Laboratory Experiment No.

3
Bipolar Junction Transistor

GROUP 2

Beredo, Leonard Jr.

Bragais, Realie Kyla A.
Briones, Eunice V.
Cabral, Pamela
Castillo, Herschel Lei H.

Contributions:

Tasks: Members:

Introduction 1. Cabral
2. Castillo

Materials (with pictures and description) 1. Beredo

Procedures
A. Voltage Gain 1. Castillo
B. Input Impedance 2. Bragais
C. Output Impedance 3. Cabral
D. Effects of Load and Source Resistance 4.1. Briones
4.2. Castillo
E. Compound Configurations 5. Beredo

Analysis/Results All members

Conclusion 1. Bragais
2. Briones
I. Introduction
The foundation of computer memories, microprocessors, and other integrated circuits is
the semiconductor device that amplifies or switches electrical signals and power called the
transistor. It is usually composed of at least three terminals for connection to an electronic
circuit. The type of transistor that has three terminals namely emitter, base, and collector is
known as the bipolar junction transistor (BJT). This is built from two PN diodes connected
back to back. Two types of BJT exist: NPN (negative-positive-negative) and PNP
(positive-negative-positive) type.

With the types mentioned, BJT layers denote the three-layer “sandwich” of doped
semiconductor materials either PNP or NPN. The collector collects the electrons that have
been amplified as they pass from the emitter to the base. The emitter emits electrons. The base
is the middle section of the transistor that provides control between the charge carriers of the
emitter and the collector.

According to Granath (2020), the push and pull effect from the function of p-type
layers (attract electrons to enter the transistor) and n-type layers (push the electrons to flow out
the transistor) allows the electrical current to be amplified and controlled. He also stated that in
the configuration of the layers in the NPN type, when a small positive current does to the
p-type layer (the base) amplification occurs. Thus, the emitter is negatively charged while the
collector is positively charged. In this case, electrons move from emitter to collector creating a
higher current flow between the two n-types.

As Cadence PCB Solutions (2020) have noted, the BJT can be used as a small-signal
model. BJTs are two effective diodes connected in reverse that when supplied by small signals
should be converted into a small signal model. Hence became small amplifiers using a
common emitter configuration called voltage amplifiers. The input resistance, output
resistance, and gain are the three fundamental properties of a voltage amplifier.
II. Objectives:
1. To measure and differentiate the no load and loaded gain of a transistor circuit.
2. To measure the value of the input and output impedance of a transistor.
3. To interpret the effects of source and load resistances.

III. Materials and Equipments:

Adjustable DC Power Supply
Function Generator
Resistors
Transistor
Connecting Wires
Multimeter
Simulation Software (Multisim or online software)
2N3904 NPN Transistor (for procedure a-d)
IV. Procedures
a. Voltage Gain
1. Construct the circuit shown:

Figure 1

Figure A.1. Fixed Bias Circuit

Figure A.1. shows the constructed fixed bias circuit composed of two coupling
capacitors, Rb of 330 kΩ, Rc of 2.7 kΩ, Vcc of 8 V and ground.
2. Connect a 10μF ceramic capacitor as a coupler capacitance.

Figure A.2.Connecting 10uF as coupling capacitor to the Fixed Bias Circuit

Figure A.2. displays the two coupling capacitors of the fixed bias circuit with the value
of 10 uF each.
3. Apply 5mV with frequency of 1 KHz sinusoidal input to the amplifier using function
generator.

Figure A.3. Connecting The Function Generator setting the input voltage of 5 mV
and 1 kHz frequency
 The function generator was connected to the fixed bias circuit to supply and ac
sinusoidal voltage with an input of 5 mV and 1 kHz frequency as shown in Figure A.3.

4. Measure the input and output voltage of the amplifier circuit using oscilloscope.

Figure A.4. Connecting the Oscilloscope to the Fixed Bias Circuit

Figure A.4 demonstrates the oscilloscope used to display the voltage input and output
signal waveforms of the fixed bias circuit.
5. Using the equation below, solve the voltage gain.
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 /𝑉𝑖𝑛

where:
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

MEASURED VALUES: Vin = 9.952 mV

Vout = 2.085 V

SOLUTION: Av = Vout / Vin

Av = 2.085 V / 9.952 mV

6. Repeat the process using the parameters in the figure:

Figure 2
 Figure A.6.1. Voltage Divider Circuit

Figure A.6.1. presents the assembled voltage divider circuit from figure 2.

Figure A.6.2. Connecting the Function Generator setting the input voltage to 5 mv and
1kHz frequency
 The function generator was used to supply the voltage divider circuit with 5 mV
sinusoidal voltage and 1 kHz frequency as characterized by Figure A.6.2.

Figure A.6.3. Connecting the Oscilloscope to the Voltage Divider Circuit

The oscilloscope is wired to the input and output voltage of the circuit to gauge the
signal and portray them in waveforms as shown by Figure A.6.3.

MEASURED VALUES: Vin = 9.956 mV

Vout = 890.287 mV

SOLUTION: Av = Vout / Vin

Av = 890.287 mV / 9.956 mV
b. Input Impedance

Fixed Bias Circuit

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.

Figure B.1.1. Construction of the circuit given in Figure 1.

Figure B.1.1. shows the constructed circuit shown in figure 1 which is a forward bias
circuit. The circuit has VCC which is equal to 8 V, a 2N3904 NPN transistor, two resistors and
two capacitors.

2. Connect a 10μF ceramic capacitor as a coupler capacitance.

Figure B.1.2. Adding Coupler Capacitance in the Circuit

 After constructing the circuit given, each capacitor is given a value of 10 microfarads
as a coupler capacitance.

3. Apply 5mV with frequency of 1 KHz sinusoidal input to the amplifier using function
generator in series with 100Ω sense resistor (𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒).

Figure B.1.3. Applying the Function Generator and Sense Resistor

Figure B.1.3. shows the application of conditions, a function generator is connected in

series with an additional resistor that has a value of 100 ohms. This resistor added will serve as
the sense resistor. After that, the values in the instructions are inputted in the function
generator. The frequency is set at 1 kHz, the amplitude is set at 10 mVp and the offset is set at
5mV.
4. Measure the source and input voltage of the transistor amplifier.

Figure B.1.4. Measuring the Value of the Voltage Source and Input Voltage

Two multimeters are used to measure the value of the voltage source and input voltage.
The first multimeter is connected near the function generator and the second one is connected
near the Vcc. The value obtained for the voltage source is 8 V and the input voltage is 5mV.

5. Compute the input current using the equation:

𝐼𝑖 = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒

where:
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

SOLUTION:

𝐼𝑖 = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒

𝐼𝑖 = 8𝑉 − 5𝑚𝑉 (100 Ω)
 𝐼𝑖 = 8 − 0. 5

Ii = 7.5 A

6. Compute the input impedance using the equation

𝑍𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖/𝐼𝑖

SOLUTION:

𝑉𝑖
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑖

5 𝑚𝑉
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 7.5 𝐴

Zin = 0.6667 ohms

7. Repeat the process using the parameters in Figure 2.

Voltage-Divider Circuit

1. Construct the circuit shown in figure 2.

 Figure B.2.1. Construction of the circuit given in Figure 2.

Figure B.2..1. shows the constructed circuit shown in figure 2 which is a

voltage-divider circuit. The circuit has VCC which is equal to 18 V, a 2N3904 NPN transistor,
four resistors and three capacitors with their parameters.

2. Apply 5mV with frequency of 1 kHz sinusoidal input into the amplifier using the function
generator in series with 100 ohms sense resistor (Rsense).

Figure B.2.2. .Connecting The Function Generator and Sense Resistor

A function generator is connected in series with an additional resistor that has a value
of 100 ohms. This resistor added will serve as the sense resistor. After that, the values in the
instructions are inputted in the function generator. The frequency is set at 1 kHz, the amplitude
is set at 10 mVp and the offset is set at 5mV.
3. Measure the source and input voltage of the transistor amplifier.

Figure B.2.3.. Measuring the Value of the Voltage Source and Input Voltage.

Using two multimeters, the value for the voltage source and the input voltage is measured.
The voltage source of the circuit has a value of 18 V and the input voltage has a value of 5mV.

4. Compute the input current using the equation:

𝐼𝑖 = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒

where:
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

SOLUTION:

𝐼𝑖 = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒

𝐼𝑖 = 18𝑉 − 5𝑚𝑉 (100 Ω)

 𝐼𝑖 = 18 − 0. 5

Ii = 17.5 A

5. Compute the input impedance using the equation

𝑍𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖/𝐼𝑖

SOLUTION:

𝑉𝑖
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑖

5 𝑚𝑉
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 17.5 𝐴

Zin = 0.2857 mΩ

c. Output Impedance

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.

2. Connect a 10μF ceramic capacitor as a coupler capacitance.

3. Short out the input of the amplifier.

4. Apply 5mV with frequency of 1 KHz sinusoidal input to the amplifier using function
generator in series with 100Ω sense resistor (𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒).

5. Measure the source and output voltage of the transistor amplifier.

6. Compute the output current using the equation
𝐼𝑜 = (𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 − 𝑉𝑜)/ 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒

7. Compute the output impedance

8.Repeat t the process using the parameters in Figure 2

d. Effects of Load and Source Resistance

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.

Figure D.1. Redrawn Circuit Diagram (Fixed Bias Configuration)

Figure D.1 displays the redrawn circuit diagram of a fixed bias configuration. The
circuit is composed of different components such as the power source, resistors, capacitors,
2N3904 NPN Transistor and a ground.

2. Connect a 10μF ceramic capacitor as a coupler capacitance.

 Figure D.2. Applying 10μF as a Coupler Capacitance

Figure D.2 shows the circuit diagram with an applied 10μF ceramic capacitor as a
coupler capacitance on each capacitor.

3. Connect a 1 kΩ load resistor.

Figure D.3. 1 kΩ Load Resistor

Figure D.3 displays the circuit diagram connecting a 1 kΩ load resistor with a ground.

4. Apply 5mV with frequency of 1 KHz sinusoidal input to the amplifier using function
generator.

Figure D.4. A 5mV with 1kHz frequency applied to function generator

With the use of the function generator, a 5mV with frequency of 1 KHz
sinusoidal input was applied to the amplifier.

5. Measure the gain.

• Voltage Gain at 1 kΩ load resistor

Figure D.5. Measuring Voltage Gain at 1 kΩ Load Resistor

Figure D.5 presents the circuit diagram measuring the voltage gain at the 1 kΩ load
resistor with the use of an oscilloscope and function generator. On the function generator, a
5mV with frequency of 1 KHz sinusoidal input was applied.

6. Repeat the process for 2.2 kΩ, 3.3 kΩ, 5 kΩ and 4.7 kΩ load resistances.

· Voltage Gain at 2.2 kΩ load resistor

7. Remove the Load Resistor.

8. Connect a 100 Ω series resistance to the function generator.

9. Measure the gain with respect to the input of the amplifier and with respect to the source
voltage.

10. Record your measurements.

11. Repeat steps 7-10 using of 220 Ω, 330 Ω, and 470 Ω.

12. Combine the different source and load resistances in your measurements.
 Figure D.12.1. Fixed Bias Circuit with Rsense of 100 Ω and Rload of 1 kΩ

Figure D.12.1. projects the fixed bias circuit connected to function generator and
oscilloscope, with Rsense (Rb) of 100 Ω and Rload (RL) of 1 kΩ.

Figure D.12.2. Fixed Bias Circuit with Rsense of 220 Ω and Rload of 2.2 kΩ

Figure D.12.2. displayss the fixed bias circuit connected to function generator and
oscilloscope, with Rsense (Rb) of 220 Ω and Rload (RL) of 2.2 kΩ.
 Figure D.12.3. Fixed Bias Circuit with Rsense of 330 Ω and Rload of 3.3 kΩ

Figure D.12.3. illustrates the fixed bias circuit connected to function generator and
oscilloscope, with Rsense (Rb) of 330 Ω and Rload (RL) of 3.3 kΩ.

Figure D.12.4. Fixed Bias Circuit with Rsense of 470 Ω and Rload of 4.7 kΩ

Figure D.12.1. projects the fixed bias circuit connected to function generator and
oscilloscope, with Rsense (Rb) of 100 Ω and Rload (RL) of 1 kΩ.
13. Record your Measurement.

e. Compound Configurations
1. Construct the circuit. Use your own choice of NPN Transistor (make sure to indicate here in
your laboratory report the specs and why you use that transistor) with the corresponding Beta.

2. Measure the ac voltage across a 10-kilo ohm load connected at the output of the circuit.
3. Manually compute the output and compare with the Multisim Result

4. Construct the circuit. Use your own choice of Transistor (make sure to indicate here in your
laboratory report the specs and why you use that transistor) with the corresponding Beta.

5.Measure the dc levels of VB1, VC1, VE2, VCB1, and VCE2.

6. Measure the currents IB1, IB2, and IE2.
7. Manually compute the DC levels measured in Procedure 5 and 6. And compute Av

V. Results
A. Voltage Gain
 Figure 1. Vin and Vout from the Oscilloscope connected to the Fixed Bias Circuit

Figure 1 graphically illustrates the waveforms of Vin and Vout signals configured by
the oscilloscope in fixed bias circuit. Channel A measured and represented the input voltage
signal while the channel B depicts the output voltage signal of the circuit.

Figure 2. Vin and Vout from the Oscilloscope connected to the Voltage Divider
Circuit

Figure 2 exhibits the plot of Vin and Vout signals measured by the oscilloscope in fixed
biasvoltage divider circuit. Channel A represented the input voltage signal while the channel B
interpreted the output voltage signal of the circuit.

CONFIGURATION VIN VOUT AV

Fixed Bias 9.952 mV 2.085 V 209.506

Voltage-divider 9.956 mV 890.287 V 89.422

Table 1: Voltage Gain from the Fixed Bias and Voltage-divider circuit including
their input and output voltage

Table 1 highlights the values of voltages recorded from the oscilloscope and the
obtained voltage gain for the fixed bias circuit. In fixed bias circuit wherein the single
power source is applied to the collector and baseof the transistor using only two
resistors, input and output voltages are determined to get the voltage gain. The voltage
gain is the ratio of output voltage to the input voltage. The reported value of Vin is
9.952 mV and the Vout is 2.085 V. Through manual computation, the voltage gain is
209.506.

The voltage-divider circuit are formed by the separation of voltages through R1

as Rb and R2 as Rc. The values from the simulation are Vin is 9.956 mV and Vout is
890.287. Acquiring the voltage gain resulted to 89.422.
 B. Input Impedance

CONFIGURATION VSOURCE VIN Ii ZIN

Fixed Bias 8V 5 mV 7.5 A 0.6667 mΩ

Voltage-divider 18 V 5 mV 17. 5 A 0.2857 mΩ

Table 2: Input Impedance from the Fixed Bias and Voltage-Divider Circuit including
their Input Voltage, Voltage Source and Input Current

Both of the circuits given are constructed in the Multisim. The goal is to measure the
input and source voltage and to compute the current and input impedance of the circuits. The
first circuit to be measured is a fixed biased circuit. By connecting a multimeter, the value
measured for the input voltage is 5 mV and for the voltage source is 8 V. Upon solving the
value for the input current using the formula given. The computed value is 7.5 A. While the
obtained value after computing the value of input impedance using the formula is 0.6667
mOhms.

The second circuit to be measured is a voltage-divider circuit. The value of the input
voltage measured is equal to 5mV. While the voltage source measured is equal to 18 V. The
computed values for the input current and input impedance are also shown above. The input
current is equal to 17.5 A and the input impedance is equal to 0.2857 mOhms. Both of the
circuit have small value of input voltage and input impedance

C. Output Impedance
 D. Effects of Load and Source Resistance

· Voltage Gain at 1 kΩ load resistor

Figure --. Vin @ 1kΩ Load Resistor Figure --. Vout @ 1kΩ Load Resistor

As shown in Figure -- and Figure --, the oscilloscope presented the sinusoidal waves at
1 kΩ load resistor. The voltage reading at V in is 9.906 mV while the V out is 668.940 mV.

Solution:

Av = Vo / Vi
Av = 668.940 mV / 9.906 mV
Av = 67.52877044
Av = 67.529
· Voltage Gain at 2.2 kΩ load resistor

Figure --. Vin @ 2.2kΩ Load Resistor Figure --. Vout @ 2.2kΩ Load Resistor

As seen in Figure -- and Figure --, the oscilloscope presented the sinusoidal waves at
2.2 kΩ load resistor. In Vin, the voltage reading is 9.916 mV while the V out is 1.030 V.

Solution:

Av = Vo / Vi
Av = 1.030V / 9.916 mV
Av = 103.8725292
Av = 103.873

Rsense Rload VSENSE VOUT AVSO

 100 Ω 1kΩ 9.953 mV 553.559 mV 55.617

220 Ω 2.2 kΩ 9.974 mV 711.881 mV 71.374

330 Ω 3.3 kΩ 9.930 mV 667.124 mV 67.183

470 Ω 4.7 kΩ 9.952 mV 654.321 mV 65.748

Table –: Configuration on the Voltage Gain of the Fixed Bias Circuit with Rsense and
Rload

Table presents the obtained Vsense, Vout and voltage gain from the given combination
of Rsense and Rload when used in a fixed bias circuit in Figure 1. The combination of Rsense
of 100 Ω and 1 kΩ resulted to the Vsense of 9.953 mV and Vout of 554.559 mV. The voltage
gain acquired is 55.617. Same procedure were done to the following combination of resistors.
When the Rsense is 220 Ω and Rload is 2.2 kΩ, the Vsense is 9.974 mV and Vout is 711.881
arriving at the voltage gain of 71.374. On the case wherein the Rsense is 330 Ω and the Rload
is 3.3 kΩ, the V sense became 9.930 mV and the Vout decreased to 667.124 mV. The voltage
gain from this combination is 67.183. Furthermore, when Rsense is 470 Ω and Rload is 4.7
kΩ, the voltage gain is attained to be 65.748 from the ratio of 654.321 mV to 9.952 mV.

Figure –Vsense and Vout from the Oscilloscope connected to the Figure D.12.1 Circuit

Figure – shows the graphical representation of the Oscilloscope for the circuit on
Figure D.12.1. This determines the Vsense and Vout of the circuit. The channel A is wired to
the input voltage which is the Vsense. Thus, looking at the row of T2-T1, Vsense having the
value of 9.953 mV. The channel B is connected to the out put voltage, Vout. From the figure,
T2-T1 on channel B is 553.559 mV. Therefore the Vout is 553.559 mV.
Solving for the voltage gain:

For combination of Rsense = 100 Ω and Rload = 1 kΩ

MEASURED VALUES: Vsense = 9.953 mV

Vout = 553.559 mV

SOLUTION: Avso = Vout / Vsense

Av = 553.559 mV / 9.953 mV

Figure –Vsense and Vout from the Oscilloscope connected to the Figure D.12.2 Circuit

Figure – shows the graphical representation of the Oscilloscope for the circuit on
Figure D.12.2. This identifies the Vsense and Vout of the circuit. The channel A and hannel B
is connected similar to the procedure on the previous combination of resistors. The T2-T1 on
channel A is 9.974 mV and the T2-T1 on channel B is 711.881 mV.

Solving for the voltage gain:

 For combination of Rsense = 220 Ω and Rload = 2.2 kΩ

MEASURED VALUES: Vsense = 9.974 mV

Vout = 711.881 mV

SOLUTION: Avso = Vout / Vsense

Av = 711.881 mV / 9.974 mV

Figure –Vsense and Vout from the Oscilloscope connected to the Figure D.12.3 Circuit

Figure – displays the graphical representation of the Oscilloscope for the circuit on
Figure D.12.3. This recognize and analyze the Vsense and Vout of the circuit. The channel A is
connected to the input voltage which is the Vsense. Thus, looking at the row of T2-T1, Vsense
having the value of 9.930 mV. As counterpart, the channel B is connected to the out put
voltage, Vout. From the figure, T2-T1 on channel B is 667.124 mV which is the Vout.

Solving for the voltage gain:

 For combination of Rsense = 330 Ω and Rload = 3.3 kΩ

MEASURED VALUES: Vsense = 9.930 mV

Vout = 667.124 mV

SOLUTION: Avso = Vout / Vsense

Av = 667.124 mV / 9.930 mV

Figure – Vsense and Vout from the Oscilloscope connected to the Figure D.12.4 Circuit

Figure – portrays the graphical representation of the Oscilloscope for the circuit on
Figure D.12.4. The Vsense and Vout of the circuit was analyzed and labeled. The channel A is
is the Vsense with the value of 9.953 mV on the T2-T1.Hence, the Vsense is 9.953 mV. Thus,
looking at the row of T2-T1 of channel B, Vout having the value of 654.321 mV.

Solving for the voltage gain:

 For combination of Rsense = 470 Ω and Rload = 4.7 kΩ

MEASURED VALUES: Vsense = 9.952 mV

Vout = 654.321 mV

SOLUTION: Avso = Vout / Vsense

Av = 654.321 mV / 9.952 mV
 E. Compound Configurations

VI. Conclusion

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a transistor which uses electrons and holes to
carry charges. It can be an NPN transistor and a PNP transistor. A BJT can be also used
in many circuit configurations like in amplifiers, oscillators, rectifiers and many more.

This laboratory activity is all about Bipolar Junction Transistors. The objective is to
measure the no load loaded gain, the input impedance, the output impedance and the
effect of source and load resistance. Upon simulating the circuits, the following are the
concluded results which satisfies the given objective

By doing the simulation, it shows that the voltage gain of a transistor circuit with a load
and a source is different from a transistor circuit without a load. Based on the obtained
data for the voltage gain it shows that as the output voltage rises the gain will be smaller.
It implies that the voltage gain is inversely proportional to the output voltage.

In terms of the input impedance, it was observed that the higher the calculated input
current results to a lower value of input impedance

(C)

(D)
(E)

To conclude, the results obtained satisfy the given objective for this laboratory activity.
And shows the concept of bipolar junction transistors in a circuit.

References

Cadence PCB Solutions. (2020, October 29). Advanced Small Signal Model BJT Analysis with

PSpice. PCB Design & Analysis. Retrieved April 29, 2022, from

https://resources.pcb.cadence.com/blog/2020-advanced-small-signal-model-bjt-analysis

-with-pspice

Granath, E. (2020, April 7). BASIC KNOWLEDGE - BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR An

introduction to the bipolar junction transistor (BJT). Power & Beyond. Retrieved April

28, 2022, from

https://www.power-and-beyond.com/an-introduction-to-the-bipolar-junction-transistor-

bjt-a-909454/