t i o n a n d b y e m b a r k i n g o n a k in d o f ‘ i n t e l l e c t u a l i c o n o c l a s m ’ .
M o d e r n civ iliz a tio n takes pride in h a v in g d e v e lo p e d the critical m in d
a n d the p o w e r o f o b je ctiv e criticism , w h ere as in reality it is in f u n d a ­
m e n ta l sense the least critical o f all known civilizatio n s for it d o e s not
possess the o b je ctiv e criteria to j u d g e a n d criticize its ow n activities. It
is a c i v il iz a tio n w h ic h fa ils in e v e ry kin d o f b a s ic re fo rm b e c a u s e it
c a n n o t be g in with the reform o f itself. In fact, one o f the ch arac te ristic
f e a t u r e s o f t h e m o d e r n w o r l d is th e s i n g u l a r l a c k o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
d is c e r n m e n t a n d o f the s h a r p e d g e o f criticism in its true sense.
T h e r e is a tr a d itio n a l s a y in g a c c o r d in g to w hich S a t a n h ates s h a r p
p o i n t s a n d e d g e s . T h i s o l d a d a g e is a m o s t p r o f o u n d t r u th w h ich
a p p l i e s d ir e c t ly to the p r e s e n t- d a y s itu a t io n . B e in g eve ry w h e re, the
D e v il m a n i f e s t s h is in flu e n ce by d u l l i n g all s h a r p p o in ts a n d e d g e s
which a r c a c ce ssib le to him so that s h a r p d istin ctio n s d is a p p e a r . T h e
e d g e s o f c le a rly d e fin e d d o c trin e s u n d e r g o a corrosive process a n d their
sh a r p n e s s o f d e fin itio n g r a d u a lly fades. T r u t h a n d error b e co m e ever
m ore in te rm in g le d , a n d even sac re d rites a n d d octrin e s w hich a r e the

• This essay is based on a lecture delivered to a predom in antly M uslim

audience in the Islamic Cultural Centre, London, during the first Festival of
Islam held in that city in November, 1971. The text was originally published in
I'he Muslim. Lo n don , and later in a revised form in The Islamic Quarterly,
London, (Vol. X V I I , Nos. 1 and 2, Jan uary to ju n e , 1973.)
 IS! AM I M'S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G F

most p r e c io u s o f G o d 's (rifts to m a n . b e c o m e h az y a n d in defin ite a s a

result o f this co rrosive influence which m ak es everyth in g w ishy-w ashy
a n d a m b ig u o u s . T o discu ss the c h a lle n g e o f the m od ern world to Islam
requires, therefore, a rig oro u s a p p lic a tio n o f intellectual d isce rn m e n t
b a s e d u l t i m a t e l y u p o n th e Jia/iad a/i. th e first le tte r o f w h ic h , w h en
written in A r a b ic , is in fact in the form o f a sword. T h i s sw o rd m ust be
used to bre a k the false idols o f the new a g e o f ig n o r a n c e (jahitiyyah),
idols which so m a n y M u s l im s a cce p t w ithout even tro u b lin g to q u e ­
stion their n atu re . It m ust be used to cut a w a y a n d re m o v e all the false
ideas a n d ‘ ism s' th at clu tte r the m in d o f m o d e rn iz ed M u slim s. It m ust
help to chisel the soul o f the c o n te m p o r a r y M u slim from a n a m o r p h ­
o u s m a s s into a s h a r p c rystal th at glow s in the D iv in e Ligh t. It m ust
never be forgotten th at a crystal glow s precisely b e ca u se o f its sharply-
defined edges.
O n e m ust a lw a y s r e m e m b e r that in the present situ a tio n a n y form o f
criticism o f the m o d e rn w orld b a se d u p o n m e ta p h y sic a l a n d religious
p rin ciples is a form o f ch a rity a n d in a c c o r d a n c e with the m ost central
v irtues o f Islam . A lso, on e sh o u ld never forget that the P ro p h e t o f Islam
u p o n w h o m be p e a c e not o n ly p o sse sse d adab in its m o st p erfect
fo rm , but also a sse rted the truth in the most frank a n d stra ig h tfo rw a rd
m an n e r. T h e r e were m o m e n t s o f his life when he w a s e x trem e ly c a t e ­
gorical, a n d he n ever sacrificed the truth for the sake o f adab. I sla m h as
never ta u g h t that o n e s h o u ld a cce p t that tw o a n d tw o is five in o rd e r to
d is p la y adab. In fact adab has a lw a y s been the c o m p le m e n t to the p e r ­
cep tion a n d assertio n o f the truth in every situ atio n a n d circ u m sta n c e.
O n c e an e m in e n t s p iritu a l authority from N o rth A fric a said. ‘D o you
know w h at adab is? It is to s h a rp e n y o u r sw o rd so that when you h av e to
c u t a lim b it d o e s not hurt.' It is this type of a tt itu d e that is n eeded by
M u s l im s in their discu ssion o f the W est a n d its ch a llen g e s to Islam . T h e
tru th not o n ly h as a right to ou r lives a n d o u r b e in g s ; it a ls o h a s the
p r e r o g a t i v e o f a s k in g us to m a k e sense to o t h e r s a n d to e x p r e ss a n d
e x p o u n d it w h e n e v e r a n d w h e r e v e r p o s s ib le . T o d a y w e n r e d to be
c r it ic a l e v e n to the d e g r e e o f s t r in g e n c y , p r e c is e ly b e c a u s e s u c h a n
a tt itu d e is so rare a n d so m u ch in d e m a n d .
W h a t is la c k in g in the Islam ic world to d a y is a th o ro u g h e x a m i n a ­
tion a n d careful criticism o f all that is h a p p e n in g in the m o d e rn w orld.
W ith o u t such criticism n o th in g serious c a n e ve r be do n e in the business
o f c o n fr o n tin g the W est. All s ta te m e n ts o f m od e rn iz ed M u s lim s which
b e g in with the assertio n , ‘T h e w ay to h a rm o n iz e Islam . . .* a n d c o n ­
c l u d e d w ith w h a t e v e r follow s th e ‘a n d ’, a r e b o u n d to e n d in fa ilu re
 T H E W E S T E R N W O R L D A N D ITS C H A L L E N G E S TO ISL A M 219

unless w h at follows is a n o th e r d ivin ely revealed a n d inspired w o rld ­

view. A t t e m p t s to h a r m o n iz e Islam a n d W estern socialism or M a r x is m
or e x isten tia lism or evolution or a n y th in g else o f the kind arc d o o m e d
from the start s im p ly b e c a u s e they begin w itho ut e x p o sin g the system
o r ‘ i s m ’ in q u e s t i o n to a t h o r o u g h c r i t i c i s m in th e lig h t o f I s l a m i c
criteria, a n d a ls o b e c a u s e they co n sid e r Islam a s a p a r tia l view o f th in g s
to b e c o m p l e m e n t e d by so m e form o f m o d e r n id e o lo g y r a th e r t h a n a
c o m p le te system a n d p ersp ective in itself whose very totality e xc lu d es
the possibility o f its b e c o m in g a m ere a d je ctiv e to m o d ify s o m e oth er
noun w hich is ta k e n a lm o st u n co n sc iou sly a s cen tral in p la c e o f Islam .
T h e r a p id c h a n g e in fash ion s o f the d a y w hich m ak e Islam ic socialism
p o p u la r on e d a y a n d liberalism or som e oth er W estern ‘is m ’ the next is
itself p r o o f o f the a b s u r d it y a n d shallow n ess o f such an a p p r o a c h . H e
w h o u n d e r s t a n d s the stru c tu re o f Islam in its totality knows th at Islam
c a n never allow itself to be re d u ce d to the s ta tu s o f a m ere m odifier, or
c o n tin g e n c y , vis-a-vis a system o f th o u g h t which re m a in s in d e p en d e n t
o f it.
T h e d e fen siv e a n d a p o l o g e t ic a tt itu d e a d o p t e d by so m a n y m o d e r ­
n ized M u s l i m s t o w a r d s v a r io u s fa s h i o n a b l e m o d e s o f t h o u g h t th a t
issue fr o m the W est a lm o s t w ith the r a p i d i t y o f s e a s o n a l c h a n g e s is
closely a ll ie d to th e ir lack o f a c r it ic a l se n se a n d a d is c e r n i n g sp irit.
U s u a lly , o b v io u s s h o r tc o m in g s a n d w h at is e asy to criticize are criti­
c i z e d , b u t few h a v e th e c o u r a g e to s t a n d u p a n d c r it ic iz e the b a s ic
fa lla cie s o f o u r tim es. It is e asy to p oin t out that the life o f stu d e n ts in
t r a d it io n a l m adrasahs is not h y g ie n ic, bu t it is m u c h m o re difficu lt to
take a firm s ta n d a n d assert the fact th at m uch o f w hat is ta u g h t in the
m o d e rn e d u c a t i o n a l in stitution s is far m o re d e a d l y for the soul o f the
s tu d e n ts th a n the p h y s ic a lly u n h e a lth y s u r r o u n d in g s o f som e o f the old
madrasah bu ild in g s. T h e r e are too few people in the I sla m ic world to d a y
w h o c a n c o n fro n t the W est, criticize, a n d , with the sw ord o f the intel­
lect a n d th e sp irit, a n s w e r a t its very fo u n d a tio n s th e c h a lle n g e with
which the W est co n fro n ts Islam . S u c h is th e case to d a y ; bu t it d o e s not
h av e to be so. T h e r e is no lo g ic a l re aso n w hy a new in telle ctu a l elite
c o u ld not d e v e lo p in the Islam ic w orld with the c a p a c it y to p rov id e an
ob je ctiv e criticism o f the m o d e rn world fro m the poin t o f view o f the
eternal verities c o n ta in e d within the m essag e o f the Islam ic revelation.
T o d a y in the I sla m ic w orld there a re e ssen tially tw o m ain classes o f
p e o p le co n cern e d with religious, in tellectual, a n d p h ilo so p h ica l q u e ­
stions: the 'ulama ’ a n d oth er religious au th o rities in general (in c lu d in g
the S u fis) a n d the m odern ists. It is only recently that a third g r o u p has
220 i s i .a m : its m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

g r a d u a l ly b e g u n to e m e rg e , n a m e ly , a g r o u p w hich, like the ‘ulam a’ is

tr a d it io n a l , b u t w hich know s the m o d e rn world. B u t the n u m b e r o f
this third class is still very s m a ll indeed. As far a s the 'u lam a'an d other
t r a d it io n a l s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r it i e s a r e c o n c e r n e d , they u s u a lly d o n o t
possess a p r o fo u n d k n o w le d ge o f the m o d e r n w orld a n d its p r o b le m s
a n d c o m p lex itie s. B u t they a re the c u st o d ia n s o f the Islam ic traditio n
a n d its p rotectors, w ith o u t w h om the very c o n tin u ity o f the tradition
w ou ld be e n d a n g e r e d . 1'hey a r e u su a lly criticized by the m o d e rn ists
for not kn o w in g E u r o p e a n p h ilo so p h y a n d science or the intricacies o f
m o d e rn e c o n o m i c s a n d the like. B u t this criticism , which i s a g a i n o f the
fa cile kin d s o e a s ily lev elled by th e m o d e r n ist s, is for the m o st p a rt
m isp la c e d . T h o s e w h o p ossessed the finan cial a n d p o litica l p o w e r in
the Islam ic w orld d u r in g the p a st cen tu ry rarely allow ed the madrasahs
to d e v e lo p in a d irection w hich w ou ld p e rm it them to give the 'ulama'
c l a s s th e o p p o r t u n i t y o f g a i n i n g a b e t te r k n o w l e d g e o f th e m o d e r n
w o r ld w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g c o r r u p t e d b y it. In the few p la c e s w h ere
a t t e m p t s w ere m a d e to m o d if y the madrasah c u r r i c u l u m the h id d e n
intention w as m ore often to d o a w a y with the tra d itio n a l e d u c a tio n a l
system by d e fo r m in g it b e yo n d h ope o f re d em p tio n th a n to e x ten d its
p r o g r a m m e in a n y r e a l s e n s e to e m b r a c e c o u r s e s w h ic h w o u l d
a c q u a i n t the s t u d e n t s with the m o d e r n w orld a s seen in the light o f
Islam ic te ach in g s. F u rth e rm o re , few a t t e m p t s h av e ever been m a d e to
create in stitution s w hich w ou ld p ro v id e a b r id g e betw een the tr a d i­
tion al madrasahs a n d m o d e r n e d u c a t i o n a l in stitu tio n s. A t a ll even ts,
the m o d e rn ists h av e no right to criticize the 'ulam a’ {ox a lack o f kn o w ­
ledge o f th ings for the m aste ry o f which they never received the o p ­
p ortun ity.
In th e s e c o n d o f o u r th re e c l a s s e s we h a v e th e p r o d u c t o f e ith e r
W estern universities or universities in the I sla m ic w orld w hich m ore or
less a p e the W est. N ow , the universities in the Islam ic w orld a re th e m ­
selves in a'state o f crisis — a crisis o f iden tity, for a n e d u c a tio n a l system
is o r g a n ic a lly related to the cu lture w ithin whose m a t r ix it function s. A
je t p la n e c a n be m a d e to lan d in the a irp o rt o f a n y co u n tr y in A sia or
A f r ic a , n o m a t t e r w h ere it m a y be, a n d be id e n tifie d a s p a r t o f th at
co u n try . B u t a n e d u c a t i o n a l system c a n n o t be s im p ly im p o r t e d , a n d
the fact th at m o d e rn universities a r e fa cin g a crisis in the Islam ic world
o f a different n a tu r e from that w hich is found in the W est is itself p roo f
o f this assertion. T h e crisis c o u ld not but exist, b e ca u se the in d igen ous
I s l a m ic c u lt u r e is still alive. M o re o v e r, this crisis a ffects d e e p ly those
w h o a r c e d u c a t e d in these u niversities a n d w h o are u su ally called ‘the
 T H E W E S T E R N W O R M ) A N D ITS C H A L L E N G E S TO ISLAM 221

in te llig e n ts ia ’. T h i s exp re ssio n , like the term ‘ in telle ctu a l’ is one th at is

m o s t u n f o r t u n a t e in th a t th o se to w h o m it is a p p l i e d a r e o fte n the
fu rth est re m o v e d fro m the d o m a in o f the intellect in its true sense. B u t
by w h a te v e r n a m e they are ca lle d , m ost m e m b e r s o f this class, w h o are
p r o d u c ts o f W estern -orien ted universities, h ave for the m o st p a rt on e
fe a tu re in c o m m o n , a n d th at is the p red ile ction for all th in g s W estern
a n d a sense o f a lie n a tio n vis-a-vis th in g s Islam ic. T h i s inferiority c o m ­
p le x v is-a-v is th e W e s t a m o n g so m a n y m o d e r n i z e d M u s l i m s a
c o m p l e x w h ic h is, m o r e o v e r , s h a r e d by m o d e r n i z e d H i n d u s ,
B u d d h i s t s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s w h o a r e a ffe c te d b y the p s y c h o s is o f
m o d e r n fo rm s o f id o la tr y — is the greatest m a l a d y fa cin g the Islam ic
w orld , a n d it afflicts the very g r o u p w hich one w ou ld e x p e ct to face the
c h a lle n g e o f th e W est. T h e e n c o u n t e r o f Islam with the W est c a n n o t
th e refo re b e d is c u ss e d w ith o u t t a k i n g in to c o n sid e r a tio n the type o f
m e n ta lity w h ich is often the p r o d u c t o f m o d e rn university e d u c a t i o n 1
a n d w h ich , d u r i n g the p a st cen tu ry , h as p ro d u c e d m ost o f the a p o l o ­
g e t i c I s l a m i c w r i t i n g s w h ic h try to c o n c e r n t h e m s e l v e s w it h th e
e n c o u n t e r o f I sla m a n d the W e s t.1*
T h i s a p o l o g e t i c , m o d e r n i z e d t y p e o f a p p r o a c h h a s a t t e m p t e d to
a n sw e r the c h a ll e n g e o f the W est b y b e n d in g b a c k w a r d s in a servile
a t t i t u d e to s h o w in o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r th a t th is o r th a t e le m e n t o f
Islam is j u s t w h a t is fa s h io n a b le in the West to d a y while oth er ele­
m en ts, for w h ich there c o u ld not be fo u n d a W'estern e q u iv a le n c e by
even the g rea te st stretch o f the im a g in a t io n , h av e been s im p ly bru sh ed
a s id e a s u n i m p o r t a n t o r e ve n e x t r a n e o u s la te r ‘a c c r e t io n s ’. 2 E n d le s s
a r g u m e n t s h av e been p resen ted for the h ygienic n a tu r e o f the Islam ic
rites o f the ‘e g a l it a r ia n ' c h a r a c t e r o f the m e s s a g e o f l s l a m , not b e ca u se

1. It must be said, however, that because of the very rapid decadcncc into
which Western society has lapsed during the past two decades, some of the
younger Muslims who have experienced the Western world on an ‘intellec­
tual’ level arc far less infatuated with it than before and have in fact begun to
criticize it. But of these, the number that think within the Islamic framework
arc very lim ited. T h e various works o f M a r y a m Ja m e e la h contain many
thoughtful pages both on this theme and the whole general problem of the
confrontation between Islam and Western civilization. See especially her
Islam versus the West, Lahore, 1968.
la. A few of the modernized 'ularna 'must also be placed in this category. See W.
C. Smith, Islam in Modern History (P.U P., 1957), where the style and approach
of such an apologetic attitude as it concerns Egypt is analysed.
2. It is here that ‘fundamentalist’ puritanical movements such as that of the
Salajiyya and the modernist trends meet.
222 ISI a m : I T S M HAN I N C A N D MF.SSAUK.

su c h th in g s a r c tru e if seen in the la r g e r c o n te x t o f the to tal I sla m ic

m e s s a g e , b u t b e c a u s e h y g ie n e a n d e g a l i t a r i a n i s m a r e the c u r r e n t l y
a c c e p t e d id e a s in th e W est o r a t least th e y w ere b e fo r e the ‘h ip p ie '
m o v em e n t. By a ffir m in g such o b v io u s a n d too e asily d e fen d e d c h a ­
r a c te r is tic s . th e a p o l o g i s t s h a v e e v a d e d the w h o le c h a l l e n g e o f the
W est, w h ic h t h r e a t e n s I her h e a r t o f I s l a m a n d w h ich n o a m o u n t o f
a t t e m p t s to p la c a t e the e n e m y ca n avert. W hen su rg ery is n eeded there
m u st be a knife w ith w h ich to re m o v e the in fe cted zone. A lso when
error th re aten s religious truth n oth in g can replace the sw ord o f criti­
cism a n d d isce rn m e n t. O n e c a n n o t rem ove the n eg a tiv e effect o f error
by m a k in g p e ac e with it a n d p rete n d in g to be its friend.
T h e a p o lo g e tic a tt itu d e is even m o r e p a th e tic w h en it co n cern s itself
with p h ilo s o p h ic a l a n d in tellectual q u e stion s. W h en one re ad s so m e
item s in th is c a t e g o r y o f a p o l o g e t i c lite r a t u r e , w h ich issued m o s tly
fr o m E g y p t a n d th e I n d i a n s u b - c o n t in e n t at the b e g in n in g of this
c e n tu r y a n d w h ic h tried to e m u l a t e a l r e a d y very s ta le a n d d e f u n c t
d e b a t e s th a t w e n t on b e t w e e n th e o l o g y a n d s c ie n c e in V i c t o r i a n
E n g l a n d o r F r a n c e o f the s a m e p e rio d , the w e a k n e s s o f s u c h w orks,
w h ich w ere s u p p o s e d to a n s w e r th e c h a ll e n g e o f the W est, b e c o m e s
most a p p a r e n t , a n d even m o re so a g a in s t the b a c k g r o u n d o f the d e ­
c a d e s that h ave sin ce gone by. O f course, a t that tim e on e c o u ld hear
the stron g voice o f the tra d itio n a l a uth o rities, w h o, b a s in g them selves
on the i m m u t a b le prin ciples o f the Islam ic revelation, tried to an sw e r
these c h a lle n g e s on a religious level, even if they were not a w a r e o f the
m ore a b s tr u se a n d h id d e n p h ilo so p h ica l a n d scientific id e a s that were
in v o lv e d . B u t th is t y p e o f v o ice g r a d u a l l y d i m i n i s h e d , w it h o u t , o f
co u rse, c e a sin g to exist a ltog eth er, while the other, that o f the m o d e r ­
nists, b e c a m e ever m ore a u d ib le a n d invasive.
I’h is p h e n o m e n o n h a s led to th e r a t h e r o d d s i t u a t i o n t o d a y in
w hich, a m o n g the e d u c a te d , p ractically the m ost a r d e n t d e fen d e rs o f
W estern civilizatio n in the world are W esternized O rien tals. T h e m ost
intelligent s t u d e n t s at O x fo r d or H a r v a r d h av e far less co n fid e n ce in
the W est t h a n th o se m o d e r n iz e d O r i e n t a l s w h o fo r s o m e tim e h a v e
sacrificed e v e r y th in g on the a lt a r o f m o d e r n ism a n d are now s u d d e n ly
faced with the possibility o f the total d e c o m p o sitio n o f this idol. T h e ­
refore, they try all the m ore d e sp e rately to clin g to it. Fo r the m o d e r ­
nized M u s l i m s , e s p e c ia l ly the m o re e x t r e m e a m o n g th e m , the ‘ tru e
m e a n i n g ’ o f I s l a m h a s b e e n fo r s o m e t i m e n o w w h a t th e W est h as
d ic ta te d . If evolution h as been in vogue ‘ true Islam ' is e volution ary. If
it is socialism that is the fashion o f the d a y , the ‘real t e a c h i n g s 'o f Islam
 T H E W E S T E R N W O R L D A N D I T S C H A L L E N G E S T O LSI AM 223

a r c b a s e d o n socialism . Those a c q u a in t e d with this type o f m en tality

a n d the w orks it h as p ro d u c e d are m ost a w a r e o f its docile, servile a n d
p a s s iv e n a t u r e . E v e n in the h eld o f law how o fte n h a v e c o m p l e t e ly
n on -Islam ic a n d even u n -ls la m ic tenets been a d o p t e d with a bwnUlah
a d d e d at the b e g in n in g a n d a b ih in asta'in at the e n d ?
N o w s u d d e n ly this g r o u p , w h ich w a s w illing to sell its soul to e m u ­
late the W est, sees before its eyes the u n b e lie v a b le sign o f the flou n ­
d e r in g o f W estern civilizatio n itself. I low p a in fu l a sight it m ust be for
such m e n ! T h e re fo r e they try in the face o f all e v id e n ce to d efen d the
W e s t e r n ‘ v a l u e s y s t e m ’ a n d b e c o m e fe r o c i o u s l y a n g r y w ith th o se
W estern ers w h o h a v e th e m se lv es b e g u n to criticize the m o d e rn world.
P r o b a b ly , if the o b v io u s d e c o m p o s itio n o f m odern civilization , which
b e c a m e g r a d u a l l y e v id e n t a fte r the S e c o n d W orld W ar . h a d b e co m e
m an ifest a f t e r the First W o r ld W a r when the tra d itio n s of A sia were
m uch m ore in tact, a great d e al m o re o f these tra d itio n a l civilizatio n s
c o u ld h av e been sa v e d . But the h a n d s o f d estin y h a d ch a rte red a n o th e r
co u rse for m a n k in d . N ev ertheless, even in the present situ atio n there is
a g reat d e a l th a t c a n be d on e , for a s the Persian p ro v erb says, ‘A s long
a s the root o f the p la n t is in the w a te r there is still h o p e .’ O n the p la n e o f
true a c tiv ity a c c o r d in g to tra d itio n a l prin ciples the possibility o f d o in g
s o m e t h i n g p o s i t i v e a l w a y s e x i s t s , i n c l u d i n g th e m o s t o b v i o u s a n d
central a c t o f s ta tin g the truth , a n d a c t i n g a c c o r d in g ly .J D e s p a ir has no
m e a n in g w h ere there is faith ( i m a n ). Ev en to d a y if in the Islam ic world
there c o m e s to be fo r m e d a true intelligentsia at on ce tra d itio n a l a n d
fully c o n v e rsa n t with the m o d e rn w orld, the ch a llen g e o f the West ca n
be a n sw e re d a n d th e core of the I sla m ic tra d itio n preserved fro m the
p a raly sis w h ich now th re aten s its lim bs a n d b ody.
T o realize e x a c tly how m u ch c a n still be sa v e d in the Islam ic w orld it
is sufficient to r e m e m b e r th a t for the vast m ajo rity o f M u s l im s Islamic
cu ltu re is still a living reality in w hich they live, b re a th e a n d die. F ro m
In d o n e sia to M o r o c c o for the o v erw h elm in g m a jo rity , I sla m ic cu ltu re
m ust be re ferred to in the presen t tense a n d not a s s o m e t h in g o f the
p ast. T h o s e w h o refer to it the p a st tense belon g to that very sm all but
vocal m in o r ity w h ich h as ce a se d to live w ithin the w orld o f tra d itio n
a n d w h ic h m i s t a k e s its o w n loss o f c e n tr e fo r th e d is l o c a t i o n o f the
w h ole o f I sla m ic society.
T h e t r a g e d y o f th e s it u a t io n resid es, h ow ever, in the fact th a t it is
precisely such a view o f I sla m a s a th in g o f the p a st th a t is held by most
3. See F. Schoun, ‘No activity without Truth', in Comparative Religion, iii
(1969), 194-203.
224 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

o f th o se w h o c o n tr o l the m a s s m e d i a in the I s l a m ic w o rld a n d w h o

th erefore e x e rc ise a n in flu e n ce u p o n the m in d s a n d s o u ls o f m en far
b e y o n d w h a t th eir n u m b e r w o u ld ju stify . In m ost p la c e s th o se w h o
hold in their h a n d s su ch m e a n s a s ra d io , television, a n d m a g a z in e s live
in a w o rld in w h ic h I s l a m i c c u l t u r e a p p e a r s a s a t h in g o f th e p a st
precisely b e c a u s e they a r e so in fa t u a te d with the W est that no o th er
w ay o f seeing th in g s see m s to h ave a n y reality for th e m even if the other
w ay be a still living reality e xistin g a t their very doo rstep s.
S t r a n g e ly e n o u g h , this W este rn iz ed m in o rity in the I sla m ic world
has g a in e d a position o f a s c e n d a n c y a t the very m o m e n t w h en the W est
has lost its ow n m o o rin g c o m p le te ly a n d does know w h at it is d o in g or
w h e r e it is g o i n g . I f a s i m p l e P e r s i a n or A r a b p e a s a n t w e r e to be
bro u g h t to one o f the big M id d le E a s t e r n a irp o rts a n d a sk ed to o b sc r v e
the E u r o p e a n s e n te rin g the c o u n try , the co n trast in n oth in g m ore th an
the d r e ss , w h ich v a r ie s fr o m th a t o f a n un to n e a r n u d i t y , w o u ld be
sufficient to im p r e ss u p o n his s im p le m in d the lack o f h o m o g e n e ity a n d
h a r m o n y o f the p r o d u c ts o f W estern civilization . Bu t even this ele­
m e n t a r y o b s e r v a t i o n u s u a l l y e s c a p e s th e t h o r o u g h l y W e s t e r n iz e d
M u s l i m w h o , th o u g h w ell-w ish in g , if n o t h in g else, d o c s n ot w a n t to
face the overt c o n tr a d ic tio n s in the civilization he is trying to e m u la te
so avidly.
O f co u rse the situ a tio n h as c h a n g e d so m ew h a t d u r in g the p a st three
d e c a d e s . M u s l i m s w h o w ent to E u r o p e betw een the tw o w orld w ars
th o u g h t o f the trees a lo n g the S ein e or the T h am es rivers p r a c tic a lly a s
S h ajarat al-tiiba a n d th ese riv ers a s the s t r e a m s o f p a r a d i s e . W h e th e r
c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y , m o s t m e m b e r s o f th is g e n e r a t i o n o f
m o d e r n iz e d M u s l i m s a lm o s t c o m p l e t e ly tr a n s fe r r e d th eir i m a g e o f
p a r a d i s e a n d its p e r f e c t io n s to W e s te r n c i v il iz a t io n bu t t o d a y th is
h o m o g e n e ity o f reaction a n d blind a c c e p t a n c e o f the W est a s a n idol is
no lo n g e r to b e o b se r v e d . T h e in n er c o n t r a d ic t io n s o f the W est th at
h a v e b e c o m e e ve n m o re m a n i fe s t d u r i n g the p a s t th ree d e c a d e s no
longer p e rm it such a n a ttitu d e . T h e p resen t-day g en eratio n o f m o d e r ­
n ized M u s l i m s a r e m u c h less c o n fid e n t a b o u t the a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f
W este rn c i v il iz a tio n th a n th eir f a th e r s a n d u n c le s w h o w ent to the
W est before them . T h is in itself ca n be a positive ten dency if it b e co m e s
the p relu d e to a positive a n d ob je ctiv e e v a lu a t io n o f m o d e rn ism . B u t so
far it h as o n ly sow n a d d it i o n a l co n fu sio n in the ran k s o f m o d e rn iz ed
M u slim s , a n d only here a n d there h as it resulted in the a p p e a r a n c e o f a
h a n d fu l o f M u s l im sch o la r s w h o h ave a w a k e n e d to the reality o f the
situ ation a n d h ave ce ase d to e m u la te the West blindly. B u t a la s ! T h e
 TH F. W E S T E R N W O R L D A N D I T S C H A L L E N G E S T O I S L A M 225

m a in p r o b le m , w h ich is the lack o f a p ro fo u n d k n o w le d ge b a se d upon

th e c r i t e r i a o f I s l a m i c c u l t u r e , still r e m a in s . T h e r e a r e still to o few
‘o c c i d e n t a l i s t s ’ in the I s l a m ic w o rld w h o c o u ld p e rfo rm th e p ositive
a sp e ct o f the fu n ctio n ‘o rien talists' h av e been p e rfo rm in g for the W est
since the e ig h te e n th century. '
D e s p i t e th e w e a k e n i n g o f c o n f i d e n c e in th e W e st on th e p a r t o f
m o d e r n iz e d M u s l i m s , M u s l i m s a r e still o n the r e c e iv in g -e n d o f the
realm o f b o th id e a s a n d m a t e r ia l ob jects. L a c k in g con fiden ce in their
ow n in tellectual tra d itio n , m ost m o d e r n iz e d M u s l im s are, like a tabula
rasa, w a i t i n g to r e c e i v e s o m e k in d o f i m p r e s s i o n fr o m th e W e s t.
M o r e o v e r , e a c h p a r t o f the I sla m ic w orld receives a p a c k a g e o f ideas
that d iffers in kin d a c c o r d in g to the p a r t o f the W estern w orld to which
it h a s b e c o m e c l o s e l y a t t a c h e d . F o r e x a m p l e , in th e d o m a i n o f
so cio lo g y a n d p h il o s o p h y th e S u b c o n t i n e n t h as for the p a st c e n tu ry
closely follow ed E n g lish sc h o o ls a n d P e rsia F r e n c h .5 B u t everyw h ere
th e m o d e r n i z e d c i r c l e s a r e s i t t i n g a n d w a i t i n g to a d o p t w h a t e v e r
c o m e s a l o n g . O n e d a y it is p o s it iv i s m a n d th e n e x t s t r u c t u r a l i s m .
R a re ly does a n y o n e b o th e r to a d o p t a truly Islam ic in tellectual a t t i ­
t u d e w h ic h w o u l d o p e r a t e in a n a c t i v e s e n s e a n d f u n c t i o n w ith
d isce rn m e n t to w a r d s all th at the w ind blow s o u r w ay. It is a lm o st the
s a m e a s in th e field o f fa s h io n w h e r e in m a n y I s l a m ic l a n d s w o m e n
re m a in c o m p le te ly p assiv e a s o b e d ie n t co n su m e rs a n d e m u la te blindly
w h a t e v e r a few W e s te r n f a s h i o n m a k e r s d e c i d e for th e m . In d r e s s
fash ion a s in p h ilo s o p h ic a l a n d a r tis tic fashion m o d e r n iz e d M u s lim s
have n o role to p la y a t the sou rce w h ere d e cisions a r c m ade.
It is o f co u rse true that even W estern p e o p le th em selves are h ard ly
a w a r e o f the d e e p e r roots o f the m o v e m e n t s th a t sw eep the W est on e
a fte r a n o t h e r a n d th a t tw enty y e a rs a g o n o on e fo resaw that su ch an
exten siv e m o v e m e n t a s th at o f the h ip p ie s w ou ld be co m e w ide sp re ad
in the W est. B u t m o d e r n iz e d M u s l im s are even furth er re m o v e d from
the cu rre n t in th at they a r e u n a w a r e not o n ly o f the roots bu t even o f
the s ta g e s o f in c u b a tio n a n d grow th o f such m o v em e n ts a n d w ait until
4. We do not mean that Muslim ‘occidentalists* should emulate the prejudices
and limitations of the orientalists but that they should know the West as much
as possible from the Islamic point of view in the same way that the best among
the orientalists have sought to know the East well albeit within the frame of
reference of the West. O f course, because the anti-traditional nature of the
modern West, such a frame of reference has not been adequate when dealing
with the religious and metaphysical teachings of Oriental traditions, but that
is another question which docs not enter our present discussion.
5. Sec S. H. Nasr, Islamic Studies, (Beirut 1967)ch. viii.
226 ISL A M : it s m e a n in g a n d m e s s a g e

they o c c u p y th e ce n tre o f the sta g e , a t w hich tim e th ey then react either

with su rprise or a g a i n in a s ta te o f b lin d surren der. T h e e co lo g ica l crisis
is a perfect e x a m p l e o f this s ta te o f affairs. rI’he M u s l im s h av e w aited
u n til th e crisis h a s b e c o m e the c e n tr a l co n c e r n o f a v a st n u m b e r o f
W e ste rn p e o p le s befo re even b e c o m i n g a w a r e o f the e x iste n c e o f the
p r o b le m . A n d e ve n n ow , h ow m a n y p e o p le in the I sla m ic w o rld a r c
t h i n k i n g o f t h is c r u c i a l p r o b l e m in th e lig h t o f th e e x t r e m e l y rich
tra d itio n o f I sla m co n cern in g n a tu re w h ich in fact c o u ld prov id e a key
for the possible solution o f this m a jo r crisis were m en to a c c e p t to use
this k e y ? 0
T o s t u d y in a m o r e c o n c r e t e fa sh io n the c h a lle n g e s o f the W est to
I sla m , it is n ec essary to take a s e x a m p l e so m e o f th e ‘is m s ’ w h ich are
f a s h io n a b le in the m o d e r n w orld to d a y a n d w h ich h av e a ffe cte d the
c u lt u r a l a n d even religious life o f the I sla m ic w orld. Let us start with
M a r x is m or, m o re gen erally s p e a k in g , socialism . T o d a y in m a n y p a rts
o f the I sla m ic w orld there is a great d e al o f talk a b o u t M a r x is m which,
a lt h o u g h not co n cern e d with religion directly, h a s an im p o r t a n t in d i­
rect e ffe ct u p o n r e l i g i o u s life, n ot to s p e a k o f e c o n o m i c a n d s o c ia l
a c tiv it y . M a n y w h o s p e a k o f M a r x i s m or s o c ia lis m in g e n e r a l in the
I sla m ic w orld d o so with certain e xistin g p r o b le m s o f society in m in d
for w h ic h they a r e s e e k in g s o lu tio n s . B u t very few o f th e m a c t u a l l y
know M a r x i s m or th e o r e tic a l so c ia lis m in a se r io u s sense. W h e n one
hears n u m e r o u s y o u n g M u s l im s tu d e n ts sp e a k in g a b o u t M a r x is m in so
m a n y u n iv e r sity circles, o n e w o n d e r s how m a n y h a v e a c t u a l l y re a d
D as K a p ilal or even i m p o r t a n t se c o n d a r y sources, or w ou ld d e fen d the
M a r x is t p osition seriously on a purely ra tio n al plane. T h e M a r x is t fad
h a s b e c o m e a n e x c u s e for m a n y y o u n g M u s l i m s to r e fu s e to th in k
seriously a b o u t the p r o b le m s o f Islam ic society from the Islam ic point
o f view : to a c c e p t the label o f the b la ck -b o x with its un k now n interior is
all th a t is r e q u ired to inflate the e g o a n d inveigle the m in d into en te r­
ta in in g the illusion th at on e h as b e co m e a n ‘in telle ctu a l’ or a m e m b e r
o f the lib e ra te d ‘ in telligen tsia' a n d that by fo llow in g the a lr e a d y e s t a ­
blished M a r x is t so lu tion s to all kin ds o f p r o b le m s a s th o u g h t o u t in a
c o m p l e t e l y d if f e r e n t s o c i o - c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t in o t h e r l a n d s , o n e no
lo n g e r h a s a n y r e s p o n s ib il it y to th in k in a fre sh m a n n e r a b o u t the
6. See S. H. Nasr, The Encounter of Man and Nature (London, 1968), pp. 93 ff.
7. As regards socialism, which is at this very time enjoying great popularity in
the form o f ‘Islam ic so cialism ’, A r a b socialism etc., the term is u sually a
misnomer for social justice and is adopted in many circles without an analysis
of its real m eaning for political expediency or simply to a p p e a r modern or
progressive.
 T H E W E S T E R N W O R L D A N D IT S C H A L L E N G E S T O I S L A M 227

p r o b le m s o f I s l a m i c s o c ie ty a s a n I s l a m ic so ciety . It is p rec isely this

b l in d a d h e r e n c e to M a r x i s m a s a p a c k a g e w h o s e c o n t e n t is n e v e r
a n a ly s e d o r a s a n a sp irin to sooth e every kind o f p a in that p r e p a re s the
g ro u n d for the worst kind o f d e m a g o g y . I n ste a d o f d is c u s s i n g p ro b le m s
in a r e a so n a b le a n d m e a n in g fu l m an n e r, those w ho h av e fallen u n d e r
the in flu e n c e o f w h a t is loosely c a lle d M a r x i s m d e v e lo p a b lin d a n d
un intelligen t o b e d ie n c e to it, which leads to a senseless c o n fro n ta tio n
a n d finally a m e n ta l sclerosis resulting in u n to ld h a r m to the youth o f
Islam ic society, to say n o th in g o f its o b v io u s h arm to the life o f faith.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e r e s p o n s e g iv e n by I s l a m i c a u t h o r i t i e s to the
c h a l l e n g e o f d i a l e c t i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m h a s for th e m o st p a r t h ith e r to
co n sisted in the p rese n ta tio n o f a r g u m e n t s d ra w n from the tr a n s m it­
ted (n aq li) or religious sciences rath er th a n from the rich intellectual
t r a d i t i o n o f I s l a m c o n t a i n e d in th e t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e l l e c t u a l ( 'a q l i )
sciences.® N o w , religious a r g u m e n t s c a n be presented only to those who
a lr e a d y possess faith. O f w hat use is it to cite a p a r tic u la r c h a p t e r o f the
Q u r ’a n to r e fu te a n id e a held by s o m e o n e w h o d o c s not a c c e p t the
a u t h o r ity o f the Q u r ’a n to start w ith? M a n y o f the w orks w ritten by the
'ularna' in this field c a n b e c r it ic iz e d p rec isely b e c a u s e they a d d r e s s
th em selves to d e a f e a r s a n d present a r g u m e n t s th at a r e o f no efficacy in
the c o n te x t in q u e stio n . T h is is e sp e cially s a d d e n in g when we co n sider
that the Islam ic tra d itio n possesses su ch a richness a n d d e p th that it is
perfectly c a p a b l e o f a n sw e rin g , on the intellectual level, a n y a r g u ­
m en ts d r a w n fro m the m o d e r n E u r o p e a n p h ilo so p h y . W h a t, in reality,
is all m o d e r n p h il o s o p h y before t r a d it io n a l w isd o m bu t a noise that
w ou ld seek, in its self-delusion, to c o n q u e r the h eaven s? S o m a n y o f the
so-called p r o b l e m s o f t o d a y a r e b a s e d on ill-posed q u e s t io n s a n d on
ig n o ra n ce o f tru th s which tra d itio n a l w isd o m a lo n e c a n cu re, a tr a d i­
tional w is d o m fo u n d from a n cie n t B a b y lo n ia to m ed iev al C h i n a in one
o f its m ost u n ive rsal a n d certain ly most diversified fo rm s in Islam an d
the v a s t i n t e l le c t u a l t r a d i t i o n w h ic h I s l a m h a s b r o u g h t in to b e in g
d u r in g its fourteen ce n tu ries o f historical existence.
T h e d a n g e r o f M a r x is m for Islam has recently b e co m e all the more
serious with the a p p e a r a n c e , in c e rta in coun tries, o f a M a r x is m with an
8. A major exception to this is the five-volume [ :sul’tfalsafa of ‘Allama Sayyid
M uham m ad Husayn T ab ata b a T , one of the most venerable masters of tradi­
tional Islamic philosophy in Persia today, with the commentary of Murtada
M utahharf (Qum, 1392 (A. H. solar)). As far as we know, this is the only work
of an Islamic character which has tried to answer dialectical materialism from
a philosophical point o f view drawing from traditional Islamic philosophy,
especially the school of Mulla Sadra.
228 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G A \ l ) M E SSA G E

I sla m ic ven eer, c r e a t in g a m o st te m p li n g tr a p for s o m e s im p le souls.

T h i s in sid io u s use o f religion, often with direct p olitical a im s in m in d,
is in fact m o re d a n g e r o u s th an the anti-religiou s a n d at least ‘h o n e st1
M a r x is m a n d c o r re s p o n d s to the th o ugh t a n d a t t it u d e o f th at c lass o f
p erson s w h o m the Q u r ’a n ca lls the Munafiqun (hypocrites). In this case
there is n o w a y o f g iv in g a n Islam ic resp on se e xcep t by an sw e rin g such
p s e u d o - s y n t h e s e s in t e l l e c t u a l l y a n d b y c l e a r ly d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t
Islam is not a n y th in g th at m igh t c o m e a lo n g p r efac ed with a bismil-
lah, bu t. rath er, a total vision o f reality w h ich c a n n o t c o m p r o m is e with
a n y h alf-truth s w h atsoever.
A n o t h e r 'ism o f g r e a t e r d a n g e r to Islam w ith a lo n g e r h istory o f
p r o t r u s i o n in t o th e I s l a m i c w o r ld t h a n M a r x i s m is D a r w i n i s m or
e v o l u t i o n i s m in g e n e r a l , w h o s e e ffe ct is p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r c e p t i b l e
a m o n g the M u s l i m s o f the In d ian sub c o n tin en t, o b v io u sly b e c a u s e o f
the str o n g in fluence o f British e d u c a tio n there. There is not tim e here
to poin t o u t the a r g u m e n t s p resen ted by m a n y o u t s t a n d in g E u r o p e a n
biologists a g a in s t e v o lu tio n or to m arsh all all the proo fs bro u g h t forth
by c o n t e m p o r a r y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s to s h o w th a t w h a t e v e r m a y h av e
o ccu rre d before, m a n h im se lf has not evolved one iota since he set foot
up o n the s ta g e o f terrestrial h isto ry .10
A la s , p ra c tic a lly no c o n te m p o r a r y M u slim thinker h as taken note o f
these sources a n d m a d e use o f their a r g u m e n ts to s u p p o rt the tr a d i­
ti o n a l I s l a m i c v ie w o f m a n . F o r a n o t a b l e s e g m e n t o f m o d e r n i z e d
M u s l im s e v o lu tio n r e m a in s p r a c tic a lly like a religio us artic le o f faith
w hose overt c o n tr a d ic t io n o f the te a c h in g s o f the Q u r ’a n they fail to
realize.
In fact, the D a r w in ia n th eory o f ev o lu tio n , which is m e ta - p h y sic a lly
i m p o s s i b l e a n d l o g i c a l l y a b s u r d , h a s b e e n s u b t l y w o v e n in c e r ta in
q u a r te r s into so m e a sp e c ts o f Islam to p ro d u c e a m ost u n fo r tu n a te a n d
s o m e t i m e s d a n g e r o u s b l e n d . W e d o n ot m e a n o n l y th e s h a l l o w

9. S c c N a sr, Encounter of Man and Xuture, pp. 124 ff., where these arguments as
well as references to works on biology in which they have been set forth arc
presented. See also G. Berthault. I. 'ewlution, fruit d'une illusion scientijique, Paris,
1972.
10. See, for example, Leroi’Gourhan, LeGesteet la parole, 2 vols. (Paris 1964-5);
). Scrvier, /. 'hornrnir et ( ’invisible ( Paris, 1964); E. Zolla (ed.) Eternila e storm. I
talon permanentI net dii'emre stonco (Florence 1970); and G. Durand. ‘D e p u r a ­
tion philosophiquc et figure traditioncllc de Phomme en Occident’, Erarws-
Jahrbuch (xxxviii (1969), Zurich 1971), pp. 45-93. Even an academic authority
like Levi-Strauss, the founder o f structuralism , has said, ‘les homines ont
toujours penseaussi bien’.
 T H K VVKSTKRN' W O R L D A N D IT S C H A I I.F N G F .S T O IS L A M 229

Q u r ’a n i c c o m m e n t a t o r s a r o u n d the tu rn o f th e c e n t u r y , bu t e ve n a
th in k er o f the s ta tu r e o f I q b a l , w h o w as in fluen ced by both the V ic to ­
rian c o n c e p t o f e v o lu tio n a n d the idea o f the s u p e r m a n o f N ietzsche.
Iq b al is an im p o rta n t c o n t e m p o r a r y figure o f I sla m , but with all d u e
respect to him he s h o u ld be stu d ie d in the light o f the ijtihad w hich he
h im se lf p r e a c h e d s o often a n d not be p u t on a pedestal. If we an aly se
h is t h o u g h t c a r e f u l l y we see th a t he h a d a n a m b i v a l e n t lo v e -h a te
r e la tio n sh ip vis-a-vis S u fism . H e a d m i r e d R u m f yet e x p re sse d dislike
for a figure like H afiz. T h i s is d u e to the fact th at he w a s d r a w n , on the
one h a n d , by the S u fi a n d . m ore g en erally s p e a k in g , Islam ic idea o f the
perfect m a n (al-tnsan al-kanul) a n d , on the oth er, by the N ie tz sch ia n
idea o f the s u p e r m a n w h ich a r e in fact a t the very a n t ip o d e s o f e ac h
other. I q b a l m a d e the g reat m ista k e o f seeking to identify the two. He
m a d e this fa ta l error, d e sp ite his d e e p u n d e r sta n d in g o f m a n y a spects
o f I sla m , he h a d c o m e to take the p rev alen t idea o f evolution too
s e r io u s ly . H e d e m o n s t r a t e s o n a m o r e l it e r a t e a n d e x p l ic i t level a
tendency to be found a m o n g m a n y m o d e rn M u s l im writers w h o in­
s te a d o f a n s w e r i n g the fa lla c ie s o f e v o lu tio n h a v e tried to b e n d ov er
b a c k w a r d s iti a n a p o lo g e t ic m a n n e r to a c c e p t it a n d even to interpret
Islam ic te a c h in g s a c c o r d in g to it. 1
T h e gen e ral te n d e n c y a m o n g M u s l im s a ffected by the evolutionist
m e n t a l it y is to fo rge t th e w h o le I s l a m ic c o n c e p t io n o f th e m a r c h o f
t i m e . 1' T h e Q u r a n i c c h a p t e r s a b o u t c s c h a t o l o g ic a l e v e n ts a n d the
latte r d a y s are forgotten . All the hadilhs p e rta in in g to the last d a y s a n d
th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e M a h d f a r e laid a s i d e or m is c o n s tr u e d , e ith e r
t h r o u g h i g n o r a n c e o r m a l e v o l e n c e . Ju st on e h ad ith o f th e P r o p h e t
a sse rtin g that the best g en e r a tio n o f M u s l im s were those w h o were the
c o n t e m p o r a r i e s o f th e P r o p h e t , th en the g e n e r a t io n a fte r , th en the
follow ing g e n e r a tio n until the e nd o f tim e is sufficient to nullify, from
the I sla m ic poin t o f view, the idea o f linear e v o lu tio n a n d p rog ress in
h is to r y . T h o s e w h o t h in k th e y a r e r e n d e r i n g a s e r v ic e to I s la m by
i n c o r p o r a t i n g e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a s in t o I s l a m i c t h o u g h t a r e in fa c t

11 It must be said, however, that fortunately in Islam there have not as yet
appeared any figures representing ‘evolutionary reliction’ possessing the same
degree of influence as can be seen in Hinduism and Christianity where such
men as Sri Aurobindo and Teilhard dc Chardin have rallied numerous sup-
poters around themselves. T he metaphysical teachings o f Islam based upon
the.immutibility of the Divine Principle has until now been too powerful to
permit the widespread influence o f any such deviation.
12. See Abu Bakr Siraj-ud-Din, ‘The Islamic and Christian Conceptions o f the
March of T im e ’, The Islamic Quarterly, i (1954), 229-35.
230 ISL A M : ITS M EA N IN G AN D M ESSA G E

fa llin g into a m ost d a n g e r o u s pit a n d a r e s u rren d e rin g Islam to one o f

th e m o s t i n s i d i o u s p s e u d o - d o g m a s o f m o d e r n m a n , c r e a t e d in the
e ig h tee n th a n d n ineteenth cen tu ries to e n a b le m en to forget G o d .
M o r e o v e r , th e a c c e p t a n c e o f the e v o l u t i o n a r y th e sis b r i n g s in to
be in g ov ert p a r a d o x e s in d a ily life which c a n n o t be e asily re m o ve d . If
th in g s a r e g o in g to e v o lv e for the b e tte r, then w hy b o th e r to e x p e n d
o n e ’s efforts on b e tte rm e n t? Things will im p rov e by th em selv es a n y ­
w a y . The v e r y d y n a m i s m p r e a c h e d by m o d e r n i s t s is a g a i n s t the
u su ally a c c e p te d id e a o f evolution . O r , seen from a n o th e r view', it can
be a r g u e d t h a t if th e e f f o r t , w o rk , m o v e m e n t a n d s o on t h a t a r e
p r e a c h e d in the m o d e rn w orld are effective, then m a n can influence his
fu tu r e a n d d e stin y . A n d if he c a n affect h is f u tu r e , then he c a n a ls o
affect if for the worse, a n d there is no g u a r a n t e e o f an a u t o m a t ic p r o ­
gress a n d ev o lu tio n . All o f these a n d m a n y o th er p a r a d o x e s are b r u s h ­
ed a s id e in certain q u a r te r s b e ca u se o f the en feebled intellectual a t t i ­
t u d e w h ich h a s a s yet to p r o d u c e a s e r io u s a n d a l s o w id e ly k n o w n
I s l a m i c r e s p o n s e o f a m e t a p h y s i c a l a n d i n t e l le c t u a l n a t u r e to the
h y p o th e s is o f e v o lu t io n . The c h a lle n g e o f e v o l u t io n a r y th o u g h t h as
been a n sw e re d in c o n te m p o r a r y Islam in alm ost the s a m e w a y a s h as
the c a s e o f M a r x i s m . T h e r e h a v e b e e n s o m e r e lig io u s r e p lie s b a s e d
up o n the H o ly B o ok but not a n in tellectual response w hich co u ld also
p e r s u a d e the y o u n g M u s l im s w hose faith in the Q u r 'a n itself has been
in p a r t s h a k e n b y th e v e ry a r g u m e n t s o f the e v o l u t i o n a r y s c h o o l.
M e a n w h i l e , w o r k s o f e v o l u t i o n a r y w r ite rs o f e v e n th e n in e te e n t h
ce n tu ry such a s S p e n c e r , w h o are no longer ta u g h t a s living p h ilo so ­
p h ical influences in their h o m e la n d , c o n tin u e to be ta u g h t in un iver­
sities far a n d w ide in the Islam ic w orld, especially in the S u b ­
co n tin e n t, a s if they represen ted the latest prov en scientific know ledge
or the latest p h ilo so p h ic a l school o f the West. Few b o th e r even to s tu d y
the recent a n ti- e v o lu tio n a r y d e v e lo p m e n ts in b io lo g y itse lf a s w ell as
the reassertion o f the pre-ev olution ary co n cep tio n o f m a n - m o v e ­
m en ts w hich a r e g a i n in g even g re a te r a d h e re n c e in m a n y circles in the
West to d a y . A n d w h at is w orse, there are too few efforts on the p a rt o f
the M u s l i m I n t e l le c t u a l e lite to f o r m u la t e fro m I s l a m ic s o u rc e s the
g en u in e d o c trin e o f m a n a n d his relation to the universe w h ich wrou ld
act a s a criterion for the ju d g e m e n t o f a n y w o u ld -b e theory o f m a n a n d
the c o sm o s, e v o lu tio n a r y or otherw ise, a n d which w ou ld a ls o p rov id e
the light n ec essary to d istin g u ish scientific facts from m ere hypoth eses
a n d scientific e v id e n ce from crass p h ilosop h ical m a te r ia lism p a r a d i n g
in the g a r b o f a pseu d o-re ligiou s b e lie f.13
 TH F. W E S T E R N W O R L D A N D IT S C H A L L E N G E S T O I S L A M 231
A n o th e r i m p o r t a n t ‘p h ilo s o p h ic a l’ ch a llen g e to the I sla m ic w orld is
c o n n e c t e d w ith th e F r e u d i a n a n d J u n g i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e
p sy c h e . T h e m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g ic a l a n d p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o a c h
tries to re d u ce all the h igher e le m e n ts o f m a n ’s b e in g to the level o f the
p sych e a n d , m o reover, to re d u ce the p sych e itself to n oth in g m ore th an
th at w hich c a n be stu d ied th rou g h m o d e rn p sy ch o lo g ica l a n d p sy ­
c h o a n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s . U n t i l n o w , th is w a y o f t h i n k i n g h a s n ot
affected the I sla m ic w orld a s directly a s h as ev o lu tio n ism , a n d I d o not
know o f a n y im p o r t a n t M u s l im w riters w h o arc F r e u d ia n or J u n g i a n ;
but its effect is c e rta in to increase soon . It m ust therefore be r e m e m ­
b e red th a t F r e u d i a n i s m a s well a s o t h e r m o d e r n W estern sc h o o ls o f
p s y c h o l o g y a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y a r e th e b y - p r o d u c t s o f a p a r t i c u l a r
society very different from the Islam ic. It needs to be recalled also that
F r e u d w a s a V i e n n e s e J e w w h o u n f o r t u n a t e l y t u r n e d a w a y fro m
O r t h o d o x J u d a i s m . F e w p e o p le know that he w as co n n e cted to a m e s ­
sian ic m o v e m e n t w hich w as o p p o s e d by the O r t h o d o x Je w is h c o m ­
m u n ity o f c e n tra l E u r o p e itself a n d th at therefore he w a s o p p o s e d to
the m a i n - s t r e a m o f J e w i s h life, n ot to s p e a k o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . M a n y
s tu d y F r e u d i a n is m , b u t few d elv e into its d e e p e r origin s which reveal
its real n a t u r e . 14
R e c e n t l y o n e o f th e o u t s t a n d i n g figu res o f S u f i s m fr o m th e E a s t
w r o te a s e r ie s o f a r t i c l e s o n S u f i s m a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s in F r e n c h ,
m a k in g a c o m p a r is o n betw een the two. W ith all d u e respect to him it
m ust be s a id th at he has been too polite a n d lenient to w ard s psy­
c h o a n a l y s i s , w h ic h is tr u ly a p a r o d y o f th e i n i t i a t o r y m e t h o d s o f
S u fism . F o r tu n a te ly for M u s lim s , until now the influence o f p sy ­
c h o a n a ly s is h a s not p e n e tr a te d d e e p ly a m o n g them , a n d they h ave not
felt th e n ee d for it. This is d u e m o s t o f a ll to the c o n t in u a t io n o f the
p ra c tic e o f religio us rites such a s the d a ily p ra y ers a n d p ilg rim a g e . T h e

13. See Lord Northbourne, Looking Back on Progress (London, 1971); M. Lings,
Ancient Beliefs and Modern Superstitions (London, 1955); and F. Schuon, Light on
the Ancient Worlds, trans. Lord Northbourne (London, 1965).
14. Sec W. ft. Perry, ‘The Revolt against Moses’, Studies m Comparative Religion,
i (1967), 103-19; F. Schuon, ‘The Psychological Imposture’, ibid., pp. 98-1 Os;
and R. Guenon, 'The Reign of Quantity and the Signs of the Times’, trans. Lord
Northbourne (Baltim ore 1972), chs. xxiv fT. As far as J u n g is concerned, his
influence can be even more dangerous than that of Freud precisely because he
deals more with traditional symbols but from a psychological rather than
spiritual point of view. See Burckhardt, ‘Cosmology and Modern Science IIP,
Tomorrow, xm (1965), 19-31; id., Scienza mordernae saggezza tradizionale, (Torino,
1968), ch. iv.
232 i s i .a m : it s m e a n in g a n d m e ssa g e

s u p r e m e centre* for p il g r i m a g e in Islam is, o f course. M a k k a , but there

a r e o t h e r s a c r e d lo c a litie s t h r o u g h o u t th e M u s l i m w o r ld w h ic h arc
reflections o n this ce n tre . T h e s u p p lic a tio n s, ‘d isc o u rse s’, a n d fo rm s o f
p l e a d i n g th a t a r e c a r r i e d o u t in s u c h c e n t r e s b y m e n , w o m e n a n d
c h ild ren o p e n their souls to the influx o f d iv in e g r a c e a n d arc a m ost
p ow erful m e a n s o f c u r in g the a ilm e n ts, a n d u n ty in g the knots, o f the
soul. T h e y a c h ie v e a g o a l w h ich the p sy ch o a n a ly st seeks to a cco m p lish
w itho ut success but often with d a n g e r o u s results b e c a u s e he lack s the
p ow er w h ich c o m e s from the S p irit a n d w hich a lo n e can d o m in a te an d
control the soul.
B u t p s y c h o a n a ly t ic a l th o u g h t, w hich is a g n o st ic or even in certain
ca se s d e m o n ic , is b o u n d to p e n e tra te g r a d u a l ly into the I slam ic w orld,
m o s t l y p e r h a p s t h r o u g h th e t r a n s l a t i o n o f W e s te r n l i t e r a t u r e into
A ra b ic , P e rsian , T u r k ish , U rd u an d oth er Islam ic la n g u a g e s. T h e
effect o f su ch tr a n s la tio n s will b e to b r in g into bein g , a n d in fact it is
a l r e a d y b r i n g i n g in t o b e i n g , a s o - c a l le d 'p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e '
o p p o s e d to th e very n a t u r e a n d g e n i u s o f I s l a m . I s l a m is a re lig io n
w hich s ta n d s o p p o s e d to in d iv id u alistic su b jec tiv ism . T h e m ost intel­
ligible m a t e r ia l s y m b o l o f I sla m , the m o s q u e , is a b u ild in g with a sp ace
in w h ic h all e le m e n t s o f s u b je c tiv is m h av e been e lim i n a t e d . It is an
ob je ctiv e d e te r m in a t io n o f the T r u t h , a crystal th rou gh which the light
o f the S p ir it r a d ia te s. T h e sp ir itu a l ideal o f Islam itself is to tran sform
the s o u l o f th e M u s l i m , like a m o s q u e , in t o a c r y s t a l r e fle c tin g the
D iv in e Ligh t.
T r u ly I sla m ic literature is very different from the kind o fsu b je c tiv i-
s t ic l i t e r a t u r e w e find in th e w r i t i n g s o f F r a n z K a f k a or a t best in
D o sto e v sk y . T h e s e a n d s im il a r figu res a r e o f co u r se a m o n g the m ost
i m p o r t a n t in m o d e r n W e ste rn lite r a tu re , bu t th e y, a l o n g w ith m ost
other W estern literary figures, nevertheless present a point o f view that
is v e ry d if fe r e n t f r o m , a n d o f te n t o t a ll y o p p o s e d to , th a t o f I s l a m .
A m o n g o l d e r W e s t e r n l ite r a r y figu res w h o a r e clo se to th e I s l a m ic
p e r s p e c t i v e o n e m ig h t m e n t io n first o f all D a n t e a n d G o e t h e w h o,
a lth o u g h p r o fo u n d ly C h r is tia n , a r c in m a n y w ay s like M u slim writers.
In m o d e rn tim es on e c o u ld m en tio n , bu t on a n o th e r level, o f course, T .
S. E lio t who, unlike m ost m o d e rn writers, w as a de v o u t C h r istia n a n d
p o s s e s se d , fo r this very r e a s o n , a v ision o f th e w orld n ot c o m p l e t e ly
rem o ved from th a t o f Islam .
In c o n t r a s t to th e w o rk s o f s u c h m e n , h ow e v e r, th e p s y c h o l o g ic a l
n o v e l, t h r o u g h its v e ry fo r m a n d its a t t e m p t to p e n e t r a t e in t o the
p sych e o f m e n w ith o u t a criterion for T r u t h a s a n ob jective reality, is an
 T H E W E S T E R N W O R L D A N D IT S C H A L L E N G E S T O I S L A M 233

e le m e n t th a t is foreign to I sla m . M a r c e l Proust w as w ith o u t d o u b t a

m a s t e r o f the F re n ch l a n g u a g e a n d his ‘In S c a r c h o f T i m e P a st' is o f
m u ch interest to th ose d e v o t e d to m o d e r n F re n ch lite ratu re , bu t this
ty p e o r w r i t i n g c a n n o t b e c o m e th e m o d e l for a g e n u i n e l y M u s l i m
literature. Y e t it is this very ty p e o f psych olog ical literature that is now
b e g in n in g to serve a s a 'sou rce o f in s p ir a tio n ’ f o r a n u m b e r o f writers in
A r a b i c a n d P e r s i a n . It is o f in te r e st to n o te t h a t th e m o s t f a m o u s
m o d e r n l i t e r a r y fig u re o f P e r s i a , S a d e q H e d a y a t , w h o w a s d e e p l y
in flu e n ce d by K a f k a , c o m m it t e d s u ic id e fro m p s y c h o lo g ic a l d e s p a ir
a n d th a t, a lt h o u g h c e r ta in ly a p e rso n o f g reat literary ta len t, he w as
d i v o r c e d fr o m th e I s l a m i c c u r r e n t o f life a n d is t o d a y o p p o s e d by
I s l a m ic e le m e n t s w ith in P e r sia n s o c ie ty . N e v e r t h e le s s, s u c h w riters,
w h o often d e al with p sy ch o lo g ica l p r o b le m s fo u n d in W estern society,
p r o b l e m s w h ic h th e M u s l i m s h a v e n o t e x p e r ie n c e d u n til n o w , a r c
b e c o m i n g p o p u l a r a m o n g the M u s l i m y o u th w h o th e r e b y b e c o m e
a c q u a in t e d a n d even afflicted by these n ew m aladies.
O n e o f the worst tra g ed ies t o d a y is th at there h as a p p e a r e d recently
in th e M u s l i m w o r ld a new ty p e o f p e r s o n w h o tries c o n s c i o u s l y to
i m i t a t e th e o b v i o u s m a l a d i e s o f th e W est. S u c h p e o p le a r e n o t, for
e x a m p le , really in a s ta te o f d e p re ssion but try to p ut th em slcves into
such in o r d e r to look m o d e r n . T h e y c o m p o se p oetry th at is s u p p o s e d to
issue from a to r m e n te d a n d d e p re sse d soul w h ere as th e y a r e not d e ­
pressed at all. T h e r e is n o th in g worse th a n a s ta te o f n ihilism e x c e p t the
im itatio n o f the s ta te o f n ihilism by s o m eo n e w h o is not nihilistic bu t
tries to p r o d u c e nihilistic literature or art only to im ita te the d e c a d e n c e
o f W estern art. The influence o f p sych ology a n d p sy ch o a n a ly sis c o m ­
bin ed with a n a th eistic a n d nihilistic point o f view a n d d isse m in a te d
w ithin the I sla m ic w orld th ro u g h lite ratu re a n d a rt prese n ts a m a j o r
c h a ll e n g e to I s la m w h ich c a n be a n sw e re d o n ly th ro u g h re c o u rse to
tr a d it io n a l I s l a m ic p s y c h o lo g y a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y c o n ta in e d m ostly
w ith in S u f i s m a n d a ls o th r o u g h the c r e a t io n o f I s l a m ic - in the true
sense o f the term - literary criticism w hich w ou ld be a b le to p rov id e an
ob je ctiv e e v a lu a t io n o f so m u ch that p a sses for literature today.
T h e d e g r e e o f p e n e t r a t i o n o f a n t i - I s l a m i c p s y c h o l o g ic a l a n d a ls o
p h ilo so p h ica l W estern id e a s th rou g h literature c a n be best g a u g e d by
ju s t w a lk in g th r o u g h the streets n e a r un iversities in different M id d le
E a s t e r n citie s. A m o n g th e b o o k s s p r e a d on th e g r o u n d or on s t a n d s
everyw here on e still o b se rv e s tra d itio n a l religious books, a n d e sp e c ia l­
ly, o f co u rse the Q u r ’a n . B u t one observes a ls o the presence of a large
n u m b e r o f w orks in I sla m ic l a n g u a g e s d e a l in g with su b je c ts r a n g in g all
234 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

the w a y fro m M a r x i s m a n d e x iste n tia lism to p o r n o g r a p h y p resen ted

m ost often a s ‘ lite r a tu re ’. N a t u r a lly , there arc r e b u tta ls a n d a n sw e rs as
well, for Islam a n d its sp iritu a lity a re still alive, but the very presence o f
all th is ty p e o f w r it i n g itse lf re v e a ls th e d im e n s io n o f th e c h a ll e n g e
involved.
A s fa r a s n ih ilism is c o n c e r n e d , the I s l a m ic a n s w e r is p a r tic u la r ly
stron g, a n d the M u s lim s , even m o d e rn iz ed ones, h ave not e x p erien ced
n ihilism in the s a m e w a y a s h av e W esterners. T h e m ain reason for this
is th at in C h r is tia n ity the S p ir it h as been a lm o st a lw a y s p resen ted in a
p ositive fo rm , a s a n a ffirm a tio n , a s the sac re d a rt o f C h ris tia n ity re­
v e a ls so c le a r ly . T h e v o id o r th e ‘ n ih il ’ h a s not u s u a l ly b e e n g iv e n a
s p iritu a l sig n ifican ce in C h r is tia n art such a s we o b serve, for e x a m p le ,
in I s l a m i c a n d a l s o F a r E a s t e r n a r t . ” T h e r e fo r e , a s a r e s u lt o f th e
rebellion a g a in s t C h r is tia n ity , m o d e rn m a n h as e xp e rie n ce d the nihil
o n l y in its n e g a t i v e a n d t e r r i f y i n g a s p e c t w h ile s o m e h a v e b e e n
a t t r a c t e d to O r i e n t a l d o c t r i n e s e s p e c i a l l y b e c a u s e o f th e l a t t c r ’s
e m p h a s i s u p o n the void.
In c o n tr a st to C h r is ti a n i ty w h ere the m a n ife s t a t io n o f the S p ir it is
a lw a y s identified with an a ffirm a tio n a n d a positive form , Islam ic art
m a k e s use o f the ‘n e g a t i v e ’ or the ‘v o id ’ itself in a s p iritu a l a n d positive
sense in the s a m e w a y th at m e ta p h y s ic a lly the first p a rt o f the Shahada
b e g in s w ith a n e g a t i o n to a ffir m the v a c u i t y o f the th in g s vis-a-v is
A lla h . T h e s p a c e o f I sla m ic a r c h ite c t u r e a n d c ity - p la n n in g is not the
s p a c e a r o u n d a n o b je c t o r d e te r m in e d by th at o b ject. R a t h e r , it is the
n eg a tiv e s p a c e cu t o u t from m a te r ia l fo rm s as, for e x a m p le , in tr a d i­
tional b a z a a r s . W h e n on e w alks th rou g h a b a z a a r one w alks th rou gh a
c o n tin u o u s s p a c e d e te r m in e d by the inner su rfa ce o f the w all s u r ­
r o u n d in g it a n d not b y s o m e o b je c t in the m id d l e o f it. T h a t is why
w hat is now h a p p e n i n g a r c h ite c tu r a lly in m a n y M id d le E a ste r n cities
such a s the b u ild in g o f so m e h uge m o n u m e n t in the m id d le o f a sq u a r e
to e m u l a t e its c o u n t e r p a r t in th e W est is th e n e g a t i o n o f th e very
p rin cip le s o f I sla m ic a rt a n d is b a se d o n a lack o f u n d e r s t a n d in g o f the
p o sitiv e role o f n e g a tiv e s p a c e a n d th e ‘n ih il’ is I sla m ic arch ite ctu re .
T h e void or n e g a tiv e s p a c e h as a lw a y s possessed a positive sp ir itu a l role
in Islam a n d its a r t, a n d it is precisely this positive a sp e ct o f the void in
15. On the significance of the void in Islamic art seeT. Burckhardt,‘The Void
in Islamic Art’, Studies in Comparative Religion, iv (1970), 96-9; S. H. Nasr, ‘The
Significance of the Void in the Art and Architecture of Islamic P e r s i a Journal
of the Regional Cultural Institute (Tehran), v. (1972), 128-8; id., ‘The Significance
of the Void in the Art and Architecture of Islam ’, The Islamic Quarterly, xvi
(1972), 115-20.
 THF. W E S T E R N W O R L D A N D IT S C H A L L E N G E S T O I S L A M 235

I s l a m ic s p i r i t u a l i t y t h a t h a s p r e v e n t e d M u s l i m s fr o m e x p e r ie n c in g
n ih ilis m a n d n o t h i n g n e s s in th e ir p u r e l y n e g a t i v e s e n s e a n d in the
m a n n e r th a t n ih ilism h a s m a n i f e s t e d itse lf a s p r a c tic a lly the ce n tra l
e x p e rie n ce o f m o d e r n m a n .
T o return to the q u e stio n o f p sy ch o lo g y a n d p sy c h o a n a ly sis, it m ust
be a d d e d th a t the presen ce o f this p ersp ective in so m u ch art criticism
in the W est h as p e rm itte d this type o f th o u g h t to seep into the m in d o f
a sm a ll bu t sig n ific an t p o rtio n o f Islam ic so ciety th ro u g h art -
sig n ifican t b e c a u s e it w ields influence a n d often form s the taste o f the
p s y c h o l o g ic a l ly p a s s iv e m a s s e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l M u s l i m s . T r a d i t i o n a l
Islam ic lite rary c ritic ism a n d lite rary taste s are th ereb y b ein g
in flu e n ce d b y the c o m p l e t e ly a n t i- t r a d it i o n a l id e a s e m a n a t i n g from
J u n g i a n a n d F r e u d i a n circles a n d th r e a te n in g on e o f the m ost central
a n d accessib le c h a n n e ls o f I sla m ic n o r m s a n d values. It m ig h t, fu r­
th erm ore, be a d d e d th at J u n g i a n p sy ch o lo g y is m o re d a n g e r o u s than
th e F r e u d i a n in th is r e s p e c t, in th a t it s e e m s to be d e a l i n g w ith the
sa c re d a n d the n o u m c n a l w orld w h ere as in reality it is d e fo r m in g the
i m a g e o f th e s a c r e d by c o n f u s i n g th e s p i r i t u a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l
d o m a in s a n d s u b v e rsiv e ly r e le g a tin g the lu m in o u s a n d tra n sc e n d e n t
source o f a r c h e ty p e s to a collectiv e u n co n sciou s, w h ich is no m o re th an
the d u m p i n g - g r o u n d for the co llectiv e psych e o f v a r io u s p e o p le s a n d
th e ir c u lt u r e s . I s l a m ic m e t a p h y s ic s , a s all tru e m e t a p h y s ic s , s t a n d s
t o t a l l y o p p o s e d to th is b l a s p h e m o u s s u b v e r s i o n a s w ell a s to th e
m e t h o d s o f p r o f a n e p s y c h o a n a ly s is w h ich a r e , a s a l r e a d y s t a t e d , no
m o re th a n a p a r o d y o f S u fi tech n iq ues. B u t how m a n y *c o n te m p o r a ry
M u s l i m s a r e w i l lin g to s t a n d u p a n d a s s e r t th e ir b a s i c d if fe r e n c e s
r a th e r th a n try in g to g lid e o v e r th e m in o r d e r to p la c a t e the m o d e rn
w orld with all its essen tial errors a n d s u b s e q u e n t evils?

A n o th e r c h a lle n g e to I sla m , which has c o m e to the fore o nly since the

S e c o n d W o r ld W a r , is the w h o le series o f m o v e m e n t s o f th o u g h t a n d
a t t i t u d e s l o o s e ly b o u n d t o g e t h e r u n d e r th e title o f e x i s t e n t i a l i s m ,
w h ic h is th e la te s t w a v e o f W e s te r n t h o u g h t to r e a c h th e M u s l i m s
fo llo w in g v a rio u s fo rm s o f p o sitiv ism . T h e r e a rc , o f c o u rse, m an y
bra n c h e s o f e xiste n tia lism , r a n g in g from the Existenz Philosophie o f the
G e r m a n p h ilo so p h e rs to the theistic p h ilo so p h y o f G a b r ie l M a r c e l a n d
finally to th e a g n o s t ic a n d a th e istic id e a s o f S a r t r e a n d his followers.
T h is type o f p h ilo so p h y , w hich d e v e lo p e d on the E u r o p e a n con tin en t
early in this c e n tu ry , still h olds the centre o f the sta g e in m a n y co n ti­
n e n ta l c o u n trie s. A lt h o u g h it h as not a s yet h ad a serious effect u p o n
236 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G AND M E SSA G E

the M u s l i m w o rld , d u r i n g the p a st few y e a rs its influence, w h ich ca n

c e rta in ly be c h a ra c te riz e d a s n eg a tiv e , is b e g in n in g to m a k e itself felt
a g a in th rou g h a rt a n d m o re directly th rou g h pro p e rly so ca lle d p h ilo ­
so p h ica l works, w h ich a r e s ta rtin g to influence so m e o f those M u s l im s
w h o a re c o n ce rn e d with p h ilo so p h y a n d the in tellectual life. Because
o f th e a n t i - m e t a p h y s i c a l a t t i t u d e o f m u c h o f w h a t is t a u g h t in this
school a n d it s f o r g e t t i n g o f the m c a n i n g o f be in g in its tra d itio n a l sense,
w hich lies at the h ea rt o f all Islam ic p h ilosop h y, the s p re a d o f e x isten ­
tialism e sp e cia lly in its a g n o stic vein is a m o st in sidio u s d a n g e r for the
fu ture o f I s l a m ic in tellectual life.

F u r t h e r m o r e , th e re is th e te n d e n c y in c e r t a in q u a r t e r s to in t e r p r e t
I sla m ic p h ilo so p h y itself in the light o f W estern m o d e s o f th o u g h t, the
latest b e in g the e xisten tia l school. M u slim ‘ in telle ctu a ls’ a r c directly to
b l a m e for this d a n g e r o u s in n o v a tio n (hui'ah), w hich stra n ge ly e n o u g h
is a ls o the m ost b lin d a n d unintelligent ty p e o f im itatio n (la q lid ) . tb If
this ty p e o f in terp re ta tio n c o n tin u es, it will cost the new g en e ratio n o f
M u s l im s very d e arly . T o d a y o n e sees everyw here in different M u slim
co u n tries M u s l im s lea rn in g a b o u t their ow n intellectual a n d p h ilo so ­
ph ical p a st from W estern sources, m a n y o f w hich m a y co n ta in useful
in fo rm a tio n a n d be o f valu e from the point o f view o f sch olarsh ip , but
all o f w hich a r e o f necessity from a n o n -M u s lim point o f view.
In the field of th o u g h t a n d p h ilo so p h y in the widest sense the c o u n ­
tries th at h av e suffered m ost are those which use E n g lish or Fren ch as
the m e d i u m o f in s tr u c tio n in th eir u n iv e r sit ie s — c o u n tr i e s s u c h a s
P a k istan , the M u s l im sectors o f I n d ia , M a l a y s i a a n d N ig e r i a ,o r , in the
M a g h r ib , co u n tries su ch a s M o r o c c o a n d T u n is ia . It is h igh tim e, with
a ll th eir talk of a n ti- c o l o n ia l is m , for M u s l i m s to o v e r c o m e the worst
possible ty p e o f c o lo n ia lis m , n a m e ly co lo n ialism o f the m in d , a n d to
seek to view a n d s tu d y their ow n c u ltu re, especially its in tellectual a n d
sp ir itu a l h e a r t, from their ow n poin t o f view. Ev en if, G o d fo rbid , there
are certain M u s l im s w h o w an t to reject som e asp e ct o f their intellec­
tual h erita ge , they w o u ld first o f all need to know th at heritage. Both
a c c e p ta n c e a n d rejection m u s t be b a s e d u p o n kn o w led ge, a n d there is
no e x c u se for ig n o ra n ce , no m a t t e r w h at direction one w ishes to follow.
O n e c a n n o t r c jc c t w h a t o n e d o e s n ot kn o w a n y m o r e t h a n o n e c a n
a c c e p t s o m e t h in g in d e p th w itho ut true kn ow ledge. N o r ca n one throw
a w a y w h a t on e d o c s not possess. T h i s is a very s im p le tru th , bu t one
that is too often fo rgo tten today.
16. See S. H. Nasr, Islamic Studies, chs. viii. ix.
 TH F. W E S T E R N W O R L D A N D I T S C H A L L E N G E S T O IS L A M 237

T h i s p o in t recalls a n in ciden t th at o c cu rre d som e years a g o when a

f a m o u s Z e n m a s t e r v isite d a l e a d i n g W e s te r n u n i v e r s it y . A f t e r his
lecture on Z en a g r a d u a t e studen t a sk ed , ‘D o n ’t the Z en m aste rs b e ­
lieve th a t o n e s h o u ld b u rn the B u d d h is t scrolls a n d throw a w a y the
B u d d h a im a g e s ? ’ T h e m a ste r sm ile d a n d an sw e re d , ‘Y es, bu t you can
only b u rn a scroll w hich you possess a n d throw a w a y an im a g e which
you h a v e .’ T h i s w as a m ost p r o fo u n d answ er. T h e m a s te r m ea n t that
you c a n o n ly tra n s c e n d the exoteric d im e n sio n o f religion i f y o u p r a c ­
tise that c x o fc r ic ism a n d su b s e q u e n tly pe n e tra te into its inner m e a n ­
in g a n d t r a n s c e n d its fo r m s . H e w h o d o e s not p r a c t i c e e x o te r ic is m
c a n n o t ever h o p e to go b e yo n d it; he m erely falls below it a n d m istakes
this fall for a tr a n s c e n d in g o f forms. T h e s a m e a p p lie s on a n o th e r level
to m a n ’s tr a d it io n a l in tellectual h eritage. O n e c a n n o t g o ‘b e y o n d ’ the
f o r m u la t i o n s o f th e s a g e s o f old w h en on e d o e s not e ve n u n d e r s t a n d
them. H e w h o tries to d o so m istak e s his pitiful ig n o ra n ce a n d ‘e x p a n ­
sio n ’ a n d a p p a r e n t ‘fr e e d o m ’ from tra d itio n a l n orm s o f th o u g h t - an
ig n o r a n c e w h ich is in r e ality the w orst kind o f im p r is o n m e n t by the
l i m it a t i o n s o f o n e ’s o w n n a t u r e - fo r th e tru e fr e e d o m w h ich c o m e s
from the illim ita b le h orizon s o f the world o f the S p ir it a lo n e a n d which
c a n be r e a c h e d o n ly th ro u g h the vehicle p r o v id e d by religion a n d its
s a p ie n tia l doctrines.
C o n t e m p o r a r y M u s l i m s s h o u l d be r e a lists e n o u g h to u n d e r s t a n d
th at they m u st begin their jo u r n e y , in w h atev er d irection they wish to
go, from w h e r e th e y a re . A f a m o u s C h i n e s e p r o v e r b a v e r t s th a t ‘the
jo u r n e y o f a t h o u s a n d m iles b e g in s w ith a sin gle ste p . Wow this first
step m u st o f necessity be from o n e ’s location , a n d th at is a s m u ch true
c u l t u r a l l y a n d s p i r i t u a l l y a s it is p h y s ic a ll y . W h e r e v e r the I s l a m ic
world w a n ts to go, it m u s t begin from the reality o f the Islam ic t r a d i­
tion a n d from its ow n real a n d not im a g in e d situ atio n . T h o se w h o lose
s ig h t o f this fa c t a c t u a l l y d o n ot tra v e l e ffe c tiv e ly a t a ll. They j u s t
im a g in e th a t they a r c jo u r n e y in g . A P a k ista n i or a P ersian o r an A r a b
‘ i n t e l l e c t u a l ’ w h o w a n t s to b e a l e a d e r o f t h o u g h t fo r th e M u s l i m
p e o p le m u st r e m e m b e r w h o he is if he w ishes to be effective a n d not Ik :
cut o ff from the rest o f I sla m ic society. N o m a t te r how h a rd he tries to
m a k e a c o r n e r o f L a h o r e or T e h r a n or C a i r o b e lo n g to the s e ttin g o f
O x f o r d or the S o r b o n n e , he will n ot s u c c e e d . T h e so -ca lle d M u s l im
in tellectuals o f the W este rn ized kind w h o c o m p la in th at they are not
u n d e r s t o o d a n d a p p r e c i a t e d by I s l a m ic society forget th a t it is they
w ho h av e refused to a p p r e c i a t e a n d u n d e r sta n d their ow n c u ltu r e a n d
society a n d a r e therefore su b s e q u e n tly rejected by their ow n c o m m u ­
238 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

nity. T h i s rcjcctio n is in fact a sig n o f life, a n in d icatio n th a t Islam ic

c u ltu r e still possesses life.
A s f a r a s p h i l o s o p h y is c o n c e r n e d , th e c o u n t r i e s w h e re M u s l i m
l a n g u a g e s a r e u sed for un iversity in struction are in a so m e w h a t b etter
p osition , e sp e cia lly in Persia, w here I sla m ic p h ilosop h y still co n tin u es
as a living tra d itio n a n d w h ere it is not e asy to say n o m a t te r w h a t in the
n a m e o f p h ilo so p h y w ith o u t be in g seriously ch a lle n g e d by the t r a d i ­
tional in tellectual elite. O f course, even this p a rt o f the M u s l im world
h as not been c o m p l e t e ly s p a r e d from c o n d e s c e n d i n g a n d a p o l o g e t ic
stu d ies o f I sla m ic th o u g h t from the point o f view o f W estern p h ilo ­
so p h y , b u t, r e la tiv e ly s p e a k i n g , there is less o f a W este rn p h ilo so p h ic
in flu e n c e b e c a u s e o f th e tw o r e a s o n s a l l u d e d to a b o v e : n a m e l y the
la n g u a g e b a rr ie r a n d a still livin g traditio n o f Islam ic philosoph y. T h e
effect o f I q b a l 's tw o p h ilo so p h ic a l works in E n g lish , The Development o f
Metaphysics in Persia a n d The Reconstruction of Religious Thought tn Islam, in
P a k ist a n , a n d o f their fairly recent tr a n sla tio n s in to Persian in Persia
presen ts a n in terestin g c a se w o rth y o f study .
Y et, even in la n d s u sin g M u s l im la n g u a g e s , bo ok s d o a p p e a r in such
l a n g u a g e s a s P e r sia n , a n d p a r tic u la r ly A r a b ic , on p h ilo s o p h y from a
p e r s p e c t i v e t o t a ll y a li e n to th a t o f I s l a m a n d b e a r i n g s u c h titles a s
Falsafatuna ( O u r P h ilo so p h y ), a s if p h ilosop h y a s a vision o f the truth or
qu e st a fte r w isd o m o r sophia co u ld e ve r be ‘m in e ’ or ‘o u r s \ N o A r a b or
P e r s i a n t r a d i t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h e r e v e r u s e d s u c h a n e x p r e s s io n . F o r
M u s l i m s w h o c u lt iv a te d I sla m ic p h ilo so p h y , p h ilo so p h y w a s a lw a y s
al-falsa fa h or al-hikm ah, ‘ the p h il o s o p h y ', a v ision o f th e tru th t r a n ­
s c e n d i n g the in d i v i d u a l i s t i c o r d e r a n d d e r iv e d fro m th e T r u t h (a l -
Ila q q ) itself. T h e v ery a p p e a r a n c e o f su ch c o n c e p ts a n d te rm s a s ‘o u r
p h ilo s o p h y ’ o r ‘m y th o u g h t' in the M u s l im l a n g u a g e s itself reveals the
d e g re e o f d e p a r t u r e fro m th e I s l a m ic n orm . It is a g a i n s t su ch errors
th a t th e w e a p o n o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l d o c t r in e s c o n t a i n e d in th e v a st
t r e a s u r y o f I s l a m ic t h o u g h t m u s t be u sed a n d a n s w e r s d r a w n from
these sources be p ro v id e d before a n y furth er erosion o f Islam ic intel­
lectual life takes place.
R e t u r n in g to the q u e stio n o f e xisten tia lism a n d tra d itio n a l Islam ic
p h ilo so p h y in P ersia, it m ust b e m en tio n e d th at b e ca u se o f the type o f
t r a d it io n a l p h il o s o p h y s u r v iv in g there, b a s e d on the p r in c ip a lit y o f
b e in g (a sa la t al-w ujud) a n d itself c a lle d J'alsafat al-w ujud (w hich so m e
h a v e m i s t a k e n l y t r a n s l a t e d a s e x i s t e n t ia li s m ) , e x i s t e n t ia li s m o f the
E u r o p e a n k in d h a s e n c o u n t e r e d s t r o n g r e s is t a n c e fr o m t r a d i t i o n a l
circles. A c tu a lly , a n y o n e w h o h as stu d ie d tra d itio n a l I sla m ic p h ilo ­
 FHF. W E S T E R N W O R L D A N D I T S C H A L L E N G E S T O I S L A M 239

s o p h y fr o m I b n S f n a a n d S u h r a w a r d f to the g r e a t e x p o n e n t o f the
m e t a p h y s ic s o f b e in g , S a d r a l- D f n S h f r a z f ( M u l l a S a d r a ) , will re ad ily
u n d e r s t a n d the p r o fo u n d c h a s m w h ich s e p a r a te s tr a d it io n a l Islam ic
‘p h i l o s o p h y ’ o f b e in g fr o m m o d e r n e x is t e n t ia lis m , w h ich even in its
a p p a r e n t l y m o s t p r o f o u n d a s p e c t s c a n o n ly re a c h , in a fr a g m e n t a r y
fashion , s o m e o f the r u d im e n ta r y te a ch in g s c o n ta in e d in their fullness
in t r a d i t i o n a l m e t a p h y s ic s . H e n r y C o r b i n , the o n ly W e s te r n s c h o la r
w h o h as e x p o u n d e d to a n y exten t this later p h a s e o f Islam ic p h ilo ­
so p h y in the W est, h a s show n the d iv erg e n c e o f view s betw een Islam ic
p h i l o s o p h y a n d e x i s t e n t i a l i s m a s w ell a s th e c o r r e c t iv e s w h ic h the
fo r m e r p r o v id e s fo r th e l a tte r in the lo n g F r e n c h in t r o d u c tio n to his
e d it i o n a n d t r a n s l a t i o n o f S a d r a l - D f n S h f r a z f ’s K ita b a l-M a sh a 'ir
(re n d e r e d into F re n ch a s Le Livre despenetrations m etaphysiques).u It is,
in ciden tally , in terestin g to note th at it w a s th rou gh C o r b i n ’s t r a n s la ­
tion o f H e id e g g e r ’s Sein und Zeit that S a r t r e w a s first a tt r a c t e d to e x i­
s t e n t ia li s m , w h ile C o r b i n h im s e l f c o m p l e t e ly tu r n e d a w a y fro m this
fo rm o f t h o u g h t to th e o c e a n o f th e ‘O r ie n t o f L i g h t ’ o f S u h r a w a r d f
a n d the lu m in o u s p h ilo so p h y o f b e in g o f S a d r al- D f n S h f r a z f.
T o c o n c lu d e this d iscu ssion , on e last basic point m ust be m en tio n e d ,
a n d t h a t is th e e c o l o g i c a l c r is is w h ic h w a s b r o u g h t in t o b e i n g by
m o d e rn civilizatio n b u t w h ich is now a ch a lle n g e to the very life o f men
e v e r y w h e r e , i n c l u d i n g , o f c o u r s e , M u s l i m s in th e I s l a m i c w o r ld .
A n y o n e w h o is a w a r e o f w h a t is g o in g on to d a y k n o w s th at the m o st
im m e d ia t e p r o b le m , a t least o f a m a te r ia l order, w hich faces the world
is the e co lo g ica l crisis, the de stru ctio n or the loss o f e q u ilib riu m b e ­
tween m a n a n d his n a tu r a l e n v iro n m e n t. Islam a n d its sciences h ave a
p a r t i c u l a r l y u r g e n t a n d tim e ly m e s s a g e w h ich , a s m e n t io n e d a b o v e ,
c a n h elp to solve, to th e e x te n t p o ssib le , this m a j o r c h a ll e n g e to the
w orld a s a w h ole. H o w e v e r , this m e s s a g e u n fo r t u n a t e l y received the
least a m o u n t o f a tte n tio n from m o d e r n iz e d M u s l im s themselves.
W e kn o w th a t M u s l i m s c u lt iv a t e d the d ifferen t scie n ce s o f n a tu r e
such a s a st r o n o m y , physics a n d m ed icin e a v id ly a n d m a d e g reat co n ­
trib u tio n s to th e m w ith o u t losing their e q u ilib r iu m a n d h a r m o n y with
n a t u r e . T h e i r s c ie n c e s o f n a t u r e w ere a l w a y s c u l t i v a t e d w it h in the
m a t r ix o f a ‘p h ilo s o p h y o f n a t u r e ’ w hich w as in h a r m o n y with the total

17. Sec Mulla Sadra, Kitab al-Masha'ir (Le Hives des penetrations metaphysiques)
(Tehran-Paris 1964), ch. iv of the introduction; see a lso T . Izutsu, The Concept
and Reality of Existence (Tokyo 1971), where a profound analysis of Islamic
ontology is to be found, even if in chapter ii certain comparisons are made with
Western existentialism which appear to us difficult to accept.
240 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G AND M E S S A G E

s tr u c tu r e o f the u n iv e rse a s seen from the I sla m ic perspective. T h e r e

lies in th e b a c k g r o u n d o f I sla m ic scien ce a true p h ilo so p h y o f n a tu r e
w h ich if b r o u g h t to light a n d p resen ted in a c o n t e m p o r a r y l a n g u a g e
c a n be s u b s t i t u t e d for the p r e s e n t fa lse n a t u r a l p h il o s o p h y , w h ich ,
c o m b i n e d w it h a la c k o f tr u e m e t a p h y s i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f first
p rin ciples, is largely resp on sib le for the present crisis in m a n 's relation
with n a t u r e .1”
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e I s l a m ic s c ie n tific h e r i t a g e h as o n ly to o rarely
been stu d ie d by M u s l im s th em selves, a n d . i f su ch a s tu d y is m a d e , it is
u s u a l l y b a s e d o n a n in fe r io r ity c o m p l e x w h ic h tries to p r o v e th at
M u s l im s p rec ed e d the West in scientific discoveries a n d therefore are
not below the W est in their c u ltu r a l a tt a in m e n t. R a r e ly is this precious
M u slim scientific h eritage seen a s a n a lte r n a tiv e p a th to a science o f the
n a t u r a l o r d e r w h ic h c o u l d a n d d i d a v o i d th e c a t a s t r o p h i c im p a s s e
m o d e rn science a n d its a p p lic a t io n s th rou g h tech n ology h ave cre ate d
for m en. M u s l im s with vision sh o u ld be only too h a p p y th at it w as not
.they w h o b r o u g h t a b o u t the sev en teen th -cen tu ry scientific revolution
whose logical o u tc o m e we o b serve to d a y . M u s l im sch o la rs a n d th in k­
ers m u s t b e t r a i n e d w ith the g o a l o f r e v i t a l i z i n g th e p h il o s o p h y o f
n a tu r e c o n ta in e d in the I sla m ic sciences a n d o f s tu d y in g these sciences
them selves.
The e n d thus p r o p o se d is very different from the g o a l e sp o u sed by so
m a n y m o d e r n iz e d M u s l i m s w h o p rid e th e m se lv es th a t I s la m p a v e d
the w a y for the R e n a is s a n c e . T h e y r e aso n th at sin ce the R e n a is s a n c e
w as a g re a t event in history a n d since Islam ic cu lture h elp ed create the
R e n a i s s a n c e , th e r e fo re I s l a m ic c u lt u r e m u st b e o f v a lu e . T h i s is an
a b s u r d w a y o f r e a s o n i n g w h ic h r e m a in s c o m p l e t e ly u n a w a r e o f the
fact th at w h a t the m o d e rn w orld suffers from to d a y is the result o f steps
taken by the W est m ostly d u r in g the R e n a is s a n c e when W estern m a n
r e b e lle d to a l a r g e e x t e n t a g a i n s t his G o d - g iv e n r e lig io n . M u s l i m s
sh o u ld be g r a te fu l th a t they d id not rebel a g a in s t h eaven a n d h a d no
sh a r e in th a t a n t i- s p ir i t u a l h u m a n i s m w h ich h a s n o w r e su lte d in an
in fr a -h u m a n w orld. W h a t Islam in fact d id w as to prev ent the in d iv i­
d u a l i s t i c r e b e llio n a g a i n s t h e a v e n , the P r o m e t h e a n a n d T i t a n e s q u e
spirit w hich is so clearly sh o w n in m u c h o f R e n a is sa n c e art a n d which
s ta n d s d ia m e t r ic a lly o p p o se d to the spirit o f l s l a m b a se d on su b m issio n
to G o d . It is true th at I sla m ic science a n d c u ltu re were a fa cto r in the
r ise o f th e R e n a i s s a n c e in th e W e st b u t I s l a m i c e l e m e n t s w e r e
18. See S. H. K asr, Science and Civilization in Islam (Cambridge, 1968); and S. H.
Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines (Cambridge, 1964).
 T H K W K S T K R N W O R M ) A M ) U S C II A I l . K N C K S 1C) 1SI AM 241

e m p lo y e d o n ly a fte r they were div o rce d from their I sla m ic ch aracter

a n d torn a w a y from the to ta l o rd e r in w hich a lo n e they possess their
lull m e a n in g a n d significance.
M u s l im s sh o u ld cu ltiv a te the s tu d y o f the Islam ic sciences, firstly to
sh o w y o u n g M u s l i m s (so m a n y o f w h o m h av e the te n d e n c y to s to p
p r a y i n g u p o n l e a r n in g th e lirst f o r m u l a s o f a l g e b r a ) th a t for m an y
c e n t u r i e s M u s l i m s c u l t i v a t e d th e s c ie n c e s, i n c l u d i n g m o s t o f th e
m a t h e m a t i c s t a u g h t in s e c o n d a r y s c h o o ls t o d a y , a n d yet r e m a in e d
d e v o u t M u s l im s ; a n d , seco n d ly , to b r in g out the u n d e rly in g h a r m o n y
o f the Islam ic sciences with Islam ic p h ilosoph y, theology a n d m e t a ­
physics, a h a r m o n y that is closely related to the ph ilosop h y o f n a tu re
a llu d e d to a b o v e . T h e g reat master'pieces of'Islam ic science such a s the
works o f Ibn S f n a , a l - B f r u n f , K h a y y a m , a n d N a s f r a l-D fn T u si ca n all
be e m p lo y e d with bo th e n d s in view.
Fin ally, it m ust be a sse rted c a te g o ric ally once a g a in that to preserve
I s l a m a n d I s l a m ic c iv il iz a t io n , a c o n s c i o u s a n d in te lle c tu a l d e fe n c e
m ust be m a d e o f the Islam ic tra d itio n . M oreo ver, a th o ro u g h intellec­
tual criticism m ust be m a d e o f the m o d e r n world a n d its sh o rtco m in gs.
M u s l i m s c a n n o t h o p e to follow th e s a m e p a t h a s the West w ith o u t
r e a c h in g the s a m e , or even worse, im p a sse be cau se o f the r a p id ity o f
the te m p o o f c h a n g e to d a y . T h e M u slim in telligen tsia m u s t face all
the c h a l l e n g e s h ere m e n t io n e d a n d m a n y o t h e r s w ith c o n fid e n c e in
them selves. T h e y m u st cease to live in the state o f a psych olog ical a n d
c u ltu ra l inferiority c o m p le x . T h e y m ust close ranks a m o n g them selves
a n d a ls o jo in forces with the o th er great traditio ns o f A sia not only to
c ease to be o n the defen sive but also to take the offensive a n d p rovide
from th eir G o d - g iv e n tr e a su r y o f w isd o m the m e d ic in e w hich a lo n e
c a n cu re the m o d e r n w orld o f its m ost d a n g e r o u s m a la d y , p ro v id e d o f
course the p a tie n t is w illing to u n d e rg o the cure. But even if we take the
d i m m e s t p o i n t o f v ie w w ith a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e p r e s e n t - d a y
s itu atio n a n d realize th at all c a n n o t be s a v e d , the assertion o f the truth
itself is the m ost v a l u a b l e o f all acts, a n d its effect goes far beyon d w hat
ca n u su ally b e e n v isa g e d . T h e truth m ust therefore be asse rted a n d the
intellectual d e fen ce o f Islam m a d e on every front in w hich it is c h a l ­
le n g e d . T h e resu lt is in G o d ’s H a n d s . A s the Q u r ' a n a sse rts, ‘T r u t h
hath c o m e a n d false h o od h ath van ish ed a w a y . L o ! falsehood is ever
b o u n d to v a n is h ’ ( X V I I , 81, P ickthall tran slation ).
 14

Islam and the Crisis o f the

Modern W orld*
M uhain inad Qu t b

D A Z Z L E D b y the a c h ie v e m e n ts o f science d u r in g the 18th a n d 19th

cen tu ries, m a n y w estern ers th o ugh t that religion h ad e x h a u s te d all its
usefuln ess a n d s u r r e n d e r e d to science on ce fo r all. A lm o s t all the e m i­
nen t w este rn p s y c h o l o g is t s a n d s o c io lo g is ts e x p r e s s e d th e m s e lv e s in
s im il a r t e rm s. F r e u d , the re n o w n e d p s y c h o lo g is t, fo r in s ta n c e , w hile
d e m o n s t r a t i n g th e fu tility o f re lig io n in m o d e r n tim e s, s ay s th a t the
h u m a n life p a ss e s th rou g h three distin ct psych olog ical ph ases: super-
s t i t u t i o n , r e lig io n a n d sc ie n c e . T h i s b e in g th e e r a o f s c ie n c e , s o all
religion w as p r o n o u n c e d o u t o f date .
T h e r e is no d e n y in g that there were certain ca u s e s which led the men
o f scien ce in E u r o p e to a d o p t a view o f life a n ta g o n is tic to religion. It
w as m a in ly d u e to the g r e a t co n tro v ersy , th at r a g e d betw een m en o f
s c ie n c e a n d th e C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h , w h ich m a d e th e m th in k — q u it e
ju st ifia b ly o f co u rse — th at w h ate v e r the ch urch stood for w as re ac­
tion ary, retrogressive, b a c k w a r d a n d su p e rstitiou s, a n d that therefore
it m u s t v a c a t e its s e a t for s cie n ce so a s to e n a b le h u m a n i t y to m o v e
a h e a d on the p a th o f civilization.

R E L IG IO N A N D S C IE N C E
W ith o u t a p p r e c i a t in g the difference between the p e c u lia r co n d itio n s
o f life o b t a i n i n g in E u r o p e a t the tim e o f this u n h a p p y con flict a n d

* This chapter is cxccrpted from the author's book Islam. The Misunderstood
Religion, Kuwait: Darul Bayan Bookshop which isan English translation of his
Shubuhat H aw lal-Islam . The translation has been thoroughly revised by the
editor.
244 is i a m : u s m i \ n i n < ; \ n i > m kss.\<;i

those in the Islam ic w orld, a section o f people has been d e m a n d i n g the

re n u n cia tio n o f religion a n d o f the sac red tra d itio n s that h a v e c o m e to
us from o u r e a r lie r g e n e ratio n s. 1 his m ov e has been s tr e n g th e n e d by
the puerile im ita tio n o f the W est th at is g a in in g cu rren cy in the M u s ­
lim lan ds. M a n y a n a iv e p e o p le fan cy that the on ly w a y to p rog ress is
to follow the d o m in a n t n a tio n s o f E u ro p e , in tellectually a n d c u lt u r a l ­
ly. T o a c h ie v e this they h av e to d is c a rd their religion just a s E u ro p e h ad
d o n e f a i l i n g w h ic h th e y fe a r th e y w o u ld be t r a p p e d in a n a b y s s o f
r e actio n ism , b a c k w a r d n e ss a n d h u m b u g .
Hut such p e o p le overlook the fact that even in the W est, not all the
o u t s t a n d in g sch o la rs were a n ta g o n is tic to w a r d s religion; nor d o their
works e x h ib it a n y t h in g o f this sort. O n the oth er h a n d we find so m e o f
these e m in e n t in tellectuals w h o were n ever u n d e r the spell o f E u r o p e ’s
G o d le s s m a te r ia lis m a n d w ho a ffirm ed th at religion is a p sych ological
a s well a s a n in tellectual necessity for m an k in d .
T h e m o s t n o t e d fig u r e a m o n g th e m is th e a s t r o n o m e r S i r J a m e s
J e a n s , w h o s ta r te d his in tellectual c a r e e r a s a G o d le ss scep tic b u t w as
led fin a lly by h is s c ie n tif ic e x p l o r a t i o n s to th e c o n c l u s i o n th a t th e
greatest p ro b le m s o f science c o u ld not be resolved w itho ut believin g in
G o d . T h e f a m o u s s ociolo g ist J e a n s B r i d g e went so l a r a s to e u lo g iz e
I s l a m for a c h i e v i n g a s u c c e s sfu l a m a l g a m o f the t e m p o r a l w ith the
sp iritual into a h a r m o n io u s system o f th o u g h t b le n d e d with a p ra ctica l
co d c o f life. T h e well-known E n g lish writer S o m e rse t M a u g h a m e p i­
tom ized the w h ole a t t it u d e o f m odern E u ro p e to w a rd s religion when
he r e m a r k e d that E u ro p e h ad in the present era disco vered a new god
— Scie n ce, in p la c e o f the old one.
T h e god o f science has, how ever, tu rn ed out to b e e x trem e ly fickle,
e v e r c h a n g in g a n d c o n st a n t ly sh iftin g position s, u p h o l d in g one th in g
as a fa c t a n d reality to d a y a n d rejectin g it the o th er clay a s false a n d
s p u r io u s . C o n s e q u e n t l y its ‘w o r s h i p p e r s ’ a re d o o m e d to a p e r p e tu a l
s ta te o f restlessness a n d a n x ie ty , for how ca n they find rest a n d p e a c e o f
m in d u n d e r su ch a c a p r ic io u s g o d ? T h a t the m o d e rn west is afflicted
with this u n c e r ta in ty a n d restlessness is born e out by the large n u m b e r
o f p sy ch o lo g ica l a n d n erv ou s d isord ers that are so c o m m o n in m odern
society to d a y .
Y e t a n o t h e r resu lt o f this d e ific a tio n o f m o d e rn s c ic n c c is th at the
world we live in h a d b e c o m e d e v o id of all m e a n in g a n d p u r p o s e with
no h ig h e r o r d e r or p o w e r to g u i d e it. T e n s i o n a n d con flict b etw een
different forces h av e b e co m e the o rd e r o f the d a y . As a result e v e ry ­
t h in g in this w o rld su ffe rs c h a n g e : e c o n o m i c a n d p o l it ic a l s y s t e m s
 ISLA M AN I) T H E C R ISIS O F T H E M O D E R N W O R L D 245

c h a n g e ; relatio n s betw een states a n d in d iv id u als a lter; even scientific

‘ f a c t s ' c h a n g e . W h a t c a n m a n e x p e c t s a v e m is e r y a n d p e r p e t u a l
re stle ssn ess in a w o r ld w ith su ch a s o m b r e s e t t in g w h ere n o H i g h e r
P o w e r exists w h o m he s h o u ld turn to for s u p p o r t, strength a n d co m fort
in this ruthless s tr u g g le o f life.
It is religion a n d religion a lo n e th at ca n brin g p e a c e a n d tran q u illity
to the w o rld . It in stils in m a n love for g o o d n e s s a n d th e c o u r a g e to
s ta n d u p to the forces o f evil a n d ty r a n n y w a s a necessary c o n d itio n o f
o b t a i n i n g G o d 's p le a s u r e a n d to m a k e H is will p r e d o m in a n t o n this
earth a w a i t in g w ith p a tie n ce for his rew ard in the H ereafter. D o e s n ’t
m a n k in d really need p e ac e, tra n q u illity a n d co m fo rt, in a w ord, reli­
gion?

MAN W ITHOUT RELIGION

W h a t will b e c o m e o f m a n if his life is d evoid o f belief in an e te rn a l life
in the h e re a fte r? B e lie f in the c o n tin u ity o f life in the next w orld is a
r e v o lu tio n a ry co n cep t. U n d e r its im p a c t, m a n ’s life u p o n earth a s ­
s u m e s new d im e n sio n s o p e n in g h ig h e r h orizon s o f p rogress before h im ,
in the a b s e n c e o f w h ich he is in e vita b ly o p p r e sse d by a to rtu ro us sense
o f n o th in g n e ss, a s it m e a n s a virtual c u ttin g short o f m a n ’s total life­
s p a n , m a k i n g h im a m e r e p l a y t h i n g in the h a n d s o f his w h im s a n d
c a p ric e s w h ich teach h im n oth in g bu t to derive the m a x i m u m possible
a m o u n t o f p le a su r e d u r i n g this short sojo u rn u p o n the earth. M u t u a l
r iv alrie s, s a v a g e b a t t l e s a n d co n flicts o v e r th e possession o f m a t e r ia l
g ain s follow, a s there is no H ig h e r Pow er to control a n d restrain o n e ’s
desires. B lin d e d by g reed a n d lust, m a n tries to g ain w h atev er he ca n in
the shortest s p a n o f tim e. H is total p ersp ective o f life a n d its m ission is
lost a l t o g e t h e r . T h i s d e g r a d e s m a n to low er p l a n e s o f fe e lin g s a n d
th o u g h t. H is im a g in a t io n sinks low a n d so d o his id e a ls a n d the m e a n s
to a c h ie v e th e m . M a n k i n d is d o o m e d to a p e r p e t u a l life o f h id e o u s
in te rn e cin e w a r s th a t s c a rc e ly p e r m it it to p u r s u e h ig h er a n d n o b le r
e n d s in life. In such a w orld there is h a r d ly a n y roo m for love or s y m ­
p a t h y , a s m e n a r e o b s e s s e d w ith c a r n a l p l e a s u r e s , a n d s p u r r e d by
u n co n trolled passions. In su ch a co n te x t, how c a n they strive for lofty
a sp ir a tio n s or even a p p r e c i a t e g en u in e h u m a n feelings?
In su ch a w orld m en d o g ain som e m aterial profits. B u t o f w h at use
are these w h en their fe llo w m en a r e c o n st a n t ly w r a n g lin g o v e r th em ,
each r e a d y to cu t his b ro th e r ’s th roat only to e n h a n c e his ow n m aterial
w elfa re? M a t e r i a l i s m so spoils life th at even m a n ’s m a te r ia l a c h ie v e ­
m ents a re rendered useless a n d senseless. M e n are e n slav ed by greed,
246 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G A N D M E SSA G E

lust a n d a v a r ic e . B lin d a p p e t i t e s g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r th e m . T h e y lose

their g rip o n them a n d b e co m e their slaves. T h i s results in the d e h u ­
m a n iz a t io n o f m a n .
T h e p r e d i c a m e n t o f th e n a t io n s is not d iffere n t. T h e y , for s im il a r
reasons, get e n t a n g l e d in d e v a s t a t in g w ars w h ich spoil all h a rm o n y in
life. A n d sc ie n c e , w ith all its d r e a d f u l w e a p o n s , is e m p l o y e d for the
e x t e r m in a t i o n o f th e h u m a n r a c e r a t h e r th a n to c o n t r ib u t e to w a r d s
m a n ’s w ell-bein g a n d his m o r a l a d v a n c e m e n t.
V ie w e d in this c o n te x t religion m e a n s b r o a d e n in g the m e n t a l hori­
zon o f m a n k in d , for life is not co n fin ed to this w o rld a lo n e bu t co n ti­
nues even b e y o n d it — to w a r d s eternity. T h i s in sp ires h o p e in m a n ’s
heart, e n c o u r a g e s h im to live a n d strive for the a c h ie v e m e n t o f h igher
id e a ls a n d to r e m a in s t e a d f a s t a g a i n s t evil a n d o p p re ss io n . R e lig io n
teach es love, s y m p a t h y a n d un iversal b ro th e rh o o d a n d is th u s the only
w ay to pe ac e, p ro sp erity a n d progress. It e q u ip s m a n in the best p os­
sible w ay for the h a r d stru g g le o f life.
F u r th e r m o r e it is faith a n d faith a lo n e that c a n inspire m a n to rise
a b o v e his se lf a n d suffer for n ob le a n d lofty ideals. D e p r iv e d o f faith, he
is left with n o t h in g else to look u p to o u ts id e his ow n self. I le is torn
a w a y fr o m th e t o ta l r e a l it y o f th e c r e a t i o n a n d is r e n d e r e d in t o a n
isolated being. T h is reduces him to a n unsocial a n im a l , a brute.
M a n y a m a n fell lig h tin g in the n ob le c a u s e o f tru th s p e n d in g the
w h o l e o f t h e i r l iv e s in th e s t r u g g l e yet a c h i e v i n g n o t h i n g in th e
m a t e r i a l i s t i c se n se o f th e w o rd . W h a t in sp ir e d th ese n o b le s o u ls to
e n g a g e in a b a ttle that b r o u g h t th e m no m a te ria l re w ard s, th at cau sed
them the loss o f w h atev er little they h a p p e n e d to possess? T h i s h as been
one o f the p r o d u c ts o f faith. S u c h b e h a v io u r can never be p r o d u c e d in
p u rsu it o f selfish m otives. A v a r ic e , g re e d , lust, etc., c a n never m a k e a
m a n a ch ie v e a n y t h in g really g o o d a n d noble, l l i a t is w hy the m aterial
tr iu m p h s w on by selfish a v a r ic e a re self-centred, short-lived a n d te m ­
pora ry . T h e in ce n tiv e o f i m m e d i a t e g ain c a n n o t e q u i p a m a n w ith a
noble c h a r a c te r , n o r ca n it give h im the c o u r a g e to s ta n d fast suffering
pa tie n tly for lo n g f o r a lofty ideal.
T h e r e a r e so m e so-called reform ers w h o seek in sp iratio n from h atred
rath er th a n love. T h e h atred m a y be person al in c h a r a c te r or it m a y be
b a se d on class, o r region or n atio n . S u c h rancou r-in sp ired people m a y
realize s o m e o f th eir o b je ctiv e s, m a y even m u s te r c o u r a g e to sacrifice
for s u c h e n d s , b u t a d o c t r in e b a s e d o n m a l e v o l e n c e a n d h a t r e d ca n
never le a d h u m a n i t y to a n y t h in g g oo d . T h e y m a y re m o ve c e rta in evils
a n d p u t a n end to the e x istin g s ta te o f injustice b u t w o u ld gen erate new
 I SI. AM A N D T H E C R I S I S O F T H E M O D E R N W O R I I) 247

evils a n d in justices a n d Tail to r e m e d y the a ilm e n ts o f m a n k in d .

O n the o t h e r h a n d a creed th at does not a i m a t the im m e d ia t e g ain s
o f this w o rld , nor d e riv e s in sp ir a tio n from m a le v o le n c e b u t fosters in
m en n o b le p a s s i o n s o f love, f r a te r n ity a n d the d e t e r m i n a t io n to lay
d o w n their lives se r v in g their fellow m en c a n heal the festering sores o f
h u m a n i t y a n d p a v e the w a y for fu tu r e p ro g ress a n d pro sp erity . T h e
essence o f such a cre ed is faith in G o d a n d H is love. T h i s p r o d u c e s a
v ir tu o u s m o d e o f living th a t helps m a n get nearer to his C r e a to r , an d
b e c o m e a tru e se r v an t o f h u m a n ity . B e lie f in the H e r e a ft e r gives m a n a
firm sen se o f s e c u r ity , b a n is h in g fro m his heart the fe a r o f e x tin ctio n
with his p h y sical d e a t h a n d p r o m is in g him an eternal life. T h is in oth er
w o rd s m e a n s th at his efforts shall not be w asted b u t shall be cro w n ed
with fullest rew ard in the life to co m e , even if he is u n a b le to ach ieve
a n y th in g in this w orld. T h is is a n a tu r a l co rollary o f b elief in G o d an d
the H e re a fte r. It is tru e o f religion a s such. B u t a s far a s Islam is c o n ­
cern ed it d o e s not sto p here, it goes a lon g w ay a h e a d : it h as a far m ore
f a s c in a tin g story to tell.

IS ISLAM O U T OF DATE
T h o s e w h o m a y im a g in e th at Islam h as b e co m e o u t m o d e d a n d is no
longer n ee d e d , d o not know a s to w h a t it s ta n d s for, nor d o they seem to
u n d e r s t a n d its real m is sio n in h u m a n life. T h e i m a g e o f I s la m th at
e m e r g e s fro m b o o k s on I s la m a n d I s l a m ic h istory w ritten m o stly by
W e s t e r n o r i e n t a l i s t s a n d th e ir d i s c i p l e s a n d t a u g h t e v e r s in c e the
c o lo n ial p e rio d is s o m e t h in g like this: Islam w a s revealed m erely to put
a n e n d to id o la try a n d g u id e m a n to the w o rsh ip o f G o d a lo n e ; th at the
A r a b s were torn into a n ta g o n is tic tribes, I sla m c a m e a n d united them
a n d m a d e th e m a stro n g a n d unified n a tio n ; th at they were a d d ic t e d to
d r in k i n g a n d g a m b l i n g a n d led d e p r a v e d lives; I s la m s t o p p e d them
fro m th e se d e p r a v i t i e s a n d a b o l i s h e d o t h e r evil c u s t o m s p r e v a le n t
a m o n g th e m such a s b u ry in g alive their d a u g h te r s a n d w a s tin g a w a y
their strength in a c ts o f revenge; a n d th at I sla m ca lle d u p o n M u s l im s
to d is s e m in a te its m essag e , w hich they d id , this in turn le a d in g to the
b a ttles th at u ltim a te ly d e te r m in e d the b o u n d a r ie s o f the Islam ic world
a s w e k n o w it t o d a y . T h i s , a c c o r d i n g to th e se p e o p l e , w a s th e sole
p u r p o se o f I sla m in h u m a n life! T h i s b e in g its h istorical m ission, it has
lon g since been fulfilled: there is no idol-w orship in the Islam ic w orld;
the on ce a n ta g o n is tic tribes h a v e been m o re or les*s su b jec t to a process
o f a b s o r p tio n losin g their iden tity in the larg er n a tio n alitie s or c o m ­
m unities. A s fa r a s g a m b l i n g a n d d r in k in g are co n cern ed let us b e a r in
248 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

m in d that h u m a n civ iliz a tio n h as a d v a n c e d to such a n exten t now that

it is useless to d e c la re such p a stim e s u n law fu l a s we see th at d e sp ite all
religious ta b o o s they still persist. It is no use insisting on th c ir a b o litio n .
T h u s they c o n c lu d e that Islam h as served its p u r p o se in this w o rld ; it
has h a d its d a y bu t is no longer needed. It h as n oth in g new to offer. W e
m ust, therefore, turn to w a r d s the m o d e rn civilization a n d seek p r o ­
gress th rou g h it.
O n e listens to this p ra ttle from all q u a r te r s. E v en so m e e d u c a te d a n d
o th e r w is e e n l ig h t e n e d p e rs o n s r e p e a t these a s s e r t io n s like a p a r r o t.
T h is c a se a g a in s t Islam is, how ever, a p r o d u c t o f sheer ig n o ra n ce a n d
p rejudice. W e m ust not j u d g e Islam on hearsay . I.et us try to u n d e r ­
s ta n d w hat I sla m is a n d w h at it s ta n d s for.
I sla m , in a w ord, m e a n s lib e ra tio n from all sorts o f slavery such as
m a y inhibit the p rog ress o f h u m a n i t y or m a y not allow it to follow the
p a t h o f virtu e a n d g oo d n e ss. It m e a n s m a n 's fr e e d o m from d ic ta to rs
w h o e n s l a v e h im by fo rce o r fe a r , m a k e h im d o w h a t is w r o n g a n d
d e p r i v e h im o f his d i g n i t y , h o n o u r , p r o p e r ty or life. I sla m lib e r a te s
m a n from su ch ty r a n n y b y telling him that all a u t h o r ity vests in G o d
a n d G o d a l o n e ; H e a l o n e is th e R e a l S o v e r e i g n . A ll m e n a r e H is
s u b je c ts a n d a s such H e a lo n e co n tro ls their d estin ies, non e o f them
h a v in g the p o w e r to c a u s e a n y ben efit or avert a n y d istre ss from his
o w n s e lf in d e p e n d e n t o f the D iv in e W ill. All m en sh all be p rese n te d
before H im on the D a y o f J u d g e m e n t to a cco u n t for their p e rfo rm an c e
in this life. T h u s I s la m b r in g s to m a n fre ed o m from fear or op p ressio n
inflicted on him b y m en like h im se lf a n d who, in reality, a r e a s helpless
a s he is a n d w h o a r e no less subject to the Will o f G o d A lm ig h ty th an he
h im se lf is.
I slam a ls o m e a n s freed o m from lust, in clu d in g the lust for life, a s it is
this very w ea k n e ss o f m a n w h ich is e x p lo ite d by ty ran ts a n d d ic ta to rs
in ten tio n a lly or oth erw ise in e n s la v in g their fellow m en. B u t for it no
m a n wro u ld silently a c c e p t su b se rvie n ce to m en like h im se lf or sit idle to
w atch ty r a n n y on the r a m p a g e a n d d a r e not ch a llen g e it. It is a great
blessin g o f Islam th at it ta u g h t m a n to fight ty ran n y a n d o p p re ssio n
b r a v e ly r a th e r th a n c r in g e befo re th e m in a b je c t se r v itu d e . S a y s the
Q u r 'a n : ‘S a y : I f it be th at y o u r fathers, y o u r sons, y o u r brothers, your
m ates, or y o u r k in dred , the w ealth th at you h av e g a in e d , the c o m ­
m erce in w hich you fear a decline, or the dw ellin gs in which you d e ­
light — a r e d e a r e r to you th a n G o d , or H is A postle, o r the striv in g in
H is c a u s e — then w ait until G o d brings a b o u t H is D ecision : a n d G o d
g u id e s not the re b e lliou s.’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 9: 24).
 ISLAM AN D T H E C R ISIS O F T H E M O DERN W O R LD 249

A s a g a in s t b lin d p a ssio n s a n d a p p e tite s, the love o f G o d g en e rates in

life the v a lu e s o f love, virtue, tru th , a n d striv in g h ard in H is w ay , the
w a y o f all th a t is g o o d a n d lofty in life. I sla m s u b je c ts h u m a n p assio n s
in the service o f these n oble g o a ls o f life. T h e love o f G o d b e c o m e s the
d o m in a n t a n d real d ire ctin g force in m a n ’s life. W ith o u t this no m a n
ca n claim to be a true M u slim .
A m a n s t e e p e d in s e n s u a l p l e a s u r e s m a y e n t e r t a in the m is t a k e n
b e lie f th a t he en joy s life m o re th a n oth ers do. B u t soon he has to realize
his m is t a k e , for he is g r a d u a l l y r e d u c e d to a m e r e s la v e to h is b lin d
p a s s i o n s . H e is d o o m e d to a p e r p e t u a l life o f d e p r i v a t i o n a n d
restlessness, for a n i m a l de sire s o n c e run r a m p a n t b e c o m e in s a tia b le :
the a p p e t ite in creases with every effort to satisfy it. T h e result is a craze
for the m a x i m i z a t io n o f sen su al p leasu re. S u c h a n a t t it u d e to w a r d s life
is not c o n d u c iv e to p ro g ress, m a t e r ia l o r sp iritu a l. H u m a n i t y c a n n o t
a p p r o a c h h igh er r e a lm s o f n ob ility unless it is freed from the d o m i n ­
a n c e o f th e b lin d a n i m a l a p p e t it e s . It is o n ly th ro u g h co n tro l o f the
a n im a l se lf th a t m a n is freed to m a k e p rogress — in the fields o f science,
arts or religion.
It is for this very reason th at Islam a tt a c h e s such a g reat im p o r ta n c e
to th e fr e e i n g o f m a n fro m h is a n i m a l p a s s io n s . F o r this p u r p o s e it
n eith er f a v o u r s m o n a stic ism n o r gives m a n u n b rid le d freed o m to serve
the d e m a n d s o f the flesh. It a i m s a t the a tt a in m e n t o f a b a l a n c e b e ­
tween these tw o extrem e s. W h a te v e r is there in the w orld is for m an . It
is there to serve h im a n d not to d o m in a te or rule ov er h im . H e sho uld
not a llo w h im se lf to be m a d e a slave to these, r a th er he sho uld use them
a s m e a n s to a h igh er e n d , i.e. his sp iritu a l perfection b y d is s e m in a tin g
the w o r d o f G o d a m o n g s t his fe llo w m e n . T h u s I s la m h as a tw o fo ld
ob je ctiv e in view:

( a ) in th e i n d i v i d u a l life it a i m s a t p r o v i d i n g to e a c h a n d e v e r y
in d i v id u a l a j u s t a n d a d e q u a t e s h a r e so a s to e n a b le him to lead a
d ecen t a n d c le a n life; a n d
(b ) in the collective sphere it a r r a n g e s th in gs in such a w a y that all
the social forces o f a society a r e d irected to w ard s the e n h a n c e m e n t
o f p r o g r e s s a n d c i v il iz a tio n in a c c o r d a n c e w ith its b a s ic o u tlo o k
u p o n iife a n d in such a w a y that the b a la n c e betw een the co n sti­
tu en t u n its a n d the w hole, betw een the in d iv id u a ls a n d the c o m ­
m u n ity , is e stab lish e d .

I sla m h as h a d a m o st lib e r a liz in g effect on h u m a n intellect a s it is

d ia m e t r ic a lly o p p o s e d to all sorts o f superstition . H u m a n it y has, in the
250 I S L A M : IT S M E A N I N G A N D M E S S A G E

co u rse o f history, fell a prey to a n u m b e r o f ab su rd itie s, in theory a n d

practice. S o m e o f these were even d e scrib e d to h av e so m e d iv in e origin.
A ll these a c t e d a s sh ack les for the h u m a n m in d s, w hich g r o p e d a b o u t
in the d a r k before the a d v e n t o f l s l a m . W ith Islam it a tt a in e d m a tu r ity
a n d fr e e d o m fr o m th is h o t c h - p o t c h o f n o n s e n s e , s y m b o l i z e d in the
so-called g od s, d isto rte d J e w i s h trad itio n s, a n d the im becilities o f the
C h r is tia n C h u rc h . I sla m freed m a n from all sup erstition s a n d bro u g h t
him b a ck to G o d a n d e sta b lish e d direct relation between m a n a n d his
C re a to r.
I sla m uses a very sim p le term in ology. Its te ach in g s a r e very easy to
u n d e r s t a n d , p erceive a n d believe in. It invites m a n to m a k e use o f the
facu lties given to h im a n d to seek the fullest possible u n d e r st a n d in g o f
the w orld a r o u n d him . It does not a d m i t o f a n y in b orn hostility b e ­
tw e en r e a s o n a n d r e lig io n o r fo r t h a t m a t t e r b e t w e e n s c ie n c e a n d
religion . I s l a m im p r e ss e s u p o n m a n in c le a r a n d u n e q u iv o c a l te rm s
that it is G o d a n d G o d a lo n e w h o h as in H is im m en se m ercy su bjecte d
a ll th e t h i n g s o n th is e a r t h to m a n , a n d th a t a ll th e f a c t s t h a t a r e
d is c o v e r e d b y scie n tific in v e s tig a tio n a n d the m a t e r i a l ben efits th a t
flow from th at to m a n , a re in fact blessings from G o d , for which m a n
s h o u ld offer his th a n k s to G o d , a n d strive h a r d so a s to b e co m e a w orthy
s e r v a n t o f so M e r c i f u l a n d B e n e fic ie n t a M a s t e r . T h u s I s l a m h o ld s
k n o w le d ge a n d science a s a p a rt o f faith ra th er th a n re g a rd them a s an
evil in trin sically o p p o s e d to g e n u in e be lie f in G o d .
W h a t is the s ta te o f the w orld to d a y . H a s m a n freed h im se lf from all
s u p e r s t i t i o n , im b e c i li t ie s a n d a b s u r d b e lie fs? H a s he d is c o v e r e d the
m a n w it h in h im s e l f ? H a s he l i b e r a l i z e d h i m s e l f fr o m th e y o k e o f
w orld ly ty r a n ts in d u lg in g in the e x p lo ita tio n o f m a n by m a n ? If such a
m ille n iu m h as n ot been a c h ie v e d d e sp ite all d e v e lo p m e n ts in science
a n d tech n o lo g y , then Islam h a s still a g reat a n d glo riou s p a r t to play.

THE CHALLENGE FROM SCIENCE

H a l f o f th e in h a b i t a n t s o f the w orld to d a y r e m a in id o l-w o rsh ip p e rs.
I n d i a , C h i n a , J a p a n a n d a g r e a t m a n y o t h e r p a r t s o f the w o rld a re
in s ta n c e s in view. T h e o t h e r h a l f is e n g a g e d in the w o r sh ip o f a new­
fo u n d d e ity w h ose c o r r u p ti n g influence on m a n ’s th o u g h ts a n d feel­
in gs is n o less significan t. T h i s deity is styled a s M o d e r n Science.
S cie n ce is a p ow erful in stru m e n t to h elp us increase ou r kn ow ledge
o f the w orld a r o u n d us. A s such it h as a n im pressive record o f a c h ie v e ­
m e n t s to its c re d it. A ll th ese b r illia n t a c h ie v e m e n t s w ere, h ow e v e r,
v itia te d by on e fa t a l m ista k e o f the w esterners: they in stalled science a s
 ISLA M AND T H E C R ISIS O F T H E M O D ERN W O R LD 251

s u p r e m e G o d , d e c la r in g th a t it a lo n e h a d the righ t to c la im the a d o r a ­

tio n a n d s u b m i s s i o n o f m a n to it. T h u s th e y d e n i e d t h e m s e lv e s j»U
m e a n s o f a c q u i r i n g k n o w l e d g e s a v e t h a t r e c o g n iz e d by e m p i r i c a l
science w hich let h u m a n i t y w a n d e r furth er a w a y r a th e r th a n brin g it
n eare r to its real d e stin a tio n . C o n s e q u e n tly the otherw ise vastly im ­
m ense r a n g e o f h u m a n e n d e a v o u r a n d p rogress w a s sh ru n k a n d m a d e
c o - e x t e n s iv e w ith th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f e m p i r i c a l s c ie n c e s. T h e t o ta l
d i m e n s i o n s o f th e h u m a n s it u a t io n a re n ot ta k e n c a r e o f w ith in the
s c o p e o f s c ie n c e w h o se d o m a i n is l im it e d . It is o f i m m e n s e h e l p in
d isco v e rin g the k n o w le d ge o f the m e a n s o f life, b u t fails to g u id e us in
the re alm o f o b je ctiv e s o f life, its v a lu e s a n d norm s, a n d the n a tu r e o f
the u ltim a t e reality.
S o m e p r o t a g o n ist s o f science c la im th at science a lo n e c a n in troduce
m a n to the secrets o f this un iverse a n d life, a n d co n c lu d e that only that
w hich is u p h e ld by science is tru e; the rest is all trash! B u t while m a k in g
such a s ta te m e n t they overlook the fact th at science with all its brilliant
a n d im p re ssive record is still in its infancy a n d ever h esitan t to c o m m it
itself a s r e g a r d s the v eracity or otherw ise o f m a n y things, for the sim p le
reason th a t it c a n n o t p e n e tr a te d e e p into the h ea rt o f reality b e yo n d
a t t e m p t i n g a m ere su p e rflu o u s survey o f it. Y e t its vo ta rie s assert in the
a u t h o r ita tiv e w a y th at there is n o su ch th in g a s h u m a n soul. T h e y d e n y
th at m a n , co n fin ed a s he is w ithin the lim ita tio n s o f his sensory o rg a n s,
c a n ever h av e a n y c o n ta c t with the U n k n o w n — n ot even a g lim p s e o f
it th ro u g h t e l e p a t h y 1 or d r e a m s . T h e y r e p u d ia te all these not b e cau se
th e y h a v e p r o v e d th e m to b e m e r e illu sio n s b u t s i m p l y b e c a u s e the
e x p e r im e n t a l science with its i n a d e q u a t e in stru m e n ts h as not yet been
a b l e to f a t h o m th eir m ystery. T h a t they b e lo n g to a h ig h er o r d e r o f
th in gs n ot s u b je c t to m a n ’s o b se r v a tio n w a s h ow ever sufficient to m a k e
these g e n tle m e n turn their ba ck s on them a n d p ro n o u n c e their n o n ­
existence. N on -e x iste n c e is one th in g, n on -susceptib le to one in stru­

1. Telepathy is defined as the communication of impressions from one mind to

another without the aid of the senses. The most notable example of this is the
incident when the Caliph ‘U m ar called out to Sariyah, a Muslim commander,
saying: ‘S ar iy a h ! T o the M oun tain! T o the m ountain !’ Sariyah heard this
warning coming from hundreds of miles away. So he led his contingent to the
mountain, escaped the enemy lying in ambush and won a victory over them.
Although telepathy is now recognized as a scientific fact yet the modern
scientist is so biased that its having anything to d o with ‘s o u l’ is denied
outright. It is explained as a manifestation of a sixth but yet not fully explained
faculty o f the human mind.
252 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G AND M E SSA G E

m en t o f in v e stig a tio n a very differen t m a tte r . B u t they fail to see the

difference betw een the two.
S u c h th en is th e ‘e n l ig h t e n e d i g n o r a n c e ’ m a n suffers fr o m t o d a y ,
w hich sh o w s h ow d e sp e rately he s ta n d s in need o f Islam to blow a w a y
these a lle g e d ly scientific co b w e b s o f know ledge. Idol-w orsh ip w as the
o ld e r form w herein h u m a n folly fo u n d e x p re ssio n ; the cu lt o f science-
w orsh ip is its latest version. T o liberate h u m a n reason a n d spirit, both
o f th ese yokes m u s t be sh a k e n off. It is in this p e rs p e c tiv e th a t Islam
e m e r g e s a s the o n ly h o p e for h u m a n ity , for it a lo n e c a n restore p e ac e
b e tw e e n re lig io n a n d scien ce, b r in g b a c k o n c e m o r e the t r a n q u illity
a n d c o n co rd to o u r distressed w orld a n d e n a b le m a n to satisfy his both
c r a v in g s , the desire for k n o w le d ge a n d the search for tru *h , the n eed to
co n tro l th e forces o f n a tu re , a n d to in teg ra te with the U l tim a te : G o d .

W H A T ISLA M S T A N D S FO R

I slam e stab lish e s not only p e ac e a n d h a r m o n y bu t a ls o rids m a n k in d o f

ty r a n n y a n d o p p r e s s io n . T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r ld p r e s e n ts in this
respect no b etter view th a n it d id fourteen h u n d re d y e ars a g o , when
I slam freed it from all false gods. T y r a n n y still on the r a m p a g e in the
guise o f h a u g h t y kings, insolent d e m a g o g u e s a n d h eartless c a p ita lists
w h o a r e b u sy in s u c k in g the bloo d o f the m illion s, s u b j u g a t i n g them
a n d m a k in g c a p it a l out o f their helplessness a n d misery'. T h e r e is still
a n o th e r class o f d ic ta to rs w h o rule with sw ord, u su r p p e o p le s’ liberties
a n d c la im th at they a r c m erely in stru m e n ts in e n forcin g the p e o p le ’s or
the p r o l e t a r i a t ’s will.
I sla m b rin g s to a n e n d m a n ’s rule ov er m a n . It m a k e s the rulers a s
m u c h su b jec t to the D iv in e L a w a s are all oth er m en a n d w om en. Islam
d oes not a llo w a n y m a n to s u b j u g a t e others or im p o se u p o n them his
will. O n ly G o d ’s c o m m a n d s are to be o b e y e d a n d o n ly the P r o p h e t ’s
e x a m p le s a r c to be follow ed. T h e ruler, in such a c o m m u n i ty , shall, a s a
p a rt o f his o b li g a t io n s to w a r d s m e n a n d G o d , be r e q u ir e d to en force
D iv in e L a w fa ilin g w hich he m a y no lon ger h av e a n y law fu l claim to
the p e o p l e ’s o b e d ie n c e . T h e y m a y in su ch a s itu a t io n q u it e la w fu lly
d is re g a r d his orders. T h i s w as exp licitly sta te d by the first C a l i p h A b u
B a k r ( M a y G o d be p le a se d with h im ) when he said that ‘O b e y m e only
so lo n g a s I o b e y G o d with respect to y o u ; a n d if I sh o u ld h a p p e n to
d e v ia te from G o d ’s o b e d ie n c e , then in th at case m y o b e d ie n c e shall no
l o n g e r b e i n c u m b e n t u p o n y o u .' A s s u c h th e r u l e r in I s l a m h a s no
p r i v i l i g e d r ig h t to use th e P u b l i c E x c h e q u e r or to f o r m u l a t e s t a t e
 ISLA M AND T H E C R ISIS O F T H E M O DERN W O R LD 253

leg islation in d e fia n c e o f th e S h a r i‘ah. M o r e o v e r , it is o n ly the tru st­

w orth y p e o p le w h o h a v e a n y right to rule, who a r e elected to a post o f
a u t h o r ity th rou g h a free, j u s t a n d im p a r tia l election with no checks on
voters sav e th ose o f ju st ic e , virtue a n d decen cy.
S u c h a n I s l a m i c S t a t e w ill n o t o n l y l i b e r a t e its c i t iz e n s fr o m all
ty r an ts at h o m e b u t shall s a f e g u a r d their freedo m a g a in s t a n y ou tsid e
a g g r e ss io n a s well. T h i s is so b e c a u s e I sla m itself is a religion o f g lo ry
a n d p o w e r a n d a s s u c h it c a n n o t to le r a te th a t m e n s h o u ld d e g r a d e
th e m se lv e s b y p r o s t r a t i n g a t the feet o f th e false g o d o f im p e r ia lis m .
I s la m p rescrib e s a very s im p le c o d e o f life for m a n . It e x h o rts h im to
strive h a r d to g ain th e p le a su r e o f his C r e a to r, su r r e n d e r his will to that
o f his L o r d , follow H is c o m m a n d m e n t s a n d c o m e fo rw ard with all the
sources a t his d is p o s a l to fight a g a in s t the sp ectre o f im p e r ia lis m a n d
tyranny.
L e t M a n th e r e f o r e tu r n t o w a r d s I s l a m for th is is the tim e for all
h u m a n b e in g s to flock together u n d e r its b a n n e r so a s to w ipe out from
the face o f the earth all the vestiges o f im p e ria lism a n d e x p lo ita tio n o f
m a n by m a n . H e r e is the w a y to re al fr e e d o m , on e w h ich a llo w s no
s e rfd o m , p r o m is e s all m en fre ed o m in th o u g h t, a c tio n , p ro p e rty a n d
religion , je a l o u s l y s a f e g u a r d i n g their in tegrity a s well a s h on ou r. For
only thus c a n we b e c o m e M u s l im s w orth y o f o u r G o d . the o b je ct o f ou r
a d o r a tio n — in W h o se p a th we tre a d , the p a th H e ch ose fo r us: 'T h is
d a y I h av e p e rfecte d for yo u religion a n d c o m p le te d m y fa v o u r on you
a n d ch osen for you Islam a s relig io n .’ ( a l- Q u r ’a n , 5: 3).
S u c h a r a d ic a l r e fo rm a tio n effected by Islam is by no m e a n s a p a r o ­
ch ial o n e co n fin ed to the M u s l im c o m m u n i t y alo n e , bu t is, on the oth er
h a n d , by its very n a tu r e un iversal in ch a rac te r. It is n o th in g less th a n a
blessin g for the w orld o f to d a y afflicted a s it is with internecine w ars,
with a still a n o th e r a n d fa r m o r e terrible w orld w a r lo om in g la rg e on
the horizon.
I slam is the only fu tu re h ope o f h u m a n ity ; a n d its v ictoriou s e m e r g ­
e n c e o u t o f th e p r e s e n t i d e o l o g ic a l w a r f a r e is the o n ly g u a r a n t e e o f
m a n ’s salv a tio n . B u t im p o r t a n t a s the tr iu m p h o f I sla m is for the future
o f m a n k in d , its r e a liz a tio n is not e a s y to c o m e by. It c a n be effected
only if the p e o p le w h o a r e a lr e a d y in its folds a n d profess loyalty to it
s h o u ld p le d g e th e m se lv es for its glory a n d triu m p h . Islam freed m a n ­
kind from the ty r a n n y o f a n im a l a p p e t ite s fourteen h u n d r e d years a g o ;
now it c a n o n c e a g a i n s h a k e o f f the sh a c k le s o f lust a n d free m a n to
d ire ct all his fa c u ltie s to reach a h ig h er sp ir itu a l p la n e a n d e stab lish
virtu e a n d g o o d n e s s in life.
254 ISL A M : ITS M E A N IN G AN D M E SSA G E

ISL A M IC R E V IV A L
T h e r e v iv a l o f I s l a m is a p r a c t i c a l a n d r e a l iz a b l e u n d e r t a k i n g . T h e
h isto ry o f I s la m p r o v e s b e y o n d a n y d o u b t th at it is q u it e c a p a b l e o f
raisin g m a n a b o v e a p u re ly a n im a l level. W h a t w as possible in the past
is q u it e possible in the presen t a n d w h a t is possible in the case o f in d i­
v id u a ls is e q u a l l y r e a liz a b le in th e c a se o f n a tio n s. M a n k i n d h as not
u n d e r g o n e a n y te m p e r a m e n t a l c h a n g e e ve r since. T h e h u m a n society
in the sixth c e n tu ry w a s a t a s low a level a n d w as a s m u c h taken u p with
sen sual p le a su r e s a s it is to d a y . T h e r e is no difference in the n a tu r e o f
th e b a s i c h u m a n a i l m e n t , a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e s y m p t o m s , th e
o u t w a r d l y f o r m s o r n a m e s o f th e v ic e s i n d u l g e d in , a r e d i s s im ila r .
A n cie n t R o m e w a s no less rotten m o ra lly th a n its m o d e r n c o u n te r ­
p arts. S im ila r l y in a n cie n t P ersia, m o ra l a n a r c h y w as a s w id e sp r e a d as
is in th e p r e se n t d a y w o rld . D i c ta to r s o f to d a y a r c not very differen t
from the d ic ta to r s o f the p a st. It w a s in this historical p e rsp e ctiv e that
I slam w a s revealed to the w orld. It b ro u g h t a b o u t a c o m p le te ch a n g e ,
lifted m a n k in d from the a b y s s o f m o r a l d e g r a d a t io n , g a v e h u m a n life a
lo fty p u r p o s e , d y n a m i s m , m o v e m e n t a n d in fu se d in t o it a s p ir it to
strive h a r d in the w a y o f truth a n d g oodness. H u m a n i t y u n d e r Islam
flo u rish e d , p r o s p e r e d a n d there w a s set a fo o t a d y n a m i c in te lle c tu a l
a n d sp ir itu a l m o v e m e n t th at e n c o m p a ss e d the E a s t a s well a s the W est.
T h e w o r ld o f I s l a m b e c a m e the m a i n s p r i n g o f lig h t, e x c e lle n c e a n d
p rog ress in the w orld f o r a lo n g tim e to co m e . D u r in g this lon g period o f
its d o m i n a n c e n e v e r d id the I sla m ic w orld find itse lf l a g g in g b e h in d
m ate rially , in telle ctu a lly or sp iritually. Its followers were looked upon
a s s y m b o ls o f g o o d n e ss a n d excellen ce in all sp h e res o f h u m a n a ctivity
till they c e a s e d to reflect in th eir lives the n oble a n d e x a lte d id e als o f
I s la m a n d b e c a m e m e re sla v e s to th eir w h im s a n d a n i m a l desires. It
w a s then th at a ll th eir glory a n d p ow er c a m e to a n end in a c c o r d a n c e
with the i m m u t a b l e law o f G o d .
T h e m o d e r n I s l a m ic m o v e m e n t th a t is still g a t h e r i n g m o m e n t u m
d e r iv e s its s t r e n g t h fro m th e p a s t a n d m a k e s u s e o f a ll th e m o d e r n
a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s w ith its g a z e fixed o n th e f u t u r e . It h a s g r e a t
p o t e n t i a l i t i e s a n d a s s u c h h a s a b r i g h t f u t u r e a h e a d , for it is fu lly
c a p a b l e o f p e rfo r m in g th at g re a t m iracle which h as on ce c h a n g e d the
face o f history.
T h i s d o e s not, how ever, m e a n t h a t I slam is a m ere sp ir itu a l creed, or
a p l e a fo r m o r a l i t y , o r j u s t a s c h e m e o f in t e l le c t u a l r e se a r c h in the
k in g d o m o f h e a v e n s a n d e a r th . It is a p ra c tic a l c o d e o f life th a t fully
e m b r a c e s w o rld ly affairs. N o t h in g e sc a p e s its p e n e tr a tin g eyes. It takes
 I S L A M A N D T H E C R I S I S O F THF. M O D E R N W O R I .D 255

notice o f a ll the d iverse p a t t e r n s o f relatio n sh ip s b in d in g m en together

irrespective o f the fact th a t such relatio n sh ip s fall u n d e r the eco n o m ic,
political a n d social categories. It re g u la te s th e m by p rescrib in g su it­
a b le law s a n d n o rm s o f b e h a v io u r a n d enforces th e m in h u m a n life. Its
m ost o u t s t a n d in g ch a r a c te r istic is th at it e stab lish e s a u n iq u e h a r m o n y
b e t w e e n the i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c ie t y , b e tw e e n r e a s o n a n d in t u it io n ,
betw een work a n d w orship , betw een this w orld a n d the H ereafter.

W H Y T H E W O R L D N E E D S ISLA M T O D A Y
W e h a v e tried to e x a m in e briefly the threats that con fron t m a n to d a y
a n d to sh o w how relevan t in fact how n ecessary I sla m is to m a n k in d in
o u r o w n tim e s. L e t us c o n c lu d e by s u m m i n g u p so m e o f the d istin ct
featu res o f Islam w hich m a k e it all the m ore necessary for the m o d e rn
m a n to seek his s a lv a tio n th ro u g h this ideology.
Firstly, it m u s t be well u n d e rsto o d th at I slam is not a m ere ide olog i­
cal vision. It is a p r a c tic a l sy ste m o f life th at fully a p p r e c i a t e s all the
g en u in e n eeds o f m a n k in d a n d tries to realize them.
S e c o n d ly , in try in g to m eet the g en u in e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f m a n Islam
effects a perfect b a l a n c e betw een all a r e a s o f life a n d activity. It starts
with the in d iv id u a l m a in ta in in g a b a la n c e betw een his re q u irem e n ts
o f b o d y a n d sou l, re aso n a n d spirit a n d in n o c a s e a llo w s on e side to
p r e d o m i n a t e th e o th e r. It d o e s not s u p p r e s s th e a n i m a l in s tin c ts in
ord e r to m a k e the soul a sc e n d the h ig h er plan es, n o r does it allow m an ,
in his efforts to fulfil his bod ily desires, to s to o p dow n to the low level o f
a n im a l is m a n d h ed o n ism . O n the c o n tra ry , it m a k e s th e m b o th meet
on a sin gle h ig h er p la n e d o in g a w a y with all the internal psych olog ical
co n flic ts th a t th r e a te n th e h u m a n soul or set a p a r t o f it a g a i n s t the
o th er parts. In the social sp here, it p r o c e e d s to a ch ie v e a n e q u ilib r iu m
b etw een th e n ee d s o f th e in d i v id u a l a n d th ose o f the c o m m u n i t y . It
d o e s not allow a n in d iv id u a l to tran sgress a g a in s t o th er in d iv id u als, or
a g a in s t the c o m m u n i t y . N o r d o e s it a llo w the c o m m u n i t y to c o m m it
tra n s g r e ss io n a g a in s t the in d iv id u a l. It a ls o d o e s not a p p r o v e o f one
c la s s o r g r o u p o f p e o p le to e n s la v e a n o t h e r c l a s s o r g r o u p o f p e op le .
Islam exercizes a beneficient c o n strain t on all these m u t u a ll y o p p o se d
forces, prev e n ts th e m from c o m i n g in to collision w ith on e a n o th e r, a n d
h arn e sse s th e m all to c o -o p e rate for the gen eral good o f m a n k in d a s a
whole.
T h u s I sla m strikes a b a la n c e between different sectors o f society a n d
b e tw e e n d iffe r e n t a s p e c t s o f e x ist e n c e , s p ir it u a l a s well a s m a t e r i a l .
U n lik e c o m m u n i s m , it d o c s not believe th at e c o n o m ic factors, i.e. the
256 I S L A M : ITS M E A N IN G AND M E S S A G E

m a t e r i a l a s p e c t a l o n e , d o m i n a t e th e h u m a n e x i s t e n c e . N o r d o e s it
c o n tr ib u te to w h a t the p u re sp iritu a lists or idealists s a y c la im in g that
s p iritu a l fa cto rs or high id e a ls a lo n e a r e sufficient to o rg a n iz e h u m a n
life. I s l a m r a t h e r h o l d s th a t a ll th ese d iv e r s e e le m e n t s p u t to g e t h e r
form w h a t is ca lle d h u m a n society; a n d th at the best co d e o f life is that
which ta k e s n ote o f all these, m a k in g full a llo w a n c e for b o d y a s well as
reason a n d spirit a n d a r r a n g i n g them all in the fr a m e w o r k o f a h a r ­
m o n io u s whole. T h i r d ly , it m u st a lw a y s be kept in m in d th at Islam h as
an a lt o g e t h e r in d e p e n d e n t existen ce o f its ow n a s a social p h ilo so p h y as
well a s a n e c o n o m ic system . S o m e o f its o u tw a r d m a n ife s t a t io n s m a y
on th e su rfa ce a p p e a r to re se m b le those o f c a p it a lis m or so cialism , bu t
in fact it is fa r from b e in g the on e o r the other. It re tain s all the g o o d
c h a rac te ristics o f these sy stem s, yet is free fro m their sh o r tc o m in g s a n d
p e r v e r s io n s. It d o c s n o t e x to l i n d i v i d u a l i s m to t h a t l o a t h fu l e x t e n t
which is the c h a r a c te r istic o f the m o d e rn West. It w as from this germ
th a t m o d e r n c a p i t a l i s m s p r a n g a n d in s titu tio n a liz e d th a t c o n c e p t o f
in d i v id u a l ’s fre ed o m w here m a n is a llo w e d t o e x p l o it o th er in d iv id u als
a n d the c o m m u n i t y only to serve his person al g ain . Islam g u a r a n te e s
p e rso n a l fre ed o m a n d p ro v id e s o p p o r tu n itie s for in d iv id u a l enterprise
b u t not a t the cost o f society or ideals o f social ju stic e . T h e reaction to
c a p it a lis m h as a p p e a r e d in the form o f socialism . It idolizes the social
b a sis to a n exten t th at the in d iv id u a l is re d u ce d to a n insignificant co g
o f the so c ia l m a c h i n e , w ith n o e x iste n c e w h a t e v e r o f its o w n o u ts id e
a n d in d e p e n d e n t o f the herd. T h e refo re , the c o m m u n i t y a lo n e enjoys
fre e d o m a s well a s p o w e r ; the in d i v id u a l h a s n o r ig h t to q u e s t io n its
a u t h o r i t y o r d e m a n d h is r ig h ts . T h e t r a g e d y o f s o c i a l i s m a n d its
v a r ia n t s is th a t they a s s ig n to the s t a t e a b s o l u t e p o w e rs to s h a p e the
lives o f the in d iv id u als.
I s la m strikes a b a l a n c e betw een the tw o e x tre m e s o f c a p it a lis m a n d
socialism . B e in g a p p r e c ia t iv e o f their role Islam h ar m o n iz e s the in d i­
v id u a l a n d the s ta te in su ch a w ay th at in d iv id u als h av e the freedom
n ecessary to d e v e lo p their p o ten tia litie s a n d not to e n c r o a c h u p o n the
rig h ts o f th e ir fe llo w m e n . It a ls o g ive s the c o m m u n i t y a n d the s ta te
a d e q u a t e pow ers to r e g u la te a n d control the socio-econ o m ic re la tio n ­
s h i p s so a s to g u a r d a n d m a i n t a i n th is h a r m o n y in h u m a n life. T h e
b a sis o f this w hole stru c tu re a s e n v isa g e d by Islam is the reciprocity o f
love be tw e e n in d i v id u a l s a n d g r o u p s ; it is not e r ected o n the b a sis o f
h atred a n d c lass conflict a s is the case with socialism .
It m a y a l s o be p o i n t e d o u t h ere th a t this u n i q u e s y st e m o f life a s
e n v i s a g e d b y I s l a m , d i d n ot o r i g i n a t e a s a r e su lt o f a n y e c o n o m i c
 ISLA M AND T H E C R ISIS O F T H E M O D ERN W O R LD 257

pressure, n o r w a s it a n o u tc o m e o f som e m u t u a ll y co n flictin g interests

o f a n t a g o n is t ic g r o u p s o f pe op le . N O . It w a s r e v e a le d to the w orld a s
the o r d a in e d s y stem o f life a t a tim e w h en m en a t t a c h e d no p a r tic u la r
im p o r t a n c e to the e c o n o m ic factors, nor d id they know a n y th in g a b o u t
social ju s t ic e in the sense we know it in m o d e rn tim es. B o th socialism
a n d c a p i t a l i s m a r e m u c h l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t s . I s l a m p r e s e n t e d its
s c h e m e o f social re fo rm m u c h before a n y o f the social m o v e m e n t s o f
o u r times. It g u a r a n t e e d the b asic n ee d s o f m a n — fo o d , h ou sin g , a n d
sex u a l satisfa c tio n m o r e th a n thirteen h u n d re d y e ars a g o . T h e H o ly
P r o p h e t ( p e a c e be u p o n h im ) s a i d th a t: ‘W h o so e v e r a c t s a s a p u b lic
officer for u s (i.e. th e I s l a m ic S t a t e ) a n d h as n o w ife, he sh all h a v e a
w ife; if he h as n o h ouse, he sh all be g iven a h ou se to live in; i f h e h as no
s erv an t, he sh all h av e o n e ; a n d if he h as no a n im a l (a co n v e y a n c e ), he
shall be p ro v id e d with o n e .’ T h is historical a n n o u n c e m e n t o f f u n d a ­
m e n ta l h u m a n rig h ts not o n ly c o n ta in s those rights v oiced by m a n y a
re v o lu tio n a ry in o u r tim e s, it a d d s to th e m som e m o re a s well, without,
how ever, n ec essita tin g a n y inter-class h atred , b lo o d y revolution s, a n d
w ith o u t o f co u rse rejecting all those h u m a n ele m e n ts in life that d o not
fall u n d e r the a b o v e three h ea d s: food, h ou sin g a n d fam ily.
T h e se a r c s o m e o f the salient fe atu re s o f the I sla m ic co d e o f life. T h e y
a r e sufficient to show th a t a religion with such law s a n d principles, a n d
so c o m p r e h e n s i v e a s to in c l u d e th e w h o le o f th e h u m a n e x is t e n c e ,
e m o tio n s, th o u g h ts, a ctio n s, w orship, e c o n o m ic d e alin g s, social re la ­
tion ship s, instructiv e urges a n d sp ir itu a l a sp ir a t io n s — all a r r a n g e d in
the fr a m e w o r k o f a sin gle h a r m o n i o u s b u t u n iq u e system o f life, ca n
n e v e r lose its u s e f u l n e s s for m a n k i n d . N o r c a n s u c h a r e lig io n e v e r
b e c o m e ob so le te , a s its ob je ctive s are the s a m e a s those o f life itself a n d
therefore de stin ed to live on so lo n g a s there is life on this p lan et.
C o n s i d e r i n g the e x istin g s ta te o f a ffa irs in the c o n te m p o r a r y world,
m a n k in d c a n n o t r e a s o n a b ly affo rd to turn its b a c k u p o n Islam or reject
its s y ste m o f life. M a n k i n d is still afflicted with the m o st s a v a g e a n d
o d i o u s fo rm s o f r acial p reju d ices. A m e r ic a a n d S o u t h A fr ic a m a y offer
a ca se in poin t in this respect. S u re ly the tw entieth c e n tu ry world has
yet a g reat d e a l to learn from I sla m . L o n g a g o I sla m freed h u m a n ity
from all ra c ia l preju d ices. It d id not c o n te n t iself w ith the presen tatio n
o f a b e a u t ifu l v ision o f e q u a l i t y a lo n e b u t it a c h ie v e d in p r a c tic e a n
u n p r e c e d e n t e d s t a t e o f e q u a l i t y b etw een all p e o p le , b la c k , w h ite or
ye llo w , d e c l a r i n g th a t n o n e e n jo y e d a n y s u p e rio rity o v e r the oth ers
e x c e p t in virtu e a n d piety. It not o n ly freed the b la ck from slavery but
a ls o fully re co g n iz e d their rig h ts to a sp ire even to the h ig h est seat o f
258 ISL A M : ITS M EA NING AND M ESSA GE

a u t h o r i t y in the I s l a m ic S t a t e . T h e y c o u l d b e c o m e the h e a d s o f the

Islam ic S ta te . I’he H o ly P r o p h e t (p e a c e be u p o n h i m ) s a i d : ‘Listen a n d
ob ey even if a n eg ro s lave be a p p o in t e d a s y o u r su p e rio r so lon g a s he
s h o u ld en force a m o n g s t you the L a w o f G o d .’
H o w c a n a ls o the w orld o f to d a y ignore the m e ssag e o f I sla m stricken
a s it is with the evils o f im p e ria lism a n d ty ran n y with all their b a r b a r ­
o u s a tt r ib u te s, for I sla m a lo n e c a n h elp m a n k in d shake o f f these chains.
It is o p p o s e d to im p e r i a l i s m a n d all fo r m s o f e x p l o i t a t io n . T h e w a y
I slam tre a te d the p e op le s o f the co un tries it c o n q u e r e d w as so generous,
j u s t a n d s u b l i m e t h a t th e e y es o f th e ‘C i v i l i z e d ’ E u r o p e c a n h a r d l y
p e n e tra te those heights. W e m a y in this re g a rd cite the fa m o u s decision
o f the C a l ip h ‘ U m a r to w h ip the son o f ‘A m r ibn al-‘As, the victoriou s
g en e ral a n d h o n o u re d g ov ern or o f E g y p t a s he h a d b eaten an E g y p tia n
C o p t w itho ut a n y legal ju stific a tio n , while the renow ned fath er h im ­
self h a d a very n arro w e sc a p e from the w h ip o f the C a lip h . T h i s show s
w hat social liberty a n d h u m a n righ ts were enjoy ed by the su b je c ts o f
the I sla m ic S ta te .
T h e n th e re is th e evil o f c a p i t a l i s m th a t h a s p o i s o n e d all life. Its
a b o litio n a n d the need to rid h u m a n ity o f its evil c o n se q u en c es a g a in
ca lls for Islam . F o r, I sla m p ro h ib its u su ry a n d h o a r d in g w hich taken
to g e t h e r fo r m the m a i n s t a y o f the c a p it a l is t e c o n o m y . T h i s in o th er
w ord s m e a n s t h a t Islam a lo n e ca n effectively check the evils o f c a p i t a ­
lism a s it d id ch eck th e m fourteen h u n d re d years ago.
S im ila r ly the w orld d o m in a t e d by the m aterialistic, g odless c o m ­
m u n is m s t a n d s in need o f I sla m , which ach ieves a n d m a i n ta in s social
j u s t i c e o f the h ig h e s t o r d e r w it h o u t d e s t r o y i n g th e s p ir it u a l m a i n ­
sp rin g s o f h u m a n life. N o r d oes it confine m a n ’s afforts to the n arro w
w o rld o f the senses. A b o v e all, it n eith e r e n d e a v o u r s nor a i m s a t the
im p ositio n o f its ow n creed on m a n k in d forcibly with the iron rod o f a
p r o l e t a r i a n d i c t a t o r s h i p , fo r , ‘T h e r e is n o c o m p u l s i o n in r e lig io n ;
indeed the rig h teousn ess h as been differen tiated from the w ick edn ess.’
( a l- Q u r ’a n , 2: 256).
F i n a l l y , th e w o r ld w ith th e s h a d o w s o f w a r still h a n g i n g o v e r it
c a n n o t bu t tu rn to w a r d s Islam — the only w ay to estab lish a n d m a i n ­
tain real p e ac e on this earth.
T h e e r a o f I s l a m h a s in a w a y j u s t s t a r t e d , not e n d e d ; it is not a
sp e n t force, b u t a liv in g d y n a m i c force. Its fu tu r e is a s b r i g h t a s its
g r e a t h istorical p a st is glo riou s when it illu m in ed the face o f earth a t
the tim e when E u r o p e w a s still g r o p in g its w ay in the d a rk recesses o f
m ed iev alism .
 259

A S H O R T B IB L IO G R A P H Y O N ISLA M

I S L A M IC O U T L O O K . O N L IF E
Hamidullah, M., Introduction to Islam, Paris: Centre Cultural Islamiquc, 1959.
A simple and generally authentic introduction to Islam: Its beliefs, doc­
trines and practices. Good for beginners. T he book also contains essential
information about prayers, direction of the Qibla from different parts of the
world and a thumb-nail sketch of the Islamic history-.
M awdudf, A b u ’l-A‘la, Towards Understanding Islam. Translated and edited by
Khurshid Ahmad, Lahore: Islamic Publications Ltd., 1963.
A clear, concise and authoritative introduction to Islam, expounding its
beliefs and doctrines and their rationale. The book provides a comprehensive
and all-embracing view of Islam as a way o f life and constitutes a standard
text-book on Islam. 'This book has been translated in twenty-five languages of
the world.
‘Azzam, A bdur-Rahm an, The Eternal Message of Muhammad, New York: Devin
Adsir Co., 1964. Also in M entor Books, London and New York, The New
English Library, 1964.
An introduction to the life and message of the Prophet M uham m ad focus­
ing attention on their practical and spiritual significance and their impact on
human history in general and the Islamic history in particular.
J a m a l f , M o h a m m a d F adh il, Letters on Islam, London: O xford University
Press, 1965.
Written in the form of letters of a father to his teenage son, the book ex­
pounds the essential beliefs and practices of Islam.
Qutb, M u h a m m a d , Islam: the Misunderstood Religion, K uw ait: Darul Bayan
Books, 1967.
An exposition of the basic concepts of Islam and a forthright unapologetic
defence of the Islamic values and principles. The book deals with most of the
misunderstandings which have been systematically implanted in the minds of
the modern educated people, Muslims and others.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Ideals and Realities o f Islam, London: Allen & Unwin,
1966.
A balanced and intellectually sophisticated exposition of the basic teach­
ings o f Islam . T h e book tackles with clarity a n d conviction a n um ber of
questions on which orientalists and modernist writings try to create confusion
in the mind o f the comm on reader. T he author also exposes the fallacy of
super-imposing the secular western model over Muslim society and demons­
trates how the Shari'ah is capable of leading the Muslims to a more respectable
future.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Encounter of Man and Nature, I^ondon: Allen & Unwin,
1968.
A thought-provoking study of the intellectual crisisofthe modern man. The
author examines and contrasts the materialistic and the Islamic approaches to
260 IS L A M : IT S M EA NIN G A N D M E SSA G E

life and reality, and shows how the Islamic approach alone achieves harmony
betw'cen man and nature. The Darwinian theory of evolution also comes up
for critical examination.
Asad, M uham m ad, Islam at the Crossroads, Lahore: Arafat Publications, 1969
(first edition 1934).
A thought-provoking treatise emphasizing the original revolutionary spirit
of Islam and challenging the intellectual spell of the contemporary west. The
discussion on the place and role of the Sunnah is particularly useful.
Pickthall, M u h a m m a d M arm adukc, Cultural Side o f Islam, Lahore: Shaikh
M uham m ad Ashraf, 1927.
A system atic exposition of some m ajor social values o f Islam and their
actualization in history. Issues dealt with include relation between the sexes,
the position o f non -M uslim s in the Islam ic state, tolerance an d M uslim
contribution to the arts and sciences.
Jam eelah, M aryam , Islam in Theory and Practice, Lahore, 1967.
A collection of thirty essays on different aspects of Islamic religion and
culture and on the revivalist trends in the world of Islam.

T H E Q U R ’A N A N D T H E P R O P H E T
Pickthall, M u h am m ad Marmaduke, The Meaning oj the Glorious Qur'an, New
York: New American Library, 1953 (with Arabic text, Karachi: T aj C o m ­
pany).
One of the best English translations of the Q u r’an available today.
‘All*, Abdullah Yusuf, The Holy Qur'an. Lahore: Shaikh M uham m ad Ashraf,
1934; Beirut: Darul Arabia, 1973.
A generally good and dependable translation although the same cannot be
said about explanatory' notes. Very useful index.
M awdudf, A b u ’l A‘la, The Meaning of the Quran, Translated by C. M. Akbar,
Lahore: Islamic Publications Ltd., Vol. I, 1967; Vol. II, 1971; Vol. Ill, 1972;
Vol. IV, 1973.
This is an English rendering of M aw d udf’s Magnum opus: Tajhirn al-Qur'an.
These four parts contain the tafsir o f the first nine Surahs of the Q u r’an. It is
unfortunate that the translation of such a great work is rather weak and faulty
and fails to capture the clarity, lucidity and elegance of the original.
Irving, T. B., The Noble Reading, C edar R apids, Iowa: Unity Publishing Co.,
1971.
An anthology o f selections from the Q u r’an presenting the Islamic beliefs
and practices translated into modern English.
Sahih Muslim, translated by A. H. Siddiqui, Lahore: Sh. M uham m ad Ashraf,
1972 (3 volumes).
A careful and dependable translation of al- Jami 'as-Sahih of Imam Muslim,
one of the two most authentic collections of the hadith. Although the Arabic
text has not been given, the translation is good and explanatory notes arc
useful.
 261

Hamidullah, M ., Sahifah Hammam ibn Munabbih, Paris: Centre Cultural Isla-

miquc, 1961.
Text and translation of one o f the earliest collections of the hadith with a
scholarly introduction on the history o f hadith — collection and compilation.
Siddiqui, A. H., Prayers of the Prophet, Lahore: Sh. M. Ashraf, 1968.
A collection o f some o f the prayers o f the Prophet with their English
translation. The collection truly captures the spirit of the Islamic prayer.
Sid diq ui, A. H., The Life of Muhammad, Lahore: Islamic Publications Ltd.,
1969.
O n e o f the best a v a ila b le biograph ies o f the Prophet. T h e au th o r also
examines most of the points raised by the orientalist and Christian missionary
critiques of the Prophet.
Ismail, Vehbi, Muhammad, the last Prophet, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1962.
Vchbi Ismail is an Albanian American and he has w-rittcn this short bio­
graphy of the Prophet for American-born Muslim children. Useful but some­
what apologetic.
Waheeduddin, Faqir, The Benefactor, Karachi: Lions Press, 1967, Washington:
Crescent Publications, 1973.
This short and l>eautifully produced study on the life of the Prophet and his
four Rightly-Guided Caliphs presents the essential spirit and message of the
s i rah. Very useful for students, beginners and non-Muslims.
Siddiqui, Naeem, Muhammad: the Benefactor o f Humanity, translated and
abridged by R. A. Hashmi, Delhi: Board of Islamic Publications, 1972.
This life o f the Prophet is unique in the sense that it presents the Prophet in
his role as a DaUyah (caller towards Islam ) an d also shows how, under his
leadership, the Islam ic movem ent evolved in his life-time. T he English
translation is unfortunately poor and defective.

T H E I S L A M IC S Y S T E M

M awdudf, A bu’l A ‘la, Islamic Way of Life. Translated and edited by Khurshid
Ahmad, Lahore: Islamic Publications Ltd., 1965.
A brief an d to-the-point introduction to the Islam ic social order. After
introducing the Islamic concept o f life, the author presents brief discourses on
the moral, spiritual, social, economic and political systems of Islam.
M awdudf, A. A., Islamic Law and Constitution, translated and edited by Khur­
shid Ahmad, Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1960.
A collection o f M a w d u d f’s writings dealing with the nature and scope of
Islamic law and the principles of state and government in Islam. A path-
breaking study which has influenced the course of constitution-making and
law-refortn in Pakistan and a number of other Muslim countries.
M awdudf, A. A., Purdah and the Status of Woman in Islam, translated by al-
Asha'arf, Lahore: Islamic Publications Ltd., 1972.
262 IS L A M : ITS M E A N IN G AND M E SSA G E

A M u slim critiq u e o f the c o n tem p o rary western concept o f w o m a n ’s

emancipation and an exposition o f the Islamic social order with emphasis on
relations between the sexes, at personal and institutional levels.

M aw dudf, A. A., Birth Control. Translated and edited by Khurshid Ahmad

and Misbahul Islam Faruqi, Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1968.
A thorough examination of the moral, social, political and economic aspects
of birth control as a national policy and their impact on society and history.
Asad, M u h am m a d , The Principles o f State and Government in Islam, Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1962.
A brief introduction to the nature of the Islamic state and its principles of
state policy. The essentials of an Islamic constitution can be derived from this
study.
Pasha, Prince Said H a lim , The Reform of Muslim Society, translated by M. M.
Pickthall, Lahore, 1947.
A thought-provoking essay on the necessity of Islamic state and the need for
the re-establishment of the Shari'ah.
Ham idullah, Dr. M ., The Muslim Conduct of State, Lahore: Sh. M. Ashraf,
1953.
A scholarly study o f the origins and development of Islamic international
law.
S id d iq u i, M. M a z h a ru d d in , Women in Islam, Lah ore: Institute o f Islamic
Culture, 1952.
An inquiry into the role of woman in Muslim society and in what respects
this is different from the western model. The author’s approach is generally
balan ced but unfortunately becomes som ew hat ap ologetic on issues like
polygamy and birth control.
Ahmad, Khurshid (Ed.), Studies in the Family Law of Islam, Karachi: Chiraghe
Rah Publications, 1961.
A collection of studies presenting an exposition of the Family Law of Islam
and a critique of the modernist attempts to deform it.
R am adh an , Dr. S aid, Islamic Law: Its Scope and Equity, Ix>ndon: Macmillan,
1970.
An introduction to the nature of Islamic Law, its basic values and princi­
ples, its relevance in contemporary times and an examination of the rights of
non-Muslims in an Islamic State.
Q ureshi, Dr. A n w ar Iqb al, Islam and the Theory o f Interest, Lah ore: Sh. M.
Ashraf, 1961.
An exposition of the Islamic concept of Riba, the rationale for its prohibition,
the role of interest in a modern economy and some aspects of the modus operandi
of an interest-free economy.
C h a p r a , Dr. M. ‘ U mar, Economic System o f Islam, London: Islamic Cultural
Centre, 1970; Karachi: University of Karachi, 1971.
A clear and lucid statement of the socio-economic objectives o f Islam and
how they would affect the working of a modern economy. The integration of
 263

the material and moral aspects and the role of the state in an Islamic economy
are more thoroughly discussed.
Siddiqui, Dr. M. NijHtuUah, Some Aspects o f the Islamic Economy, Lahore: Islamic
Publications, 1972.
A collection o f p apers dealin g with the nature an d scope of the Islamic
economy. T he book also throws some light on the differences between the
Islamic and the contemporary economic models.
Siddiqui, Dr. M. Nijatullah, Hanking without Interest. Lahore: Islamic Publica­
tions, 1973.
An important work on the concept and workings of an interest-free banking
system.
Qutb, Syed, SocialJustice in Islam, Washington: American Council of Learned
Societies, 1953.
T h is is an English translation of an earlier edition o f the a uthor's 'Adi
al-Ijtima'iyyah J7 al-Islam. A competent and thought-provoking study of the
Islamic approach to social problems and of the principles of social justice in
Islam. The author, however, revised and enlarged the book in later editions
and a new translation of the last edition is still needed.
M.S.A., Contemporary Aspects o f Economic and Social Thinking in Islam. I'hc Muslim
Students Association of the United States and C an ada, 1973.
Proceedings of a conference organized by the M .S.A . in 1968. The book
contains eight papers on different aspects of the economics of Islam.
Ansarf, Dr. M. Fazlur Rahm an, The Quranic Foundations and Structure o f Muslim
Society, Karachi: Islamic Centre, 1973 (2 volumes).
An exposition o f the Q u r’anic philosophy and code o f behaviour for the
individual and the institutions of society.

ISL A M A N D T H E M O D E R N W O R L D

A sad, M u h a m m a d , The Hoad to Mecca London: M ax R h cin h ardt, 1954.

Second edition: Tangier, Dar al-Andalus, 1974.
An absorbing story of the author’s intellectual and emotional pilgrimage of
Islam. The book contains a thought-provoking critique of Ju d aism , Chri­
stianity and contemporary western civilization and brings to focus the mes­
sage of Islam to the twentieth century.
The Autobiography o f Malcolm-X ( A lH a j Malik Shahbaz), with the assistance of
Alex. Haley, New York: Grove Press Inc., 1965.
The story of a black man, in affluent race-ridden America: his deprivations,
his frustrations, his violent reactions, and his final discovery of Islam as the
religion of human brotherhood. The last sections dealing with his experiences
o f the H a jj are not only beautiful in their own right but also present the
prospects that Islam holds for the afflicted humanity, black and otherwise.
Brohi. A. K., Islam in the Modern World. Karachi: Chiragh c-rah Publications,
1968.
264 IS L A M : ITS M EA N IN G AND M E SSA G E

A collection of papers and speeches of a former law minister of Pakistan

dealing with Islam in the context o f a number of issues and ideologies of the
contemporary world: materialism, humanism, socialism and communism.
Nadwf, A b u ’l Hassan ‘Alf, Western Civilization: Islam and Muslims, Lucknow:
Academy of Islamic Research and Publication, 1969.
A study of the contemporary conflict between Islam and the western Civi­
lization and its consequences.
K h an , M u h am m a d A bdu r R a h m a n ,/ ! B rief Survey o f Muslim Contribution to
Science and Culture, Lahore: Sh. M. Ashraf.
A bird’s eye view o f the illustrious career of Islam as a culture-producing
factor. Muslim contribution to different fields of learning and their impact on
world civilization is essayed.
Jam cclah , M aryam , Islam and Modernism, Lahore, 1968.
A collection o f twenty-four essays dealing with the impact of the western
thought and culture on the world o f Islam. A powerful critique o f Muslim
modernism from an American convert to Islam.
M awdudf, A. A., A Short History of the Revivalist Movement in Islam. Translated by
al-Asha ‘arf, Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1963.
An Islamic critique o f Muslim history and an introduction to its m ajor
revivalist movements.
Rafiuddin, Dr. M uham m ad, Ideology of the Future, Lahore: Sh. M. Ashraf, 1970.
A well documented refutation of the major western philosophies of life. The
author presents Islam as the ideology o f the future. Discussion on the theory of
evolution is, however, somewhat confused.
Sharif, M. M. (ed.), A History of Muslim Philosophy, Wiesbaden: Otto Harasso-
witz, Vol. I, 1963; Vol. II, 1966.
A major work of Muslim and western scholarship containing survey articles
on the basic teachings of Islam, the life and works of leading thinkers of Islam,
the Muslim contribution to different fields of learning and some aspects of the
modern renaissance in the M uslim lands. 'The work, however, lacks uniformity
or even near-uniformity of approach and standard.
 Index

•A b d -A lla h ,6 2 A m in a , 62
•A bd A llah b. ‘A m r b. al-'A s, 206 A m ir, 147, 170
‘A b d -a l-M u tta lib , 6 2 ,6 7 A m o ra l, 179
A b ra h a m , 2 6 ,2 7 ,62fn., 7 7 ,8 2 ,1 5 2 .1 5 3 ; A m r ib n a l-‘As, 258
fam ily of, 26 A n a rch y . 42, 254
A b u Baler 60 fn ., 65, 70. 73, 194, 252 A ncestors, 204
A b u D a w u d , 175fn, 185fn. A ncient R o m e, 254
A b u D h a r, 187 A n -d a ta , 153
A b u -H a n ffa , 141, 188,189 A nfus, 210
A b u -L a h a b , 71 A ngels, 2 2 ,2 0 4
A b u M u sa a l-A sh 'a rf, 181 A n im al. 175, 188, 194
A b u S u fy a n , 76 A n im a lism , 255
A b u -'la h b , 6 2 ,6 4 ,6 9 , 70,71 A nsar, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79
A b u Y usuf, 182 A n th ro p o lo g ists, 228
A c c o u n ta b ility , 2 4 ,3 8 ,3 9 ,9 3 ,1 73fn. A n ti-co lo n ialism , 236
A c tio n (d e e d s), 22, 35, 48, 94. 110, 112 A nti-religious, 228
1 1 3 ,1 2 8 ,1 3 6 ,1 7 4 ,2 0 5 ,2 5 3 ,2 5 7 A pologetic, 221, 222, 229
Adab, 218 A pologetic lite ra tu re , 222
‘A di Ib n H a tim , 201 A pologists, 222
A d a m , 21. 26. 52, 95, I3 5 fn , 136, 169, A postle(s), 2 0 0 ,2 0 6 ,2 4 8
179 A qli, 227
A d o rn m e n t, 208 A rab<s), A ra b ia , 4 3 ,6 2 ,6 7 ,6 8 .7 0 ,7 3 ,7 4 .
A d u lte ra tio n , 43 75, 76, 79, 82, 89, 9 0 ,9 1 ,9 3 , 101, 102,
A d u lte ry , 73, 163 13 5 ,1 6 9 , 17 9 ,2 1 0 ,2 2 4 , 2 3 7 ,2 3 8 , 247
AJaq, 210 A ra b socialism , 226fn.
A frica, 107,220 A ra b ic , 97, 102, 103, 107, 1 17fn., 151,
A ggression, 253 2 1 4 .2 1 8 ,2 3 2 ,2 3 3 ,2 3 8
Ahadilh, 177, 183 A rro g a tio n , 104, 105
Ahzab, 77 A rt(s), 2 0 0 ,2 3 5 ,2 3 6 ,2 4 9
A ilm e n ts, 232 A rticles of fa ith , 33, 34
‘A ’ish a h , 115 A scetics, 206
A lcohol, 41 A sceticism , 115
A lcoholism , 74, 178 A sia, 2 2 0 ,2 2 3 , 241
‘A lf, 60 fn ., 64, 7 3 ,1 8 6 A ssociation, 103, 105
‘A lf a l-T a n ta w f, 188 A stro n o m y , 239
A llah , 2 2 ,2 4 ,2 5 .2 8 ,2 9 ,3 0 ,3 2 ,3 7 ,3 8 ,4 4 . A ta tu rk , 170
5 7 ,6 7 ,6 8 ,8 0 , 149. 1 5 0 .1 5 1 ,1 5 2 , 153, A th e ist, 103, 156,233
157, 158, 159, 1 63fn., 165. 168, 169. A tla n tic , 102
1 9 9,200, 201, 202, 205, 207, 208, 210, A to n e m e n t, 205
2 1 1 ,2 1 2 ,2 1 4 , 234 A ttrib u te s o f G o d . 2 9 .5 3 .8 2 .8 4 .9 3 .1 0 2 .
Am al, 22 127, 144
A m e ric a, 91, 155, 162 ,2 5 7 p r o h i b i t i o n A u t h o r i ty , 158. 159, 161, 162. 1 67fn.,
law of, 162 170, 2 0 5 , 2 2 7 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 3 , 2 5 6 , 2 5 8 ;
at-Am in, 63 Islam ic, 227 ; T ra d itio n a l, 222
266 IN DEX

A verrocs, 118 C a ste, 216

A v ic en n a , 118 C a v e. 2 0 2 ,2 0 9
A w s, 72 C h a ra c te r, 181
C h a rity , 96, 105. 175.218
B a b y lo n ia , 227 C h e a tin g , 191
B a g h d a d ,91 C h in a , 155
B a la n cc , 165, 166 C h ild /C h ild r e n , 1 0 5 ,1 0 7 .1 2 1 ,1 3 5 .1 3 9 ,
B ani ‘A b d M a n a f, 6 2 ,6 7 141, 163, 170, 2 0 3 ,2 3 2
B a rh a n s m , 91 C h in a , 2 2 7 ,2 5 0 ; M e d ie v a l, 227
Basic law , 165 C h in ese, 237
Basic n eed s, 186, 190.257 C h ris t, S ec Jesus
B a ttle o f B a d r, 75, 76 C h ristia n (s), 74, 85, 91, 92, 94, 96. 102,
Bay 'at at- 'A qabah, 73 104, 133, 134, 202, 205, 207, 23 2 .2 3 4
B egging, 175, 176 C h ristia n C h u rc h , see C h u rc h
B e h av io u r, 164,255 C h ris tia n e r a , 102, 129
B e lie f. 2 5 -2 6 . 2 7 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 3 5 . 104. 105, C h ris tia n ity , 3 6 ,4 3 ,5 0 ,5 1 ,5 2 ,5 3 ,5 4 .6 0 ,
110, 148. 199, 202. 2 0 3 ,2 4 5 ,2 4 7 , 249, 61 fn., 69, 75, 123, 125, 126, 1 3 2 ,2 0 1 ,
250 ; m e a n in g of, 32 207, 2 0 9 ,229fn., 231, 234
B rn e fic ie n t,2 5 0 C h u r c h /C h r is tia n C h u rc h , 9 2 ,1 2 3 , 134,
B M , 236 1 3 5 ,1 9 3 ,2 1 2 ,2 4 3 ,2 5 0
B ib le /B ib lic a l.8 7 , 1 3 4 . 135fn. C itizen s, 253
B iologists, 228 C iv iliz a tio n . 3 6 ,4 1 .4 6 ,6 1 .8 2 ,9 0 ,9 1 .9 2 ,
B ird, 175 1 0 3 ,1 3 1 ,1 3 2 .1 6 4 . 2 0 9 .2 2 4 ,2 4 3 , 248 ;
a l-B fru n f, 241 B a b y lo n i a n , 8 2 , C h i n e s e , 8 2 ;
Bismillah, 223, 228 G r a e c o - R o m a n , 82 ; M o d e r n , 206,
B lack (P e o p le ), 179, 1 8 1 ,2 5 7 ; see also 217, 223, 239, 248 ; P e rsia n . 82 ; T r a ­
R ace d i t i o n a l , 2 2 3 , W e s te r n , 4 6 . 5 3 , 61.
B lack b ox, 226 152, 1 6 4 .221fn., 2 2 2 .2 2 3 .2 2 4
B lood, 95 C la n , 169
B ody a n d S o u l, 205, 2 0 9 ,2 5 5 ,2 5 6 C lass(es), 1 8 4 ,2 4 6 ,2 5 5
(T h e ) B ook (o f G o d ), 1 6 0,165, 2 0 0 ,2 1 5 C lass conflict, 256
B ra h m in (s), 169 C lay , 169
B ra h m a n ism , 154 C lo th in g , 183
B ro th e rh o o d . 88, 96, 174, 179. 180, 182, C lo u d s, 216
184, 185. 190, 246 , U n iv e rsa l, 246 C ode o f b e h a v io u r, 164
B u d d h a , 237 C o d e o f c o n d u c t, 31, 36
B u d d h ism , 43, 50, 75, 123 C o d e o f life, 199, 201, 244, 253, 254, 256,
B u d d h ists, 2 2 1 ,2 3 7 257 ; Islam ic. 257
B u k h a rf, 164fn., I7 3 fn ., 175fn., 177fn., C o llective d e fen c e, 106
179fn„ 180fn., I8 1 fn ., 183fn., 185fn C ollectiv ism , 170
B uyer, 190, 191 C o lo n ia lism , 236
B y z a n tin e , 79, 102 C o lo u r, 25, 4 0 ,4 1 ,8 9 ,9 6 ,1 6 6 ,1 8 1 ,2 1 0
C o m m a n d (s), 158, 159, 161,201
C a e s a r, 37, 54, 6 0 ,% C o m m o n w e a lth , 101, 102
C a iro , 91, 237 C o m m u n is m , 125, 126, 128, 147, 255,
C a lip h , 60, 168, 170, 181, 182, 1 8 3,186, 258 ; C h a ra c te ris tic s of, 258
194.258 C o m m u n i t y / c o m m u n i t i e s , 165, 168,
C a lip h a te , 168, 170 171, 181, 186, 2 3 7 .2 4 7 ,2 4 9 , 2 5 2 .2 5 5 ,
C a p ita lis m , 174, 179, 189, 190, 191, 195, 256
2 5 6 .2 5 7 .2 5 8 ; E vils of, 258 C o m p e titio n , 194
C a p ita lis t, 163, 179, 1 9 2 ,1 9 4 ,2 5 2 C o n c e p t o f Isla m , 29
C a p ita list S y stem , 179, 194 C o n se n su s, 161, 187, 188
C a p tiv e , 107 C o n s ta n tin o p le . 91
 IN D EX 267

C o n s titu tio n , I67fn. D ialectical m a te ria lism , 227

C o n su m e rs, 182, 188, 191, 192, 193 D ic ta to r s ) , 170, 248, 252, 254
C o p t, 258 D ic ta to rs h ip , 147, 163, 166, 170, 2 5 8 ;
C o r ru p tio n , 194 p ro le ta ria n , 258 ; w orking-class, 163
C osm os, 230 D ig n ity , 88, 89, 9 2 , 107, 1 10, 114, 142,
C o sts a n d b enefits, 193 186, 190, 248
C ra d le , 199 D in, 94, 103, 199
C re a to r, 2 9 ,3 1 , 110, 118, 119, 121, 122, D isbelief, 103, 105
125, 135, 150, 157, 1 9 9 ,2 0 0 ,2 1 4 ,2 4 7 , D isbelievers, 32, 158
2 5 0 ,2 5 3 D i s c r i m i n a t i o n , 3 0 , 9 0 , 1 81, 217 ;
C re e d , 9 5 , 104, 121, 123, 125, 148, 167, c o lo u r , 2 5 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 89, 9 6 , 16 6 , 18 1 ;
2 1 0 ,2 4 7 ,2 5 4 ,2 5 8 g e o g r a p h ic a l, 166 ; lin g u is tic , 166 ;
C rim e (s), 1 0 5 ,1 6 2 ,1 7 8 ,1 9 4 ; m o ra l. 194 ra c ia l, 26, 40, 41, 89, 95, 96, 122, 129,
C ris e s , 101, 2 2 0 , 2 2 6 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 0 , 243 ; 154,181
eco lo g ical, 239 D isto rtio n s in religion, 28
C r itic is m , 217, 2 18, 2 19, 2 20, 222, 235, D is trib u tio n , 190, 193, 194 ; e q u ita b le ,
241 i n te l le c t u a l, 241 ; ob jectiv e, 217, 194
219 D istrib u to rs , 182
C ru e lty , 163 D ivine a ttr ib u te s , 50
C r u s a d e /s (ers), 92 D iv in e c o m m a n d s, 208
C u ltu r e , 9 0 , 91, 92, 134, 138, 141, 143, D iv in e grace, 232
164, 220, 235, 236, 237 ; M o h a m m a - D ivine kno w led g e, 200
d a n , 92 D iv in e law , 1 2 2,127, 1 3 5 ,1 5 9 ,1 6 6 ,1 7 0 ,
C u rre n c y , 192 1 7 1 ,1 8 2 ,2 5 2
D iv in e lig h t, 2 1 8 ,2 3 2
D a n te , 232 D ivine lim its, 163, 164
D a rk ages, 91 D iv in e p u rp o se , 204 ,2 1 4
D ark n ess, 105, 110, 1 1 7,135, 148, 182 D ivine service, 102
D a rw in ism , 228 D ivine sov ereig n ty , 149
Das Kapital, 226 D iv in e w ill (W ill o f G o d ) , 24, 4 8 , 119,
D a y o f J u d g e m e n t , 33, 75, 17 3 fn ., 179, 248
181, 182,248 D iv in ity , 117, 125,160
D e a th , 200 D ivorce, 9 2 ,1 3 4 ,1 3 9 ,1 4 0 ,1 4 2 ,1 6 1 ,1 6 3 ,
D ccency, 253 178, 207 ; law s of, 163 ; rig h t of, 134,
D eed(s), 9 4 ,1 0 6 ,1 0 7 ,1 2 9 ,1 3 6 ,1 6 8 ,1 8 1 , 139
200, 2 0 5 ,2 0 8 , See also A ction D o c to r, 189
(T h e ) D e ity /D e itie s , 103, 105, 125, 154, D o g m a s, 4 8 ,5 2
2 0 0 ,2 5 0 D o m in a tio n , 160, 163
D e m a n d , 184 D ostoevsky, 232
D em o cracy , 1 4 7 ,1 5 9 ,1 6 0 ,1 6 1 ,1 6 2 ,1 6 8 , D re a m , 251
171, 1 9 3 ,2 1 1 ; n a t u r e o f, 168, 193 ; D ress, 170,225
'I'h e o -d e m o c ra c y , 160, 161 ; W este rn D rin k in g , 162, 164 ,2 4 6 ; effect of, 162
secu lar, 161 D u a lism , 102,104
D esire(s), 162, 181,254
D e sp o tism , 156 E a rth , 104, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125,
D e stin a tio n , 164 135,150, 157, 180, 191, 1 9 2 ,2 0 2 ,2 0 4 ,
D e stitu te , 39 2 1 0 ,2 1 2 ,2 4 5 , 2 5 0 ,2 5 3 , 2 5 4 ,2 5 8
D e stru c tio n , 164 E ast, 82, 1 5 2 ,225fn., 23 1 ,2 5 4
D e v iatio n , 1 8 I,2 2 9 fn . E cclesiastical, 92
D evil, 134, 135, 156, 162, 174, 200, 211, E c o n o m ic (s ), 118, 125, 127, 128, 129,
217 1 5 6 ,1 6 3 ,2 2 0 ,2 5 5
Dhim m i, 166 E co n o m ic flu c tu a tio n , 194
Dfiimmis, 166 ; rig h ts of, 166ff E co n o m ic g ro w th , 175, 179, 184
268 IN DEX

E c o n o m ic ju s t ic e , 181, 182, 185, 187, Eve, 134, 179

1 9 0 .1 9 1 ,1 9 2 , 194,195 E vil(s), 3 8 ,4 1 ,5 2 , 87, 106, 107, 115, 127,
E co n o m ic p h ilo so p h y o f Isla m , 189 149, 154, 155, 165, 178, 202, 204. 212,
E co n o m ic pre ssu re , 25 6 ,2 5 7 2 3 5 ,2 4 5 ,2 4 6 ,2 4 7 ,2 5 0 ,2 5 8
E c o n o m ic s y s te m , 130, 148, 1 9 5 ,2 4 4 , E v o lu tio n , 86, 8 7 ,9 1 , 164, 219, 222, 228,
256 2 2 9 ,2 3 0
E c o n o m ic s y s te m o f Is la m , 174, 189, E v o lu tio n ism , 228
2 5 6 ; g o a ls o f, 174, 175, 189, 193 ; E x is te n tia lism , 219, 231, 234. 235, 236,
n a tu re of, I89ff. ; v a lu e s of, 174 2 3 8 , 2 3 9 ; E u r o p e a n , 2 3 8 ; W e s te r n ,
E co n o m ic w ell-b ein g , 174, 176 239fn.
E co n o m y , 193, 195 ; c a p ita lis t, 258 E x p lo ita tio n , 89, 93, 152, 156, 176, 182.
E d u c a tio n , 8 6 ,8 8 ,8 9 ,9 1 , 165, 219 ; B ri­ 183, 250, 253, 258
tish , 228 ; lib e ral, 91 ; m o d e rn U n i­ E x tra v a g a n c e , 188
versity, 221 ; m o ra l, 165 ; tra d itio n a l.
220 F a ith , 2 1.2 2 ,2 3 ,3 3 ,3 4 ,6 2 .6 5 ,6 6 ,6 7 .6 8 .
E d u c a tio n a l sy ste m , 220 69, 70, 75, 76, 77, 79, 86, 93, 104, 114,
E g a lita ria n , 221 115, 117, 118, 123, 124, 125, 128, 136,
E g y p t, 152, 221fn., 222, 258 169, 170, 176, 180, 188, 190, 223, 227,
E g y p tia n C o p t., 258 230, 2 46, 247, 2 5 0 ; b r o th e r s in , 179;
E le ctio n , 253 life of, 227
E le c to ra l sy ste m , 161 F a ith fu l(s), 180
E lio t, T . S., 232 F a lla c y /ie s, 219
E lite , 2 1 9 ,2 3 0 al-Falsa/ah, 238
E m a n c ip a tio n , 93 Faba/al al- Wujud, 238
E m ig ra n ts . 73 False gods, 252, 253
E m issaries, 79 F a lse h o o d , 241
E m p lo y c e (s), 182, 183, 184, 185, 188 ; F a rn ily /ie s , 40, 104, 105, 113, 138, 139,
m o ral o b lig a tio n s of, 184, 185 1 4 2 ,1 5 4 ,1 6 8 ,1 7 5 ,1 7 9 ,1 8 0 ,1 8 1 , 187,
E m p lo y e r(s), 1 8 2 ,1 8 3 ,1 8 4 , 185,189 200
E m p lo y m e n t, 175 ; g a in fu l. 175, 186 F am ily life, 163, 184
E n e m y , 194,200 a l-F a ra b f, 118
E n g la n d , 92, 155, 162,222 F astin g , 23, 3 5 ,4 9 , 104, 114, 136, I73fn.
E n g lish , 2 3 6 ,2 3 8 ,2 4 4 F ate, 200
E n lig h te n m e n t, 101 F a d m a h ,63, 111, 181
E n te rp ris e , 190; freed o m of, 190, 191 F em ale, 1 79,181, 183
E q u a l i ty ,4 0 ,8 8 , 111, 128, 129, 147, 156, F id elity , 200
186, 187 F in a lity o f P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d , 32
E q u ilib riu m , 164 Fiqk, 190, 191
E q u ity , 187. 190,257 Fire, 95
E rro r(s), 2 1 7 ,2 2 2 , 229, 235, 238 F lu c tu a tio n s (e co n o m ic ), 194
E te rn a l, 178 F o o d ,183,257
E te rn a l bliss, 32 F o rb id d e n tree, 135
E te rn a l life, 247 F o rn ic atio n , 163
E te rn ity , 246 F ra n c e, 102, 107, 222
E th i c s , 1 02, 107, 1 6 1 ; E a s te r n , 102; F ra n z K a f t a , 232, 233
leg a l, 209; so c ial, 209; P h ilo so p h y of, F ra te rn ity , 247
200 F r a u d , 191
E u ro p e , 3 3 ,9 0 ,9 2 ,9 3 ,1 0 2 , 1 6 0 ,224,243, F re e w ill, 191
244, 258; C e n tra l, 231; civilized, 258; F re e d o m , 5 2 ,8 9 ,9 3 , 1 1 0 ,1 2 4 , 127, 128,
M e d i e v a l, 2 0 2 ; M o d e r n , 2 4 4 ; 149, 156, 157, 161, 162, 163, 170, 174,
W e ste rn , 101 1 8 8 ,1 9 0 ,1 9 1 , 1 9 5 ,2 0 2 ,2 3 7 ,2 4 8 ,2 4 9 ,
E u ro p e a n (s), 9 0 ,9 1 , 224, 228, 235, 238 2 5 0 ,2 5 3 ,2 5 6 ; Islam ic c h a rte r of, 188
E u ro p e a n p h ilo so p h y , 227 F re n c h (la n g u a g e ). 2 3 3 ,2 3 6 ,2 3 9
 IN D EX 269

F re n c h lite ra tu re , 233 ILkliz, 229

F re u d . 2 3 1 ,2 4 3 H a g a r, 77
F r e u d ia n , 2 3 1,2 3 5 Ha lat. 154, 188, 192
F rc u d ia n ism , 231 H a lf-tru th , 228
F r u s tra tio n , 178 H a n d ic a p (s), 186
F u n d a m e n ta l h u m a n rig h ts, 257 H a p p in e ss, 163, 178, 201
F u n d a m e n ta lis t, 2 2 1fn. al-Haqq, 238
F u n d a m e n ta l rig h ts, 38 Hamm. 154, 188, 192
al-Furqan, 87 H a ru n a l-R a s h fd , 182
H a rv a rd , 222
G a b rie l, 6 7 ,6 9
H a sh im ite s, 70, 71, 73
G a b rie l M a rc e l, 235
H a tim , 201
G a m b lin g , 163,247
H a tre d , 2 4 6 ,2 5 6 , 257 ; in ter-class, 257
G e rm a n y , 170
H e a rt(s), 181
G h a z a lf, 176
H e a v e n , 24, 66, 75, 104, 120, 121. 123,
G lo ry , 208
1 2 4 ,1 2 5 , 1 2 6 ,1 3 5 , 1 5 0,157, 162, 180,
G o d , 64, 70. 72, 73, 74. 76, 77, 7 9 ,8 0 .8 2 ,
2 0 3 ,2 0 4 ,2 1 2 ,2 1 6 ,2 2 7 ,2 4 0
8 7 , 8 9 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 102, 103, 104,
H e a v e n s , 175, 191, 192, 204, 2 1 0 ,2 2 7 ,
105, 106, 107,109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
254
114, 115, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 127,
H egel, 214
129, 134, 135, 136, 139, 149, 150, 151,
H e g ira ,se e H ijra h
153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160,
H ell, 2 4 ,6 6 . 124, 134
161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 173,
H e lp , 201
1 7 4 ,1 7 5 ,1 7 7 ,1 7 8 ,1 7 9 ,1 8 0 ,1 8 1 ,1 8 2 ,
H e n ry (io rb in , 239
183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 191, 192, 200,
201. 203, 205, 206, 209, 210, 211, 212, H c rac liu s, 79
H e re a fte r, 8 3 ,9 5 , 97, 112. 123, 124, 164,
213, 2 1 4 ,2 1 6 , 2 1 8 ,2 3 0 , 236, 240, 241,
167, 17 7 fn ., 1 7 8 ,2 0 0 , 2 0 7 ,2 4 5 ,2 4 7 ,
2 4 4 ,2 4 5 ,2 4 7 ,2 4 8 ,2 5 0 ,2 5 2 ,2 5 3 , 254 ;
a t t r i b u t e s o f, 29, 53, 82, 84, 9 3 , 102, 255
127, 144, 166, 170, 179, 180, 181,200, H e rm it, 203
Hidayah, 8 1 .8 4 , 85, 97
204; fe a r of, 1 7 7 ,1 8 0 ,2 1 2 ; love of, 249
H,jrah. 7 3 ,7 5 , 76, 77, 78, 7 9 .1 0 1 ,1 0 2
G o d h o o d ,160
G o e th e , 232 al-Hikma, 238
G o o d , 180, 182, 202, 206, 207, 208, 212, H in d u ism , 5 0 ,5 1 , 7 5 ,1 2 3 ,229fn.
213, 246, 249 H in d u s , 221
G o o d a n d b a d , 177 H ip p ie m o v e m e n t, 2 2 2 ,2 2 5
H is to r y , 1 6 7 ,2 1 0 ,2 1 3 , 2 1 4 ,2 1 5 , 2 16,
G o o d a n d e v il, 24-25, 87, 106, 113, 115,
2 2 8 ,2 2 9 ,2 4 0 , 250, 254
167
H o a rd in g , 258
G o sp el, 28, 5 4 ,9 0 , 202
H oly B ook, 21, 1 6 5 ,2 0 1 ,2 3 0
G o v e r n m e n t, 159, 160, 161, 194, 195 ;
H oly Q u r ’a n , see Q u r ’a n
goal o rie n te d , 194 , Islam ic system of,
H o ly P r o p h e t, 168, 169, 170, 181, 192,
166 ; w elfare o rie n te d , 194
2 0 0 ,2 0 1 ,2 0 6 , 2 0 7 ,2 1 0 , 257, 258
G ra n a d a , 107
H oly S ynod(s), 123
G ra v e, 177fn., 199,202
G re a t B rita in , 103 H o n o u r, 248, 253
G re ed , 246 H o s p ita lity , 107
G reek(s), 90, 102, 202 H o stility , 250
G reek p h ilo so p h y , 118 H o u sin g , 257
G u id a n c e , 8 1 , 82, 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 6 , 149, 155, H u b a l, 78
170, 176, 194,201 ; D iv in e, 85 H u d , 157
H u d a y b iy a h , 110
H ad ith , 4 3 , 107, 131, 137, 142, 1 7 9 fn ., H udud A lla h , 163, 164, see a ls o D iv in e
1 80fn., 183, 1 8 4 ,2 0 1 ,2 0 6 ,2 0 7 ,2 1 4 , L im its
229 H u m a n a c tiv ity , 174
270 IN D EX

H u m a n b rin g s , 158, 159, 164, 175, 203, Ig n o ra n c e , 101, 110, 119, 148, 164, 169.
204, 253 218, 227, 229, 236, 237, 248 ;
H u m a n c iv iliz a tio n , 248 e n lig h te n e d , 252
H u m a n c u ltu rc , 164,215 Ihsan, 25
H u m a n free d o m , 162, 163 I jtih a d , 43, 229
H u m a n in tc llc c i, 249 Ilah, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156,
H u m a n k n o w le d g e, 215 1 5 7 ,1 6 1 ,1 6 2
H u m a n life, 27, 46, 48, 50, 54, 117, 118, lm am (s), 169,209
122, 125, 138, 148, 156, 166, 199,202, Im am R a g h ib , 214
2 0 7 ,2 0 8 ,2 0 9 ,2 4 3 ,2 4 7 ,2 5 4 ,2 5 5 ,2 5 6 , Iman, 21, 2 2 ,2 3 ,2 5 ,2 2 3
258 Im m o ra lity , 74, 183
H u m a n m in d , 250 Im p e ria lism , 253, 258 ; evils of. 258
H u m a n n a tu re , 202 In c a rn a tio n , 205
H u m a n n e e d s (M a te r ia l) , 27, 111, 114, In c o m e , 185, 186, 187, 190, 191, 192 ;
190 e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f, 185, 190,
H u m a n p e rso n a lity , 205 191, 193, 194, 195 ; re d is trib u tio n of,
H u m a n ra ce , 246 188
H u m a n re aso n , 252 In d ia , In d ia n , 1 0 2 ,1 3 2 ,1 5 3 ,1 6 9 ,188fn.,
H u m a n re la tio n (s), '202, 203 2 3 6 ,2 5 0
H u m a n rig h ts , 257, 258 ; f u n d a m e n ta l, In d ia n su b -c o n tin e n t, 222, 228
257 In d iv id u a l(s), 51, 52, 122, 124, 126, 127,
H u m a n society, 162, 166, 179, 254, 256 129, 171, 178, 179, 181, 182, 188. 190,
H u m a n soul, 251, 255 193, 194, 195, 1 9 9 ,2 0 4 ,2 1 1 ,2 1 2 ,2 4 5 ,
H u m a n s p irit, 252 249, 254, 255, 256 ; b e h a v io u r, 199 ;
H u m a n w elfare, 173, 178 freedom , 1 7 4 ,1 8 8 , 189, 190, 195,256
H u m a n is m , 40 ; a n ti-s p iritu a l, 240 In d iv id u a l d ifferen ce, 51, 52, 128
H u m a n ity , 9 2 , 114, 117, 118, 119, 121, In d iv id u a l p e rfe c tio n , 51
122, 125, 126, 1 2 8 ,1 3 5 ,1 5 5 ,1 8 1 ,1 8 8 , In d iv id u a l re sp o n sib ility , 5 3 ,5 4 ,5 5 , 105
199, 203, 2 1 1 ,2 1 2 , 243, 246, 247, 248, In d iv id u a l a n d so c ie ty , 38, 3 9 , 5 4 , 55,
249, 2 5 1 ,2 5 2 , 253, 254, 257, 258 1 1 8 ,1 2 2 ,1 2 4 ,1 2 6
H u s b a n d , 163 In d iv id u a lis m , 171, 256
H y p o c rite s, 228 In d iv id u a lity , 207
In d o n e sia, 107, 223
Ibadah, 1 0 9 ,1 1 1 .1 1 5 ,1 5 1 ,2 0 0 In d u stria l h a z a rd s, 184
I b n K a t h f r , 1 7 3 fn ., 1 7 7 fn ., I 7 9 f n ., In d u stria l p e ace, 185
187fn. In e q u a lity , 156, 181, 184, 186, 188
Ib n K h a ld u n , 2 1 4 ,2 1 5 In e q u ity , 165
Ib n M a ja h , I7 5 fn ., !77fn. In ferio rity co m p le x , 1 4 8,240, 241
Ib n R u sh d , 118 In h e rita n c e , 92, 141, 142, 163, 188, 190;
Ib n S fn a , 1 1 8 ,2 3 9 ,2 4 6 law of, 163
Id e al(s), 246, 2 5 4 ,2 5 5 ,2 5 6 Injustice(s), 127, 1 56,167, 176,180, 182,
ld ea list(s), 256 191,2 4 6 ,2 4 7
Id e alistic d o c trin e , 106 In te lle c tu a l h e rita g e , 236, 237
Id e al society, 25 In te lle c tu a l re sea rc h , 254
Ideological sta te , 166fT., 167 In te llig e n ts ia , 2 2 1 ,2 2 3 ,2 2 6
Ideological w a rfa re , 253 I n te n tio n ( s ) , 113, 114; g o o d , 113, 114;
Id e o lo g y , 26, 42, 61, 148, 166, 167, 179, p u rity of, 113
2 1 9 ,2 5 5 In terest(s), 1 6 3 ,1 8 1 ,1 8 9
Id o l(s), 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74, 77, 78, In tu itio n , 255
8 8 ,9 2 ,9 3 .9 6 ,9 7 ,1 5 4 , 2 1 8 ,2 2 2 , 224 Iq b a l, 2 2 9 ,2 3 8
Id o l-w o reh ip , 247, 252 Iro n , 165
Id o l-w o rsh ip p crs, 250 Ira n , 153
Id o la try , 74, 102, 104, 1 1 0 ,2 2 0 ,2 4 7 al-Islam, 29,80,199,201
 IN D EX 271

Isla m , 2 1,2 5 ,2 6 ,2 7 ,3 6 ,3 7 ,4 1,4 2 ,4 3 ,4 6 , Islam ic lite ra tu re , 232

4 8 ,5 0 ,5 2 ,5 3 ,6 0 ,6 1 ,7 3 , 75, 7 9 ,8 2 ,8 6 , Islam ic m eta p h y sics, 2 3 5 .2 4 1
87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 9 5 ,9 6 , 101, 102, Islam ic m o v e m e n t, 254
103, 104, 105, 107, 109. 110, 111, 112, Islam ic n o rm s, 235, 238
113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 121, 123, Islam ic p h ilo so p h y , 236. 238, 239, 241;
124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, tra d itio n a l, 2 3 8 ,2 3 9
1 3 2 ,1 3 5 ,1 3 7 ,1 4 1 ,1 4 2 ,1 4 3 ,1 4 4 .1 4 7 , Islam ic p o litica l o rd e r, 147
148, 149, 159, 160, 161, 163, 166, 167, Islam ic p o litica l th e o ry , 158. 159fn., 171
168, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, Islam ic p o lity , 160, 161
177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, Islam ic psychology, 233
185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, Islam ic p sy c h o th e ra p y , 233
195, 199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, Islam ic revival, 254fn.
207, 208, 209, 2 1 0 ,2 1 1 ,2 1 2 , 2 1 3 ,2 1 4 , Islam ic ru le r, 170
2 1 6 ,2 1 7 ,2 1 8 ,2 1 9 ,2 2 1 .2 2 2 ,2 2 3 ,2 2 6 , Islam ic science(s), 240, 241
227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233, 234, 235, Islam ic scientific h e rita g e , 240
238, 239, 240, 241, 243, 244, 245, 248, Islam ic social o rd e r, 143, 148
250, 2 5 2 ,2 5 3 ,2 5 4 ,2 5 5 ,2 5 6 ,2 5 7 ; basic Islam ic socialism , 219, 226fn.
p rin c ip le s a n d c h a ra c te ris tic s , 27, 46, Isla m ic so cicty , 102, 103, 169. 187, 192,
75, 158; a n d o th e r religions, 2 6 ,5 2 ,5 7 , 2 2 3 ,2 2 6 ,2 2 7 ,2 3 5 ,2 3 7
60, 75, 112; c h a ra c te ris tic s of, 33, 34, Islam ic sources, 230
37, 3 9 ,4 1 ,4 2 ,4 6 ,4 8 ,5 2 ,6 0 ,7 5 ,8 6 ,9 3 , Islam ic sta te , 3 9 ,1 5 9 ,1 6 4 ,1 6 5 ,1 6 6 ,1 6 7 ,
96, 118, 137, 248, 255, 258; as co d e of 1 6 8 ,1 6 9 ,1 7 0 , 194, 253, 257, 258; c h a ­
life, 2 7 ,2 9 ,7 5 ,1 4 7 , 149,202; c o m p le te r a c te r is tic s o f, 159ff., I6 6 ff., 168ff.;
w ay o f life. 37, 38, 147; h isto ry of, 254; h e a d s of, 258; p u rp o se of, 165; th eo ry
m e a n i n g o f I s la m , 2 1 , 2 8 , 46, 125; of. 168
n o r m s o f, 192; as p e a c e , 2 1 ; so c ia l Islam ic system , 191, 193, 194
e th ic s of, 3 9 -4 0 fn ., 96, 137; s p iritu a l Islam ic th eo lo g y , 241
id eal of. 232; w o m a n in, 131,135-145; Islam ic th o u g h t, 191, 229, 238; a p o lo ­
w orld of, 254 getic stu d ies of, 238
Isla m ic a rc h ite c tu re , 234 Is la m ic t r a d i t io n ( t r a d i t i o n o f I s la m ),
Isla m ic a r t, 234 2 2 0 ,2 2 3 ,2 2 7 ,2 3 7 ,2 4 1
Islam ic c a le n d a r, 101 Isla m ic w o rld , 2 18, 2 19, 22o, 221, 223,
Islam ic c h a ra c te r, 241 224, 2 2 5 ,2 2 6 ,2 2 8 ,2 3 0 , 231, 232, 233,
Is la m ic c iv iliz a tio n , 46, 103, 142, 143, 2 3 7 ,2 3 9 ,2 4 4 ,2 4 7
241 Ishaq, 26, 27
Islam ic c o m m o n w e a lth , see C o m m o n ­ Ish m a el, see Ism a ‘il
w ealth lsm a 'il, 26, 2 7 ,62 fn ., 77
Is la m ic c u l t u r e , 4 6 , 9 1 , 148, 220, 223, Ita ly , 91, 155, 170
2 2 4 ,2 2 5 ,2 3 8 ,2 4 0
Islam ic e co n o m ic o rd e r, 173 J a c o b , 27
Islam ic e co n o m ic system , 174, 178, 191; Jahihyyah, 101,218
c h a ra c te ris tic of. 178,193 J a m e s J e a n s , 244
Islam ic e le m e n t, 240 J a p a n , 250
Islam ic e ra , 101 J e a n s B ridge, 244
Isla m ic id ea l, p e rfe c tio n of, 50, 115,195 Je su s , 2 6 ,2 7 ,5 2 ,6 0 ,6 9 ,8 7 ,1 5 7 ,2 0 3 ,2 1 2
Islam ic ideology, 33, 149 Je w (s), 73, 7 4 ,7 5 ,8 5 ,9 1 ,2 3 1
Islam ic h isto ry , 247 Je w ish , 94
Isla m ic in te lle c tu a l life, 2 3 6 ,2 3 8 Je w ish tr a d itio n , 250
Islam ic la n d , 225 Jxhad, 2 3 ,3 9
Isla m ic lan g u a g es, 232, 233 J i n n , 4 9 ,6 5
Islam ic law , 138, 139, 141, 1 4 2 ,1 4 4 ,1 6 1 , J o b , 185
188 J u d a is m , 61 fn., 231
Islam ic lite ra ry critic ism , 233, 235 J u d g e , 189,200
272 IN D EX

J u d g e m e n t s ) , 162, 201 Ix-gislature, 161, 167fn.

J u n g ia n , 231, 235 L ib eralism , 5 1 ,2 1 9
J u n g ia n p sychology, 235 L ib e ra tio n , 111, 152,248
J u ris p ru d e n c e , 191 L ib e r ty , 157, 161, 164, 165, 166, 170.
J u r is ts , 169, 176, 186, 18#, 189 252; in d iv id u a l, 166, 170; social, 258
J u s t society, 96, 105 L ife, 117, 118, 120, 123, 125, 127, 128,
Ju stice, 128, 129, 142,167, 174, 176,179, 129, 130, 136, 151, 1 5 8 ,1 6 3 , 165, 166,
180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 186, 188, 190, 170, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 194. 199,
195, 205, 2 5 3 ; d is tr ib u tiv e , 186, 187; 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207,
e c o n o m ic , 181, 182, 185, 187, 190, 2 0 8 ,2 0 9 ,2 1 1 ,2 1 2 ,2 1 3 ,2 1 4 /2 1 8 ,2 1 9 ,
191, 192, 194, 195; so c ia l, 117, 118, 226, 230. 238, 239, 243, 245, 247, 248,
125, 126, 147, 165, 181, 182, 185, 190, 249, 251, 253, 255, 257; e te r n a l. 245;
1 9 1 ,1 9 2 ,1 9 4 , 195 fa m ily , 163; in te lle c tu a l, 236; o b jec ­
tiv e s of, 2 5 1 ; p e r s o n a l, 2 0 0 ; p u b lic ,
Ka'bah, 4 9 ,6 2 ,6 5 ,6 6 ,6 7 ,6 9 , 71, 77, 78 200; system of, 257; v a lu e s of, 251
Kafir, 2 9 ,1 0 3 Life a fte r d e a th , 31. 32, 33, 5 0 ,5 2
Kahma, 2 9 ,3 1 ,3 3 Life a n d life h e re a fte r, 2 4 ,3 2 ,3 5 ,5 0 , 83,
K h a d fja , 6 3 ,6 4 ,7 2 112
K h a y y a m , 241 L ig h t, 104, 118, 148
K h a z ra j, 72, 74 L iv elih o o d , 175, 185
Khilafah, 160, 168 I ^ r d , 2 4 ,2 7 ,2 9 ,3 4 ,6 4 ,8 4 .8 9 ,9 0 .9 4 ,9 5 ,
Khuda, 153 9 7 ,1 0 5 ,1 0 9 ,1 1 0 , 121, 1 2 5 ,1 2 6 , 129,
K in d n e ss, 105, 139, 140, 144, 180,211 135, 136, 150, 152, 1 5 3 ,1 5 6 ,1 5 7 ,1 5 9 ,
Kins; A rth u r, 102 162, 1 7 6,199, 2 0 0 ,2 0 1 ,2 0 3 , 204, 205,
K in g d o m o f G o d , 160 2 0 6 ,2 0 7 ,2 0 8 ,2 1 0 ,2 1 4 ,2 5 3
K n o w le d g e, 3 4 ,4 7 .8 8 .9 7 , 111, 129,137, L o rd sh ip . 202
1 5 0 ,1 5 5 ,2 1 1,2 1 4 ,2 1 5 ,2 2 0 ,2 2 5 ,2 3 6 , U v e , 112, 126, 129, 178, 180, 245, 246,
2 5 0 .2 5 1 ,2 5 2 247; v a lu e s of, 249
K uJ t, 103
Ma'bud, 15
L a b o u r, 183; e x p lo ita tio n of, 183 a l-M a d f n a h , 80, 102
L a b o u re r, 183 \fadraiafis, 2 1 9 ,2 2 0
L a h o re , 237 M a g a zin es, 224
L ast d a y , 94 M a g h rib , 236
U w ( s ) , 1 2 1 ,1 2 4 ,1 2 5 .1 2 6 .1 3 4 .1 4 1 ,1 5 4 , M a h d f, 229
158, 159, 160, 1 6 1 ,1 6 2 ,1 6 3 ,1 6 4 . 166, M ahr. 138, 142
168, 170, 171, 181, 1 8 2 ,2 0 1 ,2 1 5 ,2 2 3 , M a l a d j u s t m e n t , 1 7 8 ; c u l t u r a l , 178;
255, 257; basic, 165; D iv in e, 122,127, m o ra l, 178
135, 159, 166, 170, 171; f u n d a m e n ta l, M a la ’tk, 204
164; m o ra l, 214; p h ilo so p h y of, 200 M a k k a , 4 9 fn ., 61. 6 2 ,6 3 , 65, 6 6 ,6 7 , 69,
L a w (s ) o f G o d , 161, 168, 181,258 7 0 ,7 1 ,7 2 ,7 3 , 7 4 .7 5 , 76, 7 7 ,7 9 , 96,
L aw o f h u m a n c o n d u c t, 22 1 0 2 ,1 0 4 ,1 6 9 ,2 3 2
L aw fu l, 154, 156,158, 174, 1 8 3 ,2 0 1 ,2 5 2 M a la y sia , 236
L aw fu lly , 175,252 M a le, 1 7 9 ,1 8 1 ,1 8 3
L aw (s) o f Isla m , 117, 118, 127 M a lik , Muwalta, I83fn., 194fn.
L aw g iv e r, 158, 159, 191 M a n , M e n , 22, 25, 30, 5 1 ,8 5 ,8 6 , 87, % ,
L a w -m a k in g , 160 9 7 , 109, 111, 112, 118. 120, 121, 122,
L e a d e r, 147, 170 1 2 3,124, 125, 126, 129, 135, 1 3 6,139,
L e a g u e o f N a tio n s, 75 140, 141, 150, 152, 153, 155, 156, 160,
L e a rn in g , 90 162, 163, 164, 166, 169, 170, 173, 176,
L eg a l system , 119 1 7 7 ,1 8 1 ,1 8 6 , 1 8 8 ,1 9 1 ,1 9 2 .1 9 9 , 200,
L e g isla tio n , 92, 158, 159, 160, 161, 164, 2 0 1 ,2 0 2 ,2 0 3 , 204, 2 0 5 ,2 0 6 . 207, 208,
253 2 0 9 ,2 1 0 .2 1 2 .2 1 3 ,2 1 4 ,2 1 5 ,2 1 8 ,2 2 3 ,
 IN DEX 273

224, 228, 230, 232, 235, 239. 240, 243, M in d , 224

2 4 5 ,2 4 6 ,2 4 7 ,2 4 8 ,2 4 9 ,2 5 0 , 251, 252, M in o ritie s, 167; free d o m , 167; rig h ts o f,
253, 2 54, 255, 257; a c c o u n ta b ility of, 167, w e ste rn iz ed , 224
24, 38, 39; black , 169; d e h u m a n iz a ­ M iracles, 8 9 .9 7 .2 5 4
tio n of, 246; p e rfe c tio n of, 50-51; re ­ M ischief, 178, 194; m ak e rs, 178
la tio n to A llah ( G o d ),2 2 ,2 4 , 111, 114, M isd eed s, 205
152, 2 0 9 ; so cial re s p o n s ib ility of, 35. M isery, 1 7 6 ,1 8 4 ,2 4 5 ,2 5 2
38, 3 9 ,8 5 ,1 0 5 ; w h ite , 169 M tskkal, 177fn., 180fn.
M a n a n d society, 118, 122, 126 M ission o f th e P ro p h e t, 149
M a n k in d . 81. 82, 83, 86, 87, 88, 94, 95, M o d e ra tio n , 166
9 6 , 104. 119, 120, 122, 124, 126, 130, M o d e rn ism , 222, 224
135, 1 5 5 ,1 6 5 , 174, 175, 1 76,178, 179, M o d e rn ists, 2 1 9 ,2 2 0 ,2 2 2 ,2 3 0
180, 181, 188, 1 9 1 ,2 1 3 ,2 2 3 , 244, 245, M o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n , 206, 217, 223, 239,
246. 2 4 7 ,2 5 2 ,2 5 3 ,2 5 4 , 255, 257, 258 248
M a n n e rs , 200 M o d e rn science, 244, 250
a l-M a n s u r, 92 M o d e rn society, 45 ,2 4 4
M a rce l P ro u s t, 233 M o d e rn w est, 256
M a rk e t forces, 193 M o d e rn w o rld , 9 1 , 2 1 7 ,2 1 8 , 2 19, 220,
M a rk e t sy ste m , 192, 193, 194, 195 2 2 3 ,2 2 5 ,2 2 6 ,2 3 0 ,2 3 5 ,2 4 0 ,2 4 1 ,2 4 3 ;
M a r r ia g e , 132, 134, 137, 138, 139, 140, c h a ra c te ris tic s of, 217
141, 142, 200 M o n a sticism , 173fn., 206, 249
M a rria g e gift, 138 M o n k , 201
M a rx , 183 M o n o p o ly /ie s, 193
M a rx ism , 219, 226, 227, 228, 230, 234 M o n o th e ism , 67
M a rx ist, 226 M o n o th e ist(s), 73, 74
M asjid, 74, 75 M oney, 192, 193
M ass m e d ia , 224 M o o n , 175
M a s t e r , 1 51, 1 5 3 , 1 55, 156, 185; M o o r’s (ish), 91, 92
R ig h tfu l, 200 M o ra l (M o ra lity ), 54, 55, 76, 87, 89, 90,
M a te ria l v. M o ra l, 178 9 2 , 103, 105, 112, 125, 156, 158, 161,
M a te ria l v. S p iritu a l, 178, 179, 208, 249 1 6 5 ,1 6 6 ,1 7 4 ,1 7 8 ,1 7 9 , 184, 185,188,
M a te ria lism , 2 4 4 ,2 4 5 191, 194, 201, 205, 208, 213, 214. 215,
M a th e m a tic s , 241 254; p h ilo so p h y of, 200
M a w d u d f, A. A., 159fn. M o ral n o rm s, 174
M e c ca , 78, see also M a k k a M o ral p h ilo so p h y , 195
M e d ic in e , 2 3 9 ,2 4 0 M o ral v alues, 184, 185, 188, 191, 192
M e d ie v a lism , 258 M o ral re sp o n sib ility , 5 4 ,5 5 ,1 0 5
M e d ita tio n , 207, 209 M ores, 200
M e n ta l illness, 178 M orocco, 1 0 2 ,1 0 7 ,2 2 3 ,2 3 6
M e rc h a n d ise , 190 M o rta l, 178
M e rcifu l, 2 0 4 ,2 5 0 M osaic law , 134
M e rcy , 176, 2 0 0 ,2 0 3 ,2 5 0 M oses, 2 7 ,8 3 , 152, 157
M csscnger(s), 158, 165,179 M o sq u e, 74, 111, 124, 136, 1 4 2 ,2 1 0 ,2 3 2
M e ta p h y s ic a l, 199, 230, 234, 236, 241 M o u n t H ira , 64
M e ta p h y s ic s , 30, 50, 235, 239; Isla m ic , M o u n t S a n a , 186
235,241 M o u n t T h a w r, 73
M id d le A ges, 101 M o u n t U h u d , 76
M i d d l c / i n g N a t i o n / c o m m u n i tv , 102, M uftis, 169
107 M u ‘a w iy a h ,6 0
M id d le E a s te rn , 2 2 4 ,2 3 3 ,2 3 4 M uhajnin, 73, 77, 78
(T h e ) M id d le W ay , 53, 54, 166 M u h a m m a d ( p .b .u .h .) , 21, 22, 26, 29,
M ig ra tio n , 73 3 0 ,3 1 ,3 3 ,3 5 ,4 1 ,4 3 ,4 4 ,4 6 ,5 7 ,6 0 .6 1 ,
M i n i , 79 6 2 ,6 3 ,6 4 ,6 5 ,6 6 ,6 7 ,6 8 ,6 9 ,7 0 , 71,7 2 ,
274 IN D E X

73. 7 4 ,7 6 . 78. 79. 97. 101. 102. 105. a n -S a b i at-1 mmi, 102
137, 138. 139. 140. 149. 157, I7 9 fn ., SaqlT, 227
180. 181. 188. 2 0 6 ; c h a r a c t e r o f. 63. N a sir a l-D fn T u sf, 241
8 9; fa re w e ll sp eech of. 79; fin a lity o f N a tio n (s), 40, 57, 96. 141, 155, 179, 181.
P ro p h e t, 32 2 4 6 .2 4 7 .2 5 4
M u h a m m a d A sad . 207 N a tio n a l resources, 193; scarce, 193
M u lla S a d ra , 239 N a tio n a lism , 96
Munajiqun, 228 N a tu r e , 2 9 ,9 0 , 9 4 , 120, 126. 128, 150,
M u s lim , 175fn., 177fn., I7 9 fn ., 180fn., 1 5 3 .1 7 5 ,2 1 0 ,2 3 7 ,2 4 0 .2 5 2
I81fn.. I8 4 fn ., I85fn. N a tu re o f m a n , 51, 52. 126
M u slim (s), 21. 29, 33, 38, 49. 53, 54, 57. N e a r H ast, 102
6 2H., 65, 67, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80. 93, N e e d (s ), 111, 112, 113. 114. 12 6 , 127,
9 4 ,% , 97, 101, 102, 103,104, 106,107, 130, 148, 154, 186. 187, 190, 2 0 6 ,2 1 3 ,
126, 144, 147, 148, 160, 161, 164, 165, 255; physical, 206
167fn., 170, 173, 174, 175, 177, 178, N eedy. 105, 107, 141
179, 180, 1 8 2 ,1 8 6 ,1 8 7 ,1 8 8 ,1 9 1 , 199, Net»ro. 170, 258
200, 205, 206. 207, 208. 210, 2 1 2 ,2 1 3 , N egus, 69
214. 2 1 5 ,2 1 6 . 218, 2 2 4 .2 2 5 , 226. 228, N e ig h b o u r, 175,186
2 2 9 .2 3 0 ,2 3 2 . 233, 2 3 4 .2 3 5 . 236. 237. N ew T e s ta m e n t. 87
238. 239, 240, 241, 247, 253; m o d e r­ N ig eria. 236
n iz e d , 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 . 2 2 4 . 225, N ihilism , 2 3 3 ,2 3 4 ,2 3 5
228, 229, 234, 239, 240; resp o n sib ili­ N im ro d , 153
ties of, 105, 106, 107; social b o y c o tt of, S isa 'i. I79fn.
71; t r a d i t i o n a l , 2 3 5 ; t r u e , 2 4 9 ; N o a h . 104. 157
w e stern ized , 224 N o n -A rab s, 89. 169. 179
M u slim c o m m a n d e r, 251fn. N on-believers, 149, 150
M u slim c o m m u n ity , 76, 102,129, 253 N o n -Islam ic, 223
M u slim co u n trie s . 236 N o n -M u s lim (s ), 8 0 , 166, 167, 199, 202,
M u slim fa ith , 188 2 0 8 ,2 3 6 ; rig h ts of, I67fn.
M uslim h isto ria n (s), 214 N orm s, 101,160, 1 6 6 ,1 7 4 ,1 8 2 .1 9 0 ,1 9 2 ,
M u slim h isto ry , 191,211 1 9 5 .2 0 6 .2 5 5
M u slim m te lle c tu a l(s), 236, 237; in te l­ N o rth A frica, 107, 218
lec tu al e lite , 230; in te lle c tu a l h e ri­ N o rth A m e ric a, 101, 103
tag e , 236; in te llig e n ts ia , 2 4 1 N u d ity , 224
M uslim ju ris p ru d e n c e , 188. 190 N u n , 224
M u slim ju ris ts , 176, 182, 188
M u slim lan d s, 244
M u slim lan g u a g es, 238 O b e d ie n c e . 112, 149, 151, 152, 153, 159,
M u slim lite ra tu re . 233 1 8 5 ,2 0 1 ,2 0 4 .2 2 7 .2 5 2
M u slim sch o lars, 187, 224, 240 O b lig a tio n ( s ) , 105, 136, 142, 158, 164,
M u slim scientific h e rita g e . 240. scien ­ 184,185
tists, 21 1; n a m e s of, 21 1 O c cid e n ta lism , 225
M u slim society, 174, 175, 182, 183, 184. O ld T e s ta m e n t, 87
186,188, 195 O p p re ss io n , 1 63,176, 246, 248, 252
M u slim th in k e r(s), 2 2 8 ,2 4 0 O rd e r(s), 158
M u slim i'm m ah, 23, 75, 76 O rg a n iz a tio n , 2 0 0 ,2 11
M u slim w orld, 46, 232, 233, 236, 238 O rie n ta ls , 221; m o d e rn iz e d , 222;
M u slim w riters, 2 2 9 ,2 3 1 ,2 3 2 w e stern ized , 222
a l-M u t‘im ib n -'A d f, 72 O rie n ta lis ts , 225, 247; w estern , 247
Muttaqi, 95 O rig in a l sin, 5 2 ,5 3 , 173, 202, 205
M y ste ry , 251 O r p h a n , 105, 106, 107
M y th o lo g y , 34 O rth o d o x , m e a n in g of, 60fn.
O u tp u t, 1 8 2 ,1 8 3 ,1 9 3 ,1 9 4
 INDEX 275

O v e rlo rd s, 161 P o o r-d u e(s), 1 36,163, 165, 181

O v e rlo rd s h ip , 158 P o o r-ra te, 212
O x fo rd , 2 2 ,2 3 7 P o rn o g ra p h y , 234
P o sitiv ism , 2 2 5 ,2 3 5
P a g a n , 70, 72, 73, 74. 75, 76, 77, 103 P o stu la te s of Isla m , 31, 32, 148, 149
P a g a n ism , 104 P o v erty , 105,121,181
P a k ista n , 2 3 6 ,2 3 8 P ow er, 20 8 ,2 5 3
P a k ista n i, 237 P ray er(s), 2 3 ,3 5 ,3 8 ,3 9 ,4 8 ,4 9 ,5 7 ,62fn.,
P a p a c y , 154 7 2 , 8 6 , 1 0 4 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 , 114, 115, 124,
P a ra d ise , 140,224 136, 142, 151, 1 5 4 ,1 7 7 ,2 0 0 , 2 0 6 .2 0 7 ,
P a ra d o x es, 230 2 0 9 ,2 1 2 ,2 3 1
P a re n ts , 181 P re ju d ic e (s), 101, 151. 167, 1 6 9 ,2 2 5 fn .,
P a rlia m e n t, 167fn. 248, 257; ra c ia l, 257
P a ro c h ia l, 179, 253 P rice(s), 183, 191, 193, 194; P ric e level,
P a u c ity , 181 194
P eace, 21, 33, 36, 41, 75, 78, 94, 95, 122, P rice system , 193,194
151, 180, 185, 1 9 4 ,2 0 1 ,2 1 2 , 2 2 2 ,2 4 4 . Priests, 34, 109,1 5 4 ,2 0 1
2 4 5 ,2 4 6 , 252, 258 P riestly class, 160
P e rc e p tio n , 52, 8 3 , 118, 129; sc ie n tific , P rison, 202, 203
47; religious, 47, 131 P risoners, 76
P e rs e c u tio n , 6 3 , 6 6 , 6 8 , 6 9 , 70, 72, 78, P riv a te , 166
211 P riv a te o w n e rsh ip , 190, 191
P ersia, 2 3 8 ,2 5 4 P ro d u c e rs, 182
P e rsia n , 79, 103, 223, 2 2 4 ,2 3 2 ,2 3 3 ,2 3 7 , P ro d u c tio n , 183, 190, 191, 193; fa c to rs
238 of, 183
P e rso n a l, 166; c h a ra c te r, 215 P rogress, 2 4 6 .2 4 7 .2 4 8 ,2 4 9 ,2 5 1 ,2 5 4
P h a r a o h , 152,153 P ro le ta ria t, 41
P h ilo so p h e rs o f Isla m , 118 P ro p e rty , 1 9 4 ,2 4 8 ,2 5 3
P h ilo so p h y , 2 2 0 ,2 2 5 ,2 3 6 ,2 3 8 ,2 3 9 ; false P ro p h e t(s), 1 5 8 ,1 5 9 , 160. 161, 165, 167,
n a tu r a l, 240; o f n a tu re , 2 3 9 ,2 4 0 , 241; 168, 170, I7 3 fn ., 175, 177, 178, 179,
tra d itio n a l, 238; E u ro p e a n , 220; 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187,190,
social, 2.56; W e ste rn , 238 192, 201, 2 15, 2 18, 229, 2 5 2 ; m ission
P hysics, 239 of, 149
P ie ty , 2 5 , 3 4 , 112, 169, 180, 2 0 2 , 203, P ro p h e th o o d , 2 5 ,2 9 ,3 1 ,3 3 ,3 4 ,1 4 9 , 159
2 0 5 ,2 0 9 ,2 1 2 ,2 5 7 P ro sp erity , 246, 247
P ilg rim (s), 74 P sy choanaly sis, 2 3 1 ,2 3 3 ,2 3 5
P ilg rim a g e, 2 3 ,7 2 ,7 3 ,7 4 ,7 7 ,7 9 ,9 6 ,1 0 3 , P sy c h o a n a ly tic a l th o u g h t, 232
114, 1 3 6 ,2 3 1 ,2 3 2 P sychological d iso rd e r, 244
P illa rs of Isla m , 1-3,22-23, 115 P sychological lite ra tu re , 232, 233
P la n n in g , 103 Psychologists, 243
P la to , 202 P s y c h o lo g y , 2 3 1 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 5 ; W e s te r n
P o litic s , P o l i ti c a l , 118, 125, 142, 147, schools of, 231
1 5 5 ,1 5 6 ,1 6 1 ,2 2 8 , 255 P u b lic E x c h e q u e r, 252
P o litic a l p h ilo so p h y , 159 P u b lic law , I67fn.
P o litic a l p o w e r, 165,220 P u b lic officer, 257
P o litic a l rig h ts , 142 P u b lic o p in io n , 165,193
P o litic al system , 2 1 1 ,2 4 4 P u b lic w elfare, 195
P o litic a l th e o ry o f Isla m , 147, 148, 158, P u r d a h , 163
171 P u rity , 97, 110, 112, 113, 114
P o ly g a m y , 163
P o ly th e ism , 67, 74, 104, 110 Qjsas, 164
P o ly th eist, 72, 150 Q u r ’a n , 21, 23, 25, 26, 31, 3 4 ,3 7 ,4 2 ,4 3 ,
P o o r, 1 0 5 ,1 0 7 ,1 3 0 ,1 5 2 ,1 8 6 4 9 ,5 1 ,5 3 ,5 9 ,6 1 ,6 5 ,6 8 , 7 9 ,8 1 ,8 2 ,8 3 ,
276 INDEX

8 4 .8 3 .8 6 ,8 7 .8 8 .8 9 ,9 0 ,9 3 ,9 4 .9 6 .9 7 , R e su rre c tio n , 3 3 ,6 9 , 75
102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 111, 112, 113, R e ta lia tio n , 164
114, 118. 119. 126, 127, 129, 131, 135, R e v elatio n , 22, 2 7 .6 4 . 75. 79. 80, 83, 84.
136,137, 1 3 8 .1 3 9 ,1 4 2 .1 4 3 ,1 4 4 , 149. 8 6 .8 9 .1 3 5 ,2 0 2 ,2 0 9 ,2 1 9 ,2 2 2
150, 152, 157, 159. 165, 166. I6 7 fn ., R e v o lu t i o n / R e v o l u t i o n a r y , 8 2 , 149,
168. 173, 174, 175, 176. 177. 179, 180, 199; b loody, 257
181. 182, 183. 1 84fn., 186, 187, 188, R ich . 130. 181. 186. 187
190, 194, 199, 2 0 0 ,2 0 1,2 0 4 ,2 0 5 ,2 0 7 , R ig h t, 5 4 , 5 5 ,8 7 , 95, 158, I5 9 fn ., 161.
2 0 9 ,2 1 0 ,2 1 1 ,2 1 2 ,2 1 3 ,2 1 4 ,2 1 5 ,2 1 6 , 1 6 3 ,1 6 4 .1 6 5 ,1 6 6 ,1 7 0 . 186. 188. 192.
2 2 7 ,2 2 8 , 2 3 0 ,2 3 3 ,2 4 1 .2 4 8 . 253, 258; 2 0 6 .2 0 7 ,2 1 8 ,2 5 3 , 256
u n c h a n g e d p re serv a tio n of, 43 R ig h t p a th . 68
Q u ra y sh . 6 2 ,6 7 .6 8 .6 9 ,7 0 .7 5 , 7 6 .7 7 ,7 8 . R ig h ts, 1 3 1 .1 3 3 .1 3 6 .1 3 8 .1 3 9 .1 6 3 .1 6 9 ,
169 171. 173fn., 182. 189, 256, 257; fu n ­
d a m e n ta l h u m a n , 257
Habb, 150, 151, 153, 154. 155, 156 R ig h ls a n d d u tie s, 163, 171
R ace, 2 6 ,4 0 ,4 1 ,8 9 ,9 5 ,9 6 ,12 2 ,1 2 9 ,1 5 4 . R ig h t a n d w ro n g , 166
166, 168, 1 79, 181, S e e a ls o B lac k R ig h t p a t h , 122,158
( P e o p l e ) , W h it e ( P e o p l e ) , Y e llo w R ig h teo u sn ess, 2 5 ,3 4 ,3 5 ,7 0 ,8 5 ,8 9 ,1 1 0 ,
(P e o p le) 114, 129,136, 173, 179, 200, 208, 258
R a c ia l p re ju d ice s, 257 R ig h ts a n d re sp o n sib ilitie s, 125, 138
R a d io , 224 R itu a ls. 114, 151
Rahbamyya, 206 R o m a n , 7 9,132
R a tio n a lism , 34 R o m a n c iv iliz a tio n , 132
R a tio n a liz a tio n , 90 R o m a n law , 132, 133
R e a l i ty , 2 1 0 , 2 1 1 ,2 1 2 , 2 1 6 ,2 4 6 , 2 5 1 ; R u ler(s), 168, 170
u ltim a te , 251 R u m f, 229
R easo n , 250. 255 R ussia. 155, 170
R eason a n d S p irit, 2 5 5 ,2 5 6
R e d e m p tio n , 53, 202, 220 S a b ia n s, 94
R e fo rm , 160 Sacrifice(s), 200
R e fo rm a tio n , 90 S a ‘d bm A b f W aq q a s, 206
R elig io n (s), 26, 3 5 ,3 7 ,4 3 ,4 7 ,4 9 ,6 0 ,6 1 , S ad eq H e d a y a t, 233
6 7 ,6 8 . 72, 7 4 ,7 8 .8 3 .8 4 ,8 5 ,8 6 .9 3 ,9 5 , S a d r a l-D fn S h f ra z f, 239
101, 102, 103, 104, 109, 114, 115, 119. S afa, 65
124, 125, 126, 1 2 9 ,1 3 1 , 143, 148, 161. Sahabah. 60fn.
173, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 207, 208. S a in t/S a in tlin e s s , 115
209, 210, 2 1 1 , 226, 228, 2 3 7 ,2 4 3 ,2 4 4 , S a la d in , 92
245, 246, 247, 249. 250, 252, 253, 257, Salah, 110, 165
258; b asic c o n ce p t of, 201; c o m p u l­ Salal, 114, 115
sion in, 258; d isto rtio n s in, 28; e q u ili­ Salih, 157
b r iu m in , 26, 120; G o d - g iv e n , 2 4 0 ; S a lv a tio n , 48. 50, 52, 123, 156, 202, 203,
Isla m ic c o n c e p t of, 202; o f t r u th , 26, 2 0 6 ,2 0 8 , 2 0 9 ,2 1 2 , 253, 255
27 S a riy a h , 2 5 lfn .
R e lig io u s, 200, 2 01, 203, 2 1 2 ,2 1 9 , 222, S a rtre , 235
2 4 3 ,2 4 8 S assan id E m p ire (of P e rsia ), 102
R elig io u s c o n c e p t, 203 S a ta n , 5 2 ,9 5 , 106,217
R elig io u s life, 226 Sawm, 114
R elig io u s to le ra n c e , 88, 93, 94 S chism , 95
R eligious tr u th , 222 S c ie n c e (s ), 9 0 , 2 0 0 /2 1 0 , 2 11, 2 15, 220,
R e n aissan c e. 9 0 ,9 1 , 240 222, 227, 239, 240. 2 4 1,2 4 3 ,2 4 4 , 246,
R esources, 1 9 2 ,2 0 3 ,2 0 6 ,2 5 4 ; allo c atio n 2 49, 2 5 0 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 2 ; e m p i r i c a l, 2 5 1 ;
of, 192, 193; m a te ria l, 206; o p tim u m god of, 244,251
a llo c a tio n of, 194 Scientific facts, 245
 IN D EX 277

S cientific re v o lu tio n . 240 Socialist system , 179

S cien tist(s), 2 1 1 S o c ie ty , 104, 105, 107, I 12, 1 IK, 124,
S c r ip tu r e s ) , 28, 3 7 ,8 3 ,8 6 ,1 3 9 , 165 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131. 141. 144.
S e c u lar, 9 2 ,1 6 2 , 179, 195, 199,200 161, 164, 169, 170, 171, 182, 186, 188,
S e c u la riz a tio n , 161 191, 203, 226, 249. 255, 256; P e rsia n ,
S e c u la rism , 36, 37 233
S e c u rity , 247 S ociologists, 243, 244
S elf-assertion, 207 S om erset M a u g h a m , 244
S e lf-d en ial, 3 5 ,5 0 ,2 0 2 ,2 0 7 S o rb o n n e . 237
S en su al p le a su re , 249, 254 S o u l(s), 4 7 ,5 2 , 7 5 ,8 6 .8 9 . 109, 110, 121,
S e p a ra tio n , 163 123, 124, 126, 135, 136, 156, 157,202,
S e rfd o m , 253 203, 205, 209, 213, 219. 223, 224, 228,
Sex(es), 138, 163 2 3 2 .2 3 3 .2 4 6 .2 5 1 .2 5 5
S ex u al sa tisfa c tio n , 257 S o u th A frica, 257
Shahadah, 2 1 8 ,2 3 4 S o u th e rn A sia, 107
S h a f f , 188 S o v e re ig n ty , 160,161, 162, 168
Shari'ah, 2 2 ,2 4 ,3 1 , 11 I, 119, I5 9 fn ., 161, S overeign, 248, R e a l, 248
176,189, 1 9 1 ,2 0 2 ,2 5 3 S o v e re ig n ty o f G o d , 31, 149, 158. 159,
S h a w , G eorge B e rn a rd , 33 160
S h e p h e rd , 186 Soviet R u ssia , 147
Shirk, 103 S p a in , 9 1 ,9 2 ,1 0 2
Shu'ayh, 157 S p e c u la tio n , 163
Shura, 167fn. S p e n c er, 230
S ib e ria , 167 S p irit o f Islam . 4 1 ,4 5
S in , 52, 53, 103, 104, 105, 173, 2 0 4 .2 0 5 ; S p i r it/S p ir itu a l, 48, 122, 177, 178, 183,
h e re d ita ry sin , 5 2 ,5 3 190, 199, 201, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210,
S in fu l, 205 215, 218, 219, 220, 232, 234, 235, 236,
Shah, 43 2 4 4 ,2 4 9 ,2 5 3 ,2 5 4 ,2 5 8 ; w orld o f sp irit.
S la v e (s ), 6 8 , 132, 151. 162, 167, 169, 237
183fn., 208, 246, 249, 2 5 4 ,2 5 8 S p iritu a l id eal(s), 177; n e ed . 178. 179
S lave cam p s, 167 S p iritu a l a sp ira tio n s, 257
S la v ery , 8 8 ,9 3 , 155, 156. 1 5 7 ,2 4 8 ,2 5 7 S p iritu a l se c u rity , 48, 122
Social b e h a v io u r, 117, 199 S p iritu a l a n d m a te r ia l, 3 5 -36, 48, 122,
S o c ia l c h a n g e a n d I s la m . 4 2 , 4 3 . 4 6 . 123, 124, 125, 126, 175, 176, 178, 179,
p rin c ip le s of, 106 2 0 2 .2 4 4 .2 5 5
Social costs, 193, 194 S p iritu a l v alues, 176, 177, 189, 192,212
Social d iso rd e r, 164 S p iritu a list(s), 256
S ocial h e a lth , 195 S p iritu a lity , 211
S o c ial ju s tic e , 117, 118, 125, 126, 147, S p o rt, 204
165, 181, 182, 185, 1 90,191, 192, 194. S ta g n a tio n , 194
1 9 5 ,2 26fn., 2 5 6 ,2 5 7 ,2 5 8 S ta te , 159, 164, 165, 166, 186, 188, 193,
Social m a c h in e , 256 211, 212, 245, 256; a u th o r ita r ia n ,
S ocial m o v e m e n t(s), 257 166; c o m m u n i s t , 166, 167; F a s c is t,
S ocial o rd e r, 169, 179, 203, 212 166; id eo lo g ica l, l(36ff., 167; Islam ic,
S ocial re fo rm , 166, 257 39, 159, 164, 165, 166. 167, 168, 169,
S o cial re la tio n s h ip s , 257 170, 194; policy of, 166; to ta lita ria n ,
S o cial re sp o n sib ility , 101, 105, 106, 107, 166
209 S te a lin g , 183
S o c ia l s y s te m , 127, 1 58, c o m m u n is t, S tra ig h t p a th , 164
170; F ascist, 171 S tru c tu ra lis m , 2 2 5 ,228fn.
S ocial w elfare, 174, 188, 189, 194, 195 S tu d e n t(s ), 219; M u slim , 226
S o c ia lis m , 36, 174, 179, 189, 190, 219, S u b je ctiv ism , 232
2 2 2 ,2 2 3 ,2 2 6 ,2 5 6 , 257
278 IN D E X

S u b m is s io n , 2 8 , 48. 6 8 . 112, 2 0 0 , 2 02, I'ughyan, 104

251 T u n is ia , 236
Suff(s), 2 1 9 ,2 2 9 ,2 3 5 T u rk e y , 170
S ufism , 2 2 9 ,2 3 1 ,2 3 3 T u rk ish , 232
S u h ra w a rd f, 239 T y r a n n y , 156, 163, 170. 245, 2 48, 252,
S u ic id c , 178 253 ,2 5 8
Sunnah, 22, 23, 25, 26, 42, 107, 165, 166, T yrants, 2 4 8 ,2 5 0 ,2 5 3
I67fn., 183, 190,215
S u p e rstitio n , 34, 110, 143,249, 250 U lam a\ 2 1 9 ,2 2 0 ,2 2 1 ,2 2 7
S u p p ly , 184 ‘U m a r, 60fn., 7 0 , 110,115, 1 4 2 ,181.186,
S u rp lu s, 183, 187 1 8 8 ,251fn., 258
S u rre n d e r, 2 8 .4 8 ,8 5 , 152, 158, 226, 253 U m a y y a h ,6 2 fn .
S u rv iv a l, 83 U m ay y a h ibn K h a la f,6 9
S u s ta in e r, 200 V m rah, 77
S w o rd , 217, 218, 219, 2 2 2 ,2 5 2 U nconscious, 235
S y ria , 74, 79, 102 U n e m p lo y m e n t, 187, 194
U n -lsla m ic , 223
a l-T a ’if, 72, 78 U n ite d N a tio n s, 75
T a b o o s , 248 U n ity o f G o d , 33, 75, 102, 110, 149, 158
T a lh a h , 65, 70 U n iv e rsal, 22 7 ,2 5 3
Taqlid, 236 U niverse, 8 5 ,9 0 , 117, 118, 121, 122, 123,
TawaJ, 49 124, 125, 126, 153, 200, 209, 210, 230,
fa w k'td , 29. 31, 33, 34, 49, 50, 52, 65, 240,251
66. 75, 102, 119, 151 U n iv e rs ity (ie s ), 9 1 .2 2 0 ,2 2 6 , 2 3 0 ,2 3 3 ,
T e c h n o lo g y , 250 2 3 6 , 2 3 8 ; in I s l a m i c w o r ld , 2 2 0 ;
T e h r a n , 237 M o d e rn , 220, 221; W este rn , 2 2 0 ,2 3 7 ;
T e le p a th y , 251 W estern o rie n te d , 221
T elev isio n , 224 U n k n o w n , 251
T h a m u d , 106 U n la w fu l, 1 5 4 ,1 5 8 ,1 6 3 , 182,187, 248
T h e d a y o f J u d g e m e n t , se e D a y o f U n so cia l, 246
Judgem ent U rd u , 232
T h e f t , 164, 181 U s u r y ,74, 260
T h e o -d e m o c ra c y , 160 ‘U tb a h ib n R a b f‘a h ,6 7
T h c o c ra c y , 160, 161, 211; Islam ic, 160 ‘U th m a n , 60 fn ., 65, 70, 183
T h e o lo g ia n s , 2 0 2 , 2 1 0 ; n o n - M u s lim , ‘U th m a n b in M a z 'u n , I7 3 fn ., 206
202
T h e o lo g y , 2 0 0 ,2 2 2 ,2 4 1 V a lu e (s ), 103, 107, 125, 127, 128, 129,
T h o u g h t, 2 0 0 ,2 3 6 ,2 3 7 ,2 5 3 ,2 5 7 ; norm s 156, 160, 173, 174, 179, 183, 185, 187,
of, 237 2 0 7 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 3 , 2 3 5 , 2 4 0 ; e c o n o m ic ,
T ir m id h f, I7 5 fn ., 177fn„ 201 fn. 129; real, 129; v a lu e system , 105,223;
T o le ra n c e , 4 1 ,9 1 ,9 3 ,9 4 w estern , 101
T o ra h , 28 V ic e g e re n t o f G o d , 25, 31, 83, 168, 173,
T o y n b e e , 41 186,192
T ra d itio n , 107, 118, 227, 244; in te lle c ­ V iceg eren cy , 160, 168, 170
tu a l, 225, 237; w o rld of. 223 V irtu e , 1 6 5 ,1 7 3 ,1 7 4 ,1 7 7 ,2 0 2 ,2 0 5 .2 1 2 ,
T r a d itio n a l in te lle c tu a l elite , 238 2 1 8 ,2 4 8 ,2 4 9 ,2 5 3 ,2 5 7
T ra n sg re ssio n , 255 V ision, 90
T rib e (s), 122, 179,247
T rin ity , 53, 102, 204 W ag e(s), 182, 183; id e a l, 183, 184; ju s t,
T r u th , 26, 43, 68, 78, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87, 183,184; m in im u m , 183,184
94, 107, 114, 150, 202, 2 1 0 ,2 1 7 ,2 1 8 , Wahi, 89
222, 223, 227, 232, 236, 238, 241, 246, W a n ts, 192, 193
2 4 9 ,2 5 2 ,2 5 4 W ar(s), 1 9 4 ,2 4 6 ,2 5 3 , 258
 IN D EX
W a rn e r, 94
W ay o f life, 37
W a y fa re r, 107, 164, 177fn
W e a lt h , 129, 152, 176, 177, 181, 185,
186, 187, 188, 191. 192, 194, 195,208,
248; a c c u m u la tio n s of, 187. re d is tri­
b u tio n of, 186, 188, 191
W e a p o n , 246
W e lfa re , 122, 127, 128, 176, 178, 182.
211
W elfare ta x , 104, 105, 187
W ell-b e in g , 174, 176, 178,189
W est a n d W e s te rn S o c ie ty , 41. 6 0 , 61,
82, 102, 107, 131, 147, 1 6 4 .2 0 7 ,2 1 1 .
217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 2 2 2 ,2 2 3 , 224.
225, 226, 230, 233, 234. 235, 239, 240,
241, 244, 254, 256; a r t. 233; d e m o ­
c ra c y , 159, 160; lite ra tu re , 232; m a n ,
2 40; s c h o la r, 239; so u rc e s, 236;
th o u g h t, 235, 236; v a lu e system , 223;
w o rld , 101, 1 0 7 ,2 1 7 ,2 2 5
W estern ers, 223, 234, 2 4 3 ,2 5 0
W e s te rn c iv i l iz a t i o n , 4 6 , 5 3 , 6 1 , 152,
164, 221fn., 222, 2 2 3 ,2 2 4
W este rn ism , 219
W h ite ( p e o p le ) , 179, 181, 257; see a lso
R ace
W ickedness, 258
W in e , 162,164
W isd o m , 159, 176, 203, 204, 241; tr a d i­
tio n a l, 227
W im ess(es), 181
W o m a n / w o m e n , 8 9 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 9 6 , 109,
1 3 1 ,1 3 2 , 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139,
140, 141, 1 4 2 ,1 4 3 , 144, 1 5 5 ,1 6 3 ,2 1 2 ,
2 2 5 ,2 3 2 ,2 5 2 ; legal sta tu s of, 132,134,
135, 144; lib e ra tio n of, 89, 93, 133; as
m o th e r , 140; a s p r o p e r t y , 132, 133,
134; r i g h t( s ) o f, 139, 140, 141, 142,
143, 144; s t a t u s o f in Is la m , 8 9 , 9 3 ,
279
131, 134, 135, 143, s ta tu s o f m o th e r
c iv ilizatio n s, 132, 133, 134, 135; s u b ­
je c tio n of, 132, 133, 134; as wife, 137
W ord o fG o d , 2 6 ,2 4 9
W o rk , 255
W o rld , 176, 178, 200, 201, 202, 2 0 3 ,2 0 4 ,
2 0 5 ,2 0 6 , 207, 208, 209, 210, 2 1 2 ,2 1 4 ,
215, 222, 223, 2 2 4 ,2 3 0 ,2 3 2 ,2 3 9 .2 4 4 ,
245, 246, 247, 248. 249, 250, 252, 253,
254, 255, 2 5 7 ,2 5 8 , a im s a n d purposes
of, 204; in fra -h u m a n , 240
W orld h istory, 214
W orld w ar(s), 2 2 3 ,2 2 4 ,2 3 5 ,2 5 3
W o rs h ip , 22, 30, 38, 44. 49, 50, 5 4 , 57,
62ff„ 63, 64, 66, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77,
97, 102, 103, 105, 107, 109, 110, 1 11,
112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 123, 125, 140,
149, 1 5 1 ,1 5 5 , 157, 165, 200, 2 0 1 ,2 0 7 ,
210, 2 4 7 ,2 5 0 ,2 5 5 ,2 5 7 ; a ll-e m b ra c in g
view of, 111-113, 114; m a n , 154. 155;
n a tu re w o rsh ip , 155; o b lig a to ry , 114;
science, 252
W ro n g , 5 4 ,5 5 ,8 7 ,9 7 ,1 3 6 , 141, 165, 166,
176, 177,248
W ro n g d o ers, 200, 201 ,2 1 5
Y a th rib , 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80.
102; c o v e n a n t of, 75
Y a zfd ibn A b f S u fy a n , 194
Y ellow (P e o p le), 257; See also R ace
Y o u th , 101
Y ugoslavia, 155
Z akah, Zakat, 23, 38, 39, 114, 163, 165,
1 8 6 ,1 8 7 ,1 9 0
Z a y d ,72
Z a in z a m , 77
Z e n ,237