ATLGT Handouts

Advanced Training for LIQUEFIED Gas Tanker Cargo Operations 1
ADVANCED TRAINING IN LIQUIFIED GAS TANKERS

Handout
The carriage of liquefied gases
The carriage of liquefied gas in bulk began in the late 1920’s and the earliest ships
carried butane and propane in pressure vessels at ambient temperature. The
subsequent development of refrigeration techniques and more particularly, materials
suitable for containment at low temperatures permitted the carriage of cargoes at
temperatures below ambient.
In the late 1950’s these gases began to be carried commercially in a particularly in a

partially refrigerated state in ships equipped with pressure vessels made with material
tolerant of low temperatures.
By mid 1960’s fully refrigerated LPG ships were in service carrying cargo at
atmospheric pressure; Ethylene and LNG ships had also entered service. In the
meantime ammonia had become a common cargo, and “Chemical Gases” such as
butadiene also became commercially important.
The renewed interest in gas, which started in the 1990s due to its excellent
environmental credentials, has seen an increase in the order book for LNG carriers –
LNG carriers being the leviathans of the gas carrier fleet. Yet, while attracting great
interest, the gas trade still employs relatively few ships in comparison to oil tankers, and
hence its inner workings are little known except to a specialist group of companies and
mariners.
Gas is carried in liquefied state. As a liquid, the weight volume ratio at atmospheric
pressure is in the range of 650 times than in the gaseous state. Even so, the relative
densities are low and vary between 0.42 (methane) and 0.97 (VCM).
Most of the commercially important gases have a density about half that of water. The
cargo carrying capability is therefore more related to volume capacity than deadweight
capacity, and the cargo capacity is usually quoted in cubic meters cargo tank volume.
FIVE GROUPS OF LIQUEFIED GAS CARGOES

1. LNG – (Liquefied Natural Gas) is a natural gas from which most of it impurities is
removed such as sulfur impurities / CO2 and methane
2. LPG – (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is a produce from the refinery or maybe
produced in conjunction with crude oil or natural gas mainly propane and butane.
3. LEG – (Liquefied Ethylene Gas) is produced by Cracking of LPG. Ethylene,
Propylene and Butylene are example of this cargo.
4. NLG – (Natural Gas Liquid) is a natural gas from a well in smaller quantities of
heavier hydrocarbons. Example are Ethane and Pentane.
5. CHEMICAL GAS – are group of liquefied gas produced through chemical gases,
example of these are chlorine, vinyl chloride monomer (VMC), ammonia, etc.
characterized by presence in the molecular structure of atoms other than carbon
and hydrogen. Most of chemical gasses are chemically reactive.
Flammability data for some liquefied gases
Gas tankers ship type according to cargo hazard

States of aggregation
Illustration of the pressure law for ideal gases

Illustration of Charle’s law for ideal gases
Illustration of Boyle’s law of ideal gases

A schematic Mollier diagram
Properties of liquefied gases

Type of gas Tanker
1. Fully pressurized ship
 Type C tank (17,5 kg/cm2 pressure)

 High pressure requires thicker tank wall
 Increased weight
 Tank shape limits optimum use of ship volume
 Small ship carrying LPG and ammonia
2. Semi pressurized ship
 Type C tank (5-8 kg/cm2 pressure)

 Requires refrigeration plant and insulation
 Temperature -48 deg C
 Reduce tank thickness
 Optimum for LPG, vinyl chloride, polypropylene and butadiene
3. Fully refrigerated ship
 Mostly type A tank (0,28 kg/cm2 pressure)

 Good space utilization
 Design to transport large quantities of LPG and ammonia
 Working temperature minimum -50 deg C
4. Ethylene ship
 Predominantly type C tanks

 Ethylene carried at -104 deg C
 Thermal insulation and re-liquefaction plant installed
 Tank shape limits optimum use of ship volume
 Small ship carrying LPG and ammonia
5. LNG ship
 Membrane system of type B tanks

 Fully insulated
 LNG carried at -162 deg C
 Not economic to liquefied methane on board, hence boil off vapors are used as
fuel for ship
Considering the fleet of gas carriers of over 1,000 m3 capacity, the total of nearly
1,000 ships can be divided into 5 major types according to the following table:
By contrast, the world oil tanker fleet for a similar size range is over 16,000 ships! Given
the relative paucity of knowledge on gas tankers in comparison to oil tankers, the
purpose of this article is to describe the gas carrier genre, its particularities within each
type and its comparison with other tankers. The aim is to provide basic knowledge
about gas carriers and an overview of their strengths and weaknesses, both from
design and operational viewpoints.
The introduction of a tanker designed to carry compressed natural gas (CNG) is

anticipated in the near future. A number of designs have been produced but, due to the
relatively low deadweight and high cost of these ships, the first commercial application
of this technology cannot be predicted.
The gas carrier is often portrayed in the media as a potential floating bomb, but accident
statistics do not bear this out. Indeed, the sealed nature of liquefied gas cargoes, in
tanks completely segregated from oxygen or air, virtually excludes any possibility of a
tank explosion. However, the image of the unsafe ship lingers, with some
administrations and port state control organisations tending to target such ships for
special inspection whenever they enter harbour. The truth is that serious accidents
related to gas carrier cargoes have been few, and the gas carrier’s safety record is
acknowledged as an industry leader. As an illustration of the robustness of gas carriers,
when the Gaz Fountain was hit by rockets in the first Gulf War, despite penetration of
the containment system with huge jet fires, the fires were successfully extinguished
and the ship, together with most cargo, salved.
The relative safety of the gas carrier is due to a number of features. One such, almost
unique to the class, is that cargo tanks are always kept under positive pressure
(sometimes just a small overpressure) and this prevents air entering the cargo system.
(Of course special procedures apply when stemmed for drydock). This means that only
liquid cargo or vapour can be present and, accordingly, a flammable atmosphere cannot
exist in the cargo system. Moreover all large gas carriers utilise a closed loading system
with no venting to atmosphere, and a vapour return pipeline to the shore is often fitted
and used where required. The oxygen free nature of the cargo system and the very
serious limitation of cargo escape to atmosphere combine to make for a very safe
design concept.
The liquefied gases

First let us consider some definitions in the gas trade. According to the IMO, a liquefied
gas is a gaseous substance at ambient temperature and pressure, but liquefied by
Pressurisation or refrigeration – sometimes a combination of both. Virtually all liquefied
gases are hydrocarbons and flammable in nature. Liquefaction itself packages the gas
Into volumes well suited to international carriage – freight rates for a gas in its non-
liquefied form would be normally far too costly. The principal gas cargoes are LNG,
LPG and a variety of petrochemical gases. All have their specific hazards. LNG is
liquefied natural gas and is methane naturally occurring within the earth, or in
association with oil fields. It is carried in its liquefied form at its boiling point of -162°C.
Depending on the standard of production at the loading port, the quality of LNG can
vary but it usually contains fractions of some heavier ends such as ethane (up to 5%)
and traces of propane.
The second main cargo type is LPG (liquefied petroleum gas). This grade covers both
butane and propane, or a mix of the two. The main use for these products varies from
country to country but sizeable volumes go as power station or refinery fuels. However
LPG is also sought after as a bottled cooking gas and it can form a feedstock at
chemical plants. It is also used as an aerosol propellant (with the demise of CFCs) and
is added to gasoline as a vapour pressure enhancer. Whereas methane is always
carried cold, both types of LPG may be carried in either the pressurised or refrigerated
state. Occasionally they may be carried in a special type of carrier known as the semi-
pressurised ship. When fully refrigerated, butane is carried at -5°C, with propane at -
42°C, this latter temperature already introducing the need for special steels.
Ammonia is one of the most common chemical gases and is carried worldwide in large
volumes, mainly for agricultural purposes. It does however have particularly toxic
qualities and requires great care during handling and carriage. By regulation, all
liquefied gases when carried in bulk must be carried on a gas carrier, as defined by the
IMO. IMO’s Gas Codes (see next section – Design of gas carriers) provide a list of
safety precautions and design features required for each product.
Within this group a sub-set of highly specialised ships is able to carry multi-grades
simultaneously. Significant in the design and operation of gas carriers is that methane
Vapour is lighter than air while LPG vapours are heavier than air. For this reason the
gas carrier regulations allow only methane to be used as a Propulsion fuel – any minor
Gas seepage in engine spaces being naturally ventilated. The principal hydrocarbon
gases such as butane, propane and methane are non-toxic in nature and a comparison
of the relative hazards from oils and gases is provided in the table below:
A specialist sector within the trade is the ethylene market, moving about one million
tonnes by sea annually, and very sophisticated ships are available for this carriage.
Temperatures here are down to -104°C and onboard systems require perhaps the
highest degree of expertise within what is already a highly specialised and automated
industry.
“The carrier shall properly and carefully load, handle,

stow, carry, keep, care for and discharge the goods carried.”
Hague Rules, Articles iii, Rule 2.
Carefully to Carry Advisory Committee

This report was produced by the Carefully to Carry
Committee – the UK P&I Club’s advisory committee on cargo
matters. The aim of the Carefully to Carry Committee is to
reduce claims through contemporaneous advice to the Club’s
Members through the most efficient means available.
The committee was established in 1961 and has produced
many articles on cargoes that cause claims and other cargo
related issues such as hold washing, cargo securing, and
ventilation.
The quality of advice given has established Carefully to Carry as a key source of
guidance for shipowners and ships’ officers. In addition, the articles have frequently
been the source of expertise in negotiations over the settlement of claims and have
also been relied on in court hearings. In 2002 all articles were revised and published in
book form as well as on disk.
Design of gas carriers

The regulations for the design and construction of gas carriers stem from practical ship
designs codified by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). This was a seminal
piece of work and drew upon the knowledge of many experts in the field people who
had already been designing and building such ships. This work resulted in several
rules and a number of recommendations. However, all new ships (from June 1986) are
built to the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Liquefied Gases in Bulk (the IGC Code). This code also defines cargo properties and
documentation, provided to the ship (the Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of
Liquefied Gases in Bulk), shows the cargo grades the ship can carry. In particular this
takes into account temperature limitations imposed
by the metallurgical properties of the materials
making up the containment and piping systems.
It also takes into account the reactions between
various gases and the elements of construction
not only on tanks but also related to pipeline and
valve fittings. When the IGC Code was produced
an intermediate code was also developed by the
IMO - the Code for the Construction and
Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases
in Bulk (the GC Code). This covers ships built
between 1977 and 1986.
As alluded to above, gas carriers were in existence

before IMO codification and ships built before 1977
are defined as ‘existing ships’ within the meaning
of the rules. To cover these ships a voluntary code
was devised, again by the IMO – the Code for
Existing Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk
(the Existing Ship Code). Despite its voluntary
status, virtually all ships remaining in the fleet of
this age – and because of longevity programmes
there are still quite a number - have certification in accordance with the Existing Ship
Code as otherwise international chartering opportunities would be severely restricted.
Cargo carriage in the pressurised fleet comprises double cargo containment – hull and
tank. All other gas carriers are built with a double hull structure and the distance of the
inner hull from the outer is defined in the gas codes. This spacing introduces a vital
safety feature to mitigate the consequences of collision and grounding. Investigation of
a number of actual collisions at the time the gas codes were developed drew
conclusions on appropriate hull separations which were then incorporated in the codes.
Collisions do occur within the class and, to date, the codes’ recommendations have
stood the test of time, with no penetrations of cargo containment having been reported
from this cause. The double hull concept includes the bottom areas as a protection
against grounding and, again, the designer’s foresight has proven of great value in
several serious grounding incidents, saving the crew and surrounding populations from
the consequences of a ruptured containment system.
So a principal feature of gas carrier design is double containment and an internal hold.
The cargo tanks, more generally referred to as the ‘cargo containment system’, are
installed in the hold, often as a completely separate entity from the ship; i.e. not part of
the ship’s structure or its strength members. Herein lies a distinctive difference between
gas carriers and their sisters, the oil tankers and chemical carriers.
Cargo tanks may be of the independent self-supporting type or of a membrane design.

The self-supporting tanks are defined in the IGC Code as being of Type-A, Type-B
or Type-C. Type-A containment comprises box shaped or prismatic tanks (i.e. shaped to
fit the hold). Type-B comprises tanks where fatigue life and crack propagation analyses
have shown improved characteristics. Such tanks are usually spherical but occasionally
may be of prismatic types. Type-C tanks are the pure pressure vessels, often spherical
or cylindrical, but sometimes bi-lobe in shape to minimise broken stowage. The fitting of
one system in preference to another tends towards particular trades. For example,
Type-C tanks are suited to small volume carriage. They are therefore found most often
on coastal or regional craft. The large international LPG carrier will normally be fitted
with Type-A Tanks. Type-B tanks and tanks following membrane principles are found
mainly within the LNG fleet.
The pressurised fleet
The first diagram, above and the photograph on the next page, show a small fully
pressurised carrier. Regional and coastal cargoes are often carried in such craft with the
cargo fully pressurised at ambient temperature. Accordingly, the tanks are built as pure
pressure vessels without the need for any extra metallurgical consideration appropriate
to colder temperatures. Design pressures are usually for propane (about 20 bar) as this
form of LPG gives the highest vapour pressure at ambient temperature. As described
above, ship design comprises outer hull and an inner hold containing the pressure
vessels. These rest in saddles built into the ship’s structure. Double bottoms and other
spaces act as water ballast tanks and if problems are to develop with age then the
ballast tanks are prime candidates. These ships are the most numerous class,
comprising approximately 40% of the fleet.
They are nevertheless relatively simple in design yet strong of construction. Cargo
operations that accompany such ships include cargo transfer by flexible hose and in
certain areas, such as China, ship-to-ship transfer operations from larger refrigerated
ships operating internationally are commonplace. Records show that several ships in
this class have been lost at sea because of collision or grounding, but penetration of the
cargo system has never been proven. In one case, a ship sank off Italy and several
years later refloated naturally, to the surprise of all, as the cargo had slowly vaporized
adding back lost buoyancy.
The semi-pressurised fleet
In these ships, sometimes referred to as ‘semi-refrigerated’, the cargo is carried in

pressure vessels usually bi-lobe in cross section, designed for operating pressures of
up to 7 bars. The tanks are constructed of special grade steel suitable for the cargo
carriage temperature. The tanks are insulated to minimise heat input to the cargo. The
cargo boils off causing generation of vapour, which is reliquefied by refrigeration and
returned to the cargo tanks. The required cargo temperature and pressure is maintained
by the reliquefaction plant. These ships are usually larger than the fully pressurised
types and have cargo capacities up to about 20,000 m3. As with the fully pressurised
ship, the cargo tanks are of pressure vessel construction and similarly located well
inboard of the ship’s side and also protected by double bottom ballast tanks. This
arrangement again results in a very robust and inherently buoyant ship.
The Ethylene fleet

Ethylene, one of the chemical gases, is the premier building block of the petrochemicals
industry. It is used in the production of polyethylene, ethylene dichloride, ethanol,
styrene, glycols and many other products. Storage is usually as a fully refrigerated liquid
at -104°C.
Ships designed for ethylene carriage also fall into the semi-pressurised class. They are
relatively few in number but are among the most sophisticated ships afloat. In the more
advanced designs they have the ability to carry several grades. Typically this range can
extend to ethane, LPG, ammonia, propylene butadiene and vinyl chloride monomer
(VCM), all featuring on their certificate of fitness. To aid in this process several
independent cargo systems co-exist onboard to avoid cross contamination of the
cargoes, especially for the reliquefaction process.
The ships range in size from about 2,000 m3 to 15,000 m3 although several larger ships
now trade in ethylene. Ship design usually includes independent cargo tanks (Type-C),
and these may be cylindrical or bi-lobe in shape constructed from stainless steel. An
inert gas generator is provided to produce dry inert gas or dry air. The generator is used
for inerting and for the dehydration of the cargo system as well as the inter barrier
spaces during voyage. For these condensation occurs on cold surfaces with unwanted
build-ups of ice. Deck tanks are normally provided for changeover of cargoes. The
hazards associated with the cargoes involved are obvious from temperature, toxic and
flammable concerns. Accordingly, the safety of all such craft is critical with good
management and serious personnel training remaining paramount.
The fully refrigerated fleet

These are generally large ships, up to about 100,000 m3 cargo capacity, those above
70,000 m3 being designated as VLGCs. Many in the intermediate range (say 30,000 m3
to 60,000 m3) are suitable for carrying the full range of hydrocarbon liquid gas from
butane to propylene and may be equipped to carry chemical liquid gases such as
ammonia. Cargoes are carried at near ambient pressure and at temperatures down to -
48ºC. Reliquefaction plants are fitted, with substantial reserve plant capacity provided.
The cargo tanks do not have to withstand high pressures and are therefore generally of
the free standing prismatic type. The tanks are robustly stiffened internally and
constructed of special low temperature resistant steel.
All ships have substantial double bottom spaces and some have side ballast tanks. In
all cases the tanks are protectively located inboard. The ship’s structure surrounding or
adjacent to the cargo tanks is also of special grade steel, in order to form a secondary
barrier to safely contain any cold cargo should it leak from the cargo tanks.
All cargo tanks, whether they be of the pressure vessel type or rectangular, are
provided with safety relief valves amply sized to relieve boil-off in the absence of
reliquefaction and even in conditions of surrounding fire.
The LNG fleet
Although there are a few exceptions, the principal ships in the LNG fleet range from
75,000m3 to 150,000m3 capacity, with ships of up to 265,000 m3 expected by the end
of the decade. The cargo tanks are thermally insulated and the cargo carried at
atmospheric pressure. Cargo tanks may be free standing spherical, of the membrane
type, or alternatively, prismatic in design. In the case of membrane tanks, the cargo is
contained within thin walled tanks of invar or stainless steel. The tanks are anchored
in appropriate locations to the inner hull and the cargo load is transmitted to the inner
hull through the intervening thermal insulation.
All LNG carriers have a watertight inner hull and most tank designs are required to have
a secondary containment capable of safely holding any leakage for a period of 15 days.
Because of the simplicity and reliability of stress analysis of the spherical containment
designs, a full secondary barrier is not required but splash barriers and insulated drip
trays protect the inner hull from any leakage that might occur in operation. Existing LNG
carriers do not reliquefy boil-off gases, they are steam ships and the gas is used as fuel
for the ship’s boilers. The first ships to burn this gas in medium speed diesel engines
will be delivered in 2005/6, and ships with reliquefaction plant and conventional slow
speed diesel engines will enter service late in 2007. It is likely that gas turbine propelled
ships may appear soon after this.
Crew training and numbers
As they did for oil tankers and chemical carriers, the IMO has laid down a series of
training standards for gas carrier crews which come in addition to normal certification.
These dangerous cargo endorsements are spelt out in the STCW Convention. Courses
are divided into the basic course for junior officers and the advanced course for senior
officers. IMO rules require a certain amount of onboard gas experience, especially at
senior ranks, before taking on the responsible role or before progressing to the next
rank. This can introduce checks and balances (say) in the case of a master from the
bulk ore trades wanting to convert to the gas trade. The only way, without previous gas
experience, to achieve this switch is to have the candidate complete the requisite
course and sail as a supernumerary, understudying the rank for a specified period on a
gas carrier. This can be costly for seafarer and company alike. Accordingly, as the
switch can be difficult to manage, especially at senior ranks, current requirements tend
to maintain a close-knit cadre of ‘gas men or women’ well experienced in the trade.
In addition to the official certification for hazardous cargo endorsements, a number of

colleges operate special courses for gas cargo handling. In the UK a leader in the field
is the Warsash Maritime Centre. While this situation provides for a well-trained and
highly knowledgeable environment the continued growth in the fleet currently strains
manpower resources and training schedules and it is possible that short cuts may be
taken.
While the small gas carriers normally operate at minimum crew levels, on the larger
carriers it is normal to find increased crewing levels over and above the minimum
required by the ship’s manning certificate. For example, it is almost universal to carry a
cargo engineer onboard a large gas carrier. An electrician is a usual addition and the
deck officer complement may well be increased.
Gas carriers and port operations
As gas carriers have grown in size, so too has a concern over in-port safety. Indeed, the
same concerns applied with the growth in tanker sizes when the VLCC came to the
drawing board. The solutions are similar; however, in the case of the gas carrier, a
higher degree of automation and instrumentation is often apparent controlling the
interface between ship and shore.
Terminals are also protected by careful risk analysis at the time of construction so
helping to ensure that the location and size of maximum credible spill scenarios are
identified, and that suitable precautions including appropriate safety distances are
established between operational areas and local populations.
Regarding shipping operations, risk analysis often identifies the cargo manifold as the
area likely to produce the maximum credible spill. This should be controlled by a
number of measures. Primarily, as for all large oil tankers, gas carriers should be held
firmly in position whilst handling cargo, and mooring management should be of a high
calibre. Mooring ropes should be well managed throughout loading and discharging.
Safe mooring is often the subject of computerised mooring analysis, especially for new
ships arriving at new ports, thus helping to ensure a sensible mooring array suited to the
harshest conditions. An accident in the UK highlighted the consequences of a lack of
such procedures when, in 1993, a 60,000 m3 LPG carrier broke out from her berth in
storm conditions. This was the subject of an official MCA/HSE inquiry concluding that
prior mooring analysis was vital to safe operations. The safe mooring principles
attached to gas carriers are similar to those recommended for oil tankers (they are
itemised in Mooring Equipment Guidelines, see References , page 13).
The need for such ships to be held firmly in position during cargo handling is due in part
to the use of loading arms (hard arms – see photos opposite) for cargo transfer. Such
equipment is of limited reach in comparison to hoses, yet it provides the ultimate in
robustness. It also provides simplicity in the connection at the cargo manifold.
The use of loading arms for the large gas carrier is now quite common and, if not a
national requirement, is certainly an industry recommendation. The alternative use of
hoses is fraught with concerns over hose care and maintenance, and their proper layout
and support during operations to prevent kinking and abrasion. Further, accident
statistics show that hoses have inferior qualities in comparison to the hard arms.
Perhaps the worst case of hose failure occurred in 1985 when a large LPG carrier was
loading at Pajaritos, Mexico. Here, the hose burst and, in a short time, the resulting gas
cloud ignited. The consequent fire and explosion impinged directly on three other ships
in harbour and resulted in four deaths. It was one of those accidents which has led
directly to a much increased use of loading arms internationally. The jetty was out of
action for approximately six months. Fortunately the berth was in an industrial area and
collateral damage to areas outside the refinery was limited.
As ships have grown in size the installation of vapour return lines interconnecting ship
and shore vapour systems has become more common. Indeed, in the LNG industry it is
required, with the vapour return being an integral part of the loading or discharging
system. In the LPG trades, vapour returns are also common, but are only opened in
critical situations such as where onboard reliquefaction equipment is unable to cope
with the loading rate and boil-off.
A feature common to both ship and shore is that both have emergency shutdown
systems. It is now common to interconnect such systems so that, for example, an
emergency on the ship will stop shore-based loading pumps. One such problem may be
the automatic detection of the ship moving beyond the safe working envelope for the
loading arms. A further refinement at some larger terminals is to have the loading arms
fitted with emergency release devices, so saving the loading arms from fracture (see
photo above).
Given good moorings and well designed loading arms, the most likely sources of
leakage are identified and controlled.
Hazards to shore workers and crewmembers at refit

While the gas carrier accident record is very good for normal operations and exemplary
with respect to cargo operations and containment, the same cannot be said for the risks
it faces in dry-dock. Statistics show that the gas carrier in dry-dock presents a serious
risk to personnel, particularly with respect to adequate ventilation through proper
Inerting and gas-freeing before repairs begin. Most often the risk relates to minor
leakage from a cargo tank into the insulation surrounding refrigerated LPG tanks. A
massive explosion occurred on the Nyhammer at a Korean shipyard in 1993 for
this very reason, where considerable loss of life occurred. Although the ship was
repaired, it was a massive job.
Cargoes carried on gas carriers

 LPG
 LNG
 Chemical gases such as ammonia, vinyl chloride, ethylene oxide, propylene oxide and
chlorine.
Gas carrier codes

The Gas Codes, developed by International Maritime Organization apply to all gas
carriers regardless of size. There are three Gas Codes and these are described below.
Gas carriers built after June 1986 (the IGC Code)
The Code which applies to new gas carriers (built after 30 June 1986) is the
International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied
Gases in Bulk. In brief, this Code is known as the IGC Code. The IGC Code, under
amendments to International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea(SOLAS), is
mandatory for all new ships. As proof that a ship complies with the Code, an
International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk should be
on board. In 1993, the IGC Code was amended and the new rules came into effect on 1
July 1994. Ships on which construction started on or after 1 October 1994 should apply
the amended version of the Code but ships built earlier may comply with previous
editions of the IGC Code.
Gas carriers built between 1976 and 1986 (the GC Code) The regulations covering gas
carriers built after 1976 but before July 1986 are included in the Code for the
Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk. It is known as
the Gas Carrier Code or GC Code in short. Since 1975, International Maritime
Organization IMO has approved four sets of amendments to the GC Code. The latest
was adopted in June 1993. All amendments are not necessarily agreed by every
government. Although this Code is not mandatory, many countries have implemented it
into national law. Accordingly, most charterers will expect such ships to meet with Code
standards and, as proof of this, to have on board a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage
of Liquefied Gases in Bulk.
Gas carriers built before 1977 (the Existing Ship Code) The regulations covering gas
carriers built before 1977 are contained in the Code for Existing Ships Carrying
Liquefied Gases in Bulk. Its content is similar to the GC Code, though less extensive.
The Existing Ship Code was completed in 1976 after the GC Code had been written. It
therefore summarises current shipbuilding practice at that time. It remains as an
International Maritime Organization IMO recommendation for all gas carriers in this
older fleet of ships. The Code is not mandatory but is applied by some countries for ship
registration and in other countries as a necessary fulfilment prior to port entry.
Accordingly, many ships of this age are required by charterers to meet with Code
standards and to have on board a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied
Gases in Bulk.
Cargo Containment Systems in Liquefied Gas Carriers
A cargo containment system is the total arrangement for containing cargo including,
where fitted:
(1) A primary barrier (the cargo tank),
(2) Secondary barrier (if fitted),
(3) Associated thermal insulation,
(4) Any intervening spaces, and
(5) Adjacent structure, if necessary, for the support of these elements
For cargoes carried at temperatures between −10 °C and −55 °C the ship's hull may act
as the secondary barrier and in such cases it may be a boundary of the hold space.
The basic cargo tank types utilized on board gas carriers are in accordance with the list
below:-
Independent Type ‘A’: Some other types such as:
Independent Type ‘B’: Internal insulation Type ‘1’
Independent Type ‘C’: Internal insulation Type ‘2’
Membrane: Integral
The basic cargo tank types utilised on board gas carriers are in accordance with the list
below:—
 Independent Type 'A'

Type ‘A’ tanks are constructed primarily of flat surfaces. The maximum allowable tank
design pressure in the vapour space of for this type of system is 0.7 barg; this means
cargoes must be carried in a fully refrigerated condition at or near atmospheric pressure
(normally below 0.25 barg).
This type of tank as found on a fully refrigerated LPG carrier. This is a self-supporting
prismatic tank which requires conventional internal stiffening. In this example the tanks
is surrounded by a skin of foam insulation. Where perlite insulation is used, it would be
found filling the whole of the hold space.
The material used for Type ‘A’ tanks is not crack propagation resistant. Therefore, in
order to ensure safety, in the unlikely event of cargo tank leakage, a secondary
containment system is required. This secondary containment system is known as a
secondary barrier and is a feature of all ships with Type ‘A’ tanks capable of carrying
cargoes below -10 degree C.
For a fully refrigerated LPG carrier (which will not carry cargoes below –55 degree C)
the secondary barrier must be a complete barrier capable of containing the whole tank
volume at a defined angle of heel and may form part of the ship’s full, as shown in the
figure.
In general, it is this design approach which is adopted. By this means appropriate parts
of the ship’s hull are constructed of special steel capable of withstanding low
temperatures. The alternative is to build a separate secondary barrier around each
cargo tank.
The IGC Code stipulates that a secondary barrier must be able to contain tank leakage
for a period of 15 days.
On such ships, the space between the cargo tank (sometimes referred to as the primary
barrier) and the secondary barrier is known as the hold space. When flammable
cargoes are being carried, these spaces must be filled with inert gas to prevent a
flammable atmosphere being created in the event of primary barrier leakage.
Type A Independent Tanks are prismatic and supported on insulation-bearing blocks

typically consisting of wooden chocks and located by anti-roll chocks located at the top
of the tank inside the void space and anti-flotation chocks located inside the void space
usually just above the double bottom tanks. The tanks are normally divided by a
centreline liquid-tight bulkhead; by this feature, together with the chamfered upper part
of the tank, the free liquid surface effect is reduced and thus the virtual rise of the
Centre of gravity and the stability is increased. When these cargo tanks are designed to
carry LPG (at −50 °C), the tank is constructed of fine-grained low-carbon manganese
steel or even stainless steel as seen in the Maersk J class Ships. The hold space (void
space) in this design is normally filled with dry inert gas or Nitrogen but may be
ventilated with air during a ballast or gas free passage. The Conch design has been
developed for carriage of LNG (at-163oC). The material for these cargo tanks has to be
either 9% nickel steel or aluminium. The maximum allowable relief vapour setting
(MARVS) is < 0. 7 bar.
 Independent Type 'B'

Type ‘B’ tanks can be constructed of flat surfaces or they may be of the spherical type.
This type of containment system is the subject of much more detailed stress analysis
compared to Type ‘A’ systems. These controls must include an investigation of fatigue
life and a crack propagation analysis. The most common arrangement of Type ‘B’ tank
is a spherical tank. This tank is of the Kvaerner Moss design.
Because of the enhanced design factors, a Type ‘B’ tank requires only a partial
secondary barrier in the form of a drip tray. The Type ‘B’ spherical tank is almost
exclusively applied to LNG ships; seldom featuring in the LPG trade. A type ‘B’ tank,
however, need not be spherical.
There are Type ‘B’ tanks of prismatic shape in LNG service. The prismatic Type ‘B’ tank
has the benefit of maximizing ship-deck. Where the prismatic shape is used, the
maximum design vapour space pressure is, as for Type ‘A’ tanks, limited to 0.7 barg.
Type B Independent Tanks are generally spherical and welded to a vertical cylindrical
skirt, which is the lone connection to the ship's main hull. The hold space (void space) in
this design is normally filled with dry inert gas or Nitrogen but may be ventilated with air
during a ballast or gas free passage. A protective steel dome covers the primary barrier
above deck level, and insulation encloses the outside of the primary barrier surface.
This containment system has been used for carriage of LNG. The material of
construction is either 9% nickel steel or aluminium. The maximum Allowable relief
vapour setting (MARVS) is < 0. 7 bar.
 Independent Type 'C'

Type ‘C’ tanks are normally spherical or cylindrical pressure vessels having design
pressures higher than 2 barg. The cylindrical vessels may be vertically or horizontally
mounted. This type of containment system is always used for semi-pressurized and fully
pressurized gas carriers.
In the case of the semi-pressurized ships it can also be used for fully refrigerated
carriage, provided appropriate low temperature steels are used in tank construction.
Type ‘C’ tanks are designed and built to conventional pressure vessel codes and, as a
result, can be subjected to accurate stress analysis. Furthermore, design stresses are
kept low. Accordingly, no secondary barrier is required for Type ‘C’ tanks and the hold
space can be filled with either inert gas or dry air.
In the case of a typical fully pressurized ship (where the cargo is carried at ambient
temperature), the tanks may be designed for a maximum working pressure of about 18
barg. For a semi-pressurized ship the cargo tanks and associated equipment are
designed for a working pressure of approximately 5 to 7 barg and a vacuum of 0.5 barg.
Typically, the tank steels for the semi-pressurized ships are capable of withstanding
carriage temperatures of -48 degree C for LPG or -104 degree C for ethylene. (Of
course, an ethylene carrier may also be used to transport LPG.)
Type ‘C’ tanks as fitted in a typical fully pressurized gas carrier. With such an
arrangement there is comparatively poor utilization of the hull volume; however, this can
be improved by using intersecting pressure vessels or bi-lobe type tanks which may be
designed with a taper at the forward end of the ship. This is a common arrangement in
semi-pressurized ships.
Type C Independent Tanks are deck pressure vessels or cylindrical pressure tanks
mounted horizontally on two or more cradle-shaped foundations. The tanks may be
fitted on, below or partly below deck and be both longitudinally and transversely located.
Lobe-type tanks are commonly used at the forward end of the ship, to improve the poor
utilization of the hull volume. This containment system is used for LPG and in Ethylene
carriers. The material, if used for the construction of tanks designed to carry ethylene, is
5% nickel steel. The maximum Allowable relief vapour setting (MARVS) is > 0. 7 bar.
And
 Membrane
Some other types such as:
 Internal insulation Type '1'

 Internal insulation Type '2'
 Integral
have been fully designed and approved but have not been commercially used yet.
Membrane Tanks (membrane – 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick)
The concept of the membrane containment system is based on a very thin primary
barrier (membrane – 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick) which is supported through the insulation.
Such tanks are not self-supporting like the independent tanks. An inner hull forms the
load bearing structure. Membrane containment systems must always be provided with a
secondary barrier to ensure the integrity of the total system in the event of primary
barrier leakage.
The membrane is designed in such a way that

thermal expansion or contraction is compensated
without over-stressing the membrane itself. There
are two principal types of membrane system in
common use – both named after the companies
who developed them and both designed primarily
for the carriage of LNG. These two companies
have now combined into one.
Semi-Membrane Tanks
The semi-membrane concept is a variation of membrane tank system. The primary

barrier is much thicker than in the membrane system, having flat sides and large
roundish corners. The tank is self-supporting when empty but not in the loaded
condition. In this condition the liquid (hydrostatic) and vapour pressures acting on the
primary barrier are transmitted through the insulation to the inner hull as is the case with
the membrane system. The corners and edges are designed to accommodate
expansion and contraction.
Although semi-membrane tanks were originally developed for the carriage of LNG, no
commercial-size LNG carrier has yet been built to this design. The system has,
however, been adopted for use in LPG ships and several Japanese-built fully
refrigerated LPG carriers have been delivered to this design.
Integral Tanks
Integral tanks form a structural part of the ship’s hull and are influenced by the same
loads which stress the hull structure. Integral tanks are not normally allowed for the
carriage of liquefied gas if the cargo temperature is below -10 degree C. Certain tanks
on a limited number of Japanese-built LPG carriers are of the integral type for the
dedicated carriage of full refrigerated butane.
Internal Insulation Tanks
Internally insulated cargo tanks are similar to integral tanks. They utilize insulation
materials to contain the cargo. The insulation is fixed inside ship’s inner hull or to an
independent load-bearing surface. The non-self-supporting system obviates the need
for an independent tank and permits the carriage of fully refrigerated cargoes at carriage
temperatures as low as -55 degree C.
Internal insulation systems have been incorporated in a very limited number of fully
refrigerated LPG carriers but, to date, the concept has not proved satisfactory in
service.
Materials of cargo tank construction and insulation of modern

liquefied gas carriers
The choice of cargo tank materials is dictated by the minimum service temperature and,
to a lesser degree, by compatibility with the cargoes carried. The most important
property to consider in the selection of cargo tank materials is the low-temperature
toughness. This consideration is vital as most metals and alloys (except aluminium)
become brittle below a certain temperature.
Treatment of structural carbon steels can be used to achieve low-temperature

characteristics and the Gas Codes specify low-temperature limits for varying grades of
steel down to -55°C. Reference should be made to the Gas Codes and classification
society rules for details on the various grades of steel.
According to the Gas Codes, tankers carrying fully refrigerated LPG cargoes may have
tanks capable of withstanding temperatures down to -55°C. Usually, the final
temperature is chosen by the shipowner, depending on the cargoes expected to be
carried. This is often determined by the boiling point of liquid propane at atmospheric
pressure and, hence, cargo tank temperature limitations are frequently set at about -
46°C. To achieve this service temperature, steels such as fully killed, fine-grain, carbon-
manganese steel, sometimes alloyed with 0.5 per cent nickel, are used.
Where a tanker has been designed specifically to carry fully refrigerated ethylene (with
a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of -104°C) or LNG (atmospheric boiling point -
162°C), nickel-alloyed steels, stainless steels (such as Invar) or aluminium must be
used for the material of tank construction.
Tank Insulation
Thermal insulation must be fitted to refrigerated cargo tanks for the following reasons:
• To minimise heat flow into cargo tanks, thus reducing boil-off.
• To protect the tanker structure around the cargo tanks from the effects of low
temperature.
Insulation materials for use on gas carriers should possess the following main
characteristics:
• Low thermal conductivity.

• Ability to bear loads.
• Ability to withstand mechanical damage.
• Light weight.
• Unaffected by cargo liquid or vapour.
The vapour-sealing property of the insulation system, to prevent ingress of water or

water vapour, is important. Not only can ingress of moisture result in loss of insulation
efficiency but progressive condensation and freezing can cause extensive damage to
the insulation. Humidity conditions must, therefore, be kept as low as possible in hold
spaces. One method to protect the insulation is to provide a foil skin acting as a vapour
barrier to surround the system.
Thermal insulation may be applied to various surfaces, depending on the design of the
containment system. For Type 'B' and 'C' containment systems, insulation is applied
directly to the cargo tank's outer surfaces. For Type 'A' cargo tanks insulation can be
applied either directly to the cargo tank or to the inner hull (if fitted) although its
application to the cargo tank is more common.
As most insulation materials are flammable, great care is required at times of

construction or refit to ensure that fires are avoided.
Hazards on gas carriers

 Toxicity
Vinyl chloride commonly carried on gas carriers is a known as a human carcinogen,

particularly liver cancer. It is not only dangerous when inhaled but can also be absorbed
by the skin. Skin irritation and watering of the eyes indicate dangerous levels of VCM
may be present in the atmosphere. Caution must be exerted while dealing with such
cargoes, precautions such as use of Chemical suits Self-contained Breathing Apparatus
(SCBA's) and gas tight goggles must be worn at all times to prevent exposure. Chlorine
and Ammonia are other toxic cargoes carried.
 Flammability
Almost all cargo vapours are flammable. When ignition occurs, it is not the liquid which
burns but the evolved vapour that burns. Flameless explosions which result out of cold
cargo liquid coming into sudden contact with water do not release much energy. Pool
fires which are the result of a leaked pool of cargo liquid catching fire and jet fires which
are the result of the leak catching fire are grave hazards. Flash fires occur when there is
a leak and does not ignite immediately but after the vapours travel some distance
downwind and getting ignited and are extremely dangerous. Vapour cloud explosions
and Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion are the most grave flammability hazards
on gas carriers.
 Frostbite
The cargoes are carried at extremely low temperatures, from 0 °C to −163 °C, and
hence frostbite due to exposure of skin to the cold vapours or liquid is a very real
hazard.
 Asphyxia
Asphyxia occurs when the blood cannot take a sufficient supply of oxygen to the brain.
A person affected may experience headache, dizziness and inability to concentrate,

followed by loss of consciousness. In sufficient concentrations any vapour may cause
asphyxiation, whether toxic or not.
Health Effects of specific cargoes carried on gas carriers
 Hazards of Ammonia
1. Exposure to more than 2,000 ppm – fatal in 30 minutes, 6,000 ppm – fatal in minutes,
10,000 ppm – fatal and intolerable to unprotected skin.
2. Anhydrous Ammonia is not dangerous when handled properly, but if not handled
carefully it can be extremely dangerous. It is not as combustible as many other products
that we use and handle every day. However, concentrations of gas burn and require
precautions to avoid fires.
3. Mild exposure can cause irritation to eye, nose and lung tissues. Prolonged breathing
can cause suffocation. When large amounts are inhaled, the throat swells shut and
victims suffocate. Exposure to vapours or liquid also can cause blindness
4. The water-absorbing nature of anhydrous ammonia that causes the greatest injury
(especially to the eyes, nose, throat or lungs), and which can cause permanent
damage. It is a colourless gas at atmospheric pressure and normal temperature, but
under pressure readily changes into a liquid. Anhydrous ammonia has a high affinity for
water. Anhydrous ammonia is a hygroscopic compound, this means it will seek moisture
source that may be the body of the operator, which is composed of 90 percent water.
When a human body is exposed to anhydrous ammonia the chemical freeze burns its
way into the skin, eyes or lungs. This attraction places the eyes, lungs, and skin at
greatest risk because of their high moisture content. Caustic burns result when the
anhydrous ammonia dissolves into body tissue. Most deaths from anhydrous ammonia
are caused by severe damage to the throat and lungs from a direct blast to the face. An
additional concern is the low boiling point of anhydrous ammonia. The chemical freezes
on contact at room temperature. It will cause burns similar to, but more severe than,
those caused by dry ice. If exposed to severe cold flesh will become frozen. At first, the
skin will become red (but turn subsequently white); the affected area is painless, but
hard to touch, if left untreated the flesh will die and may become gangrenous.
5. The human eye is a complex organ made up of about 80 percent water. Ammonia
under pressure can cause extensive, almost immediate damage to the eye. The
ammonia extracts the fluid and destroys eye cells and tissue in minutes.
6. Draining of Ammonia into sea while pre-cooling of the hard-arm or during

disconnection operations is not an eco-friendly operation. As a small quantity of
Ammonia as low as 0.45 mg/L (LC50) is hazardous to Salmon as per ICSC, USA.
Consumption of such fish could be dangerous to humans
The carriage of liquefied gases in bulk -Where do the products

come from ?
The liquefied natural gas (LNG) industry in the United States and other countries was
developed to link huge gas reserves in geographically remote parts of the world with
regions in need of more natural gas. For example, Japan and Korea import LNG to
meet almost all their natural gas needs, and half of Spain's natural gas demand is met
through the importing of LNG.
Most liquefied gases are hydrocarbons and the key property that makes hydrocarbons
the world’s primary energy source – combustibility – also makes them inherently
hazardous. Because these gases are handled in large quantities, it is imperative that all
practical steps are taken while carrying through sea transports.
Vessels involved in the LNG trade are generally recognised as integral parts of the
overall projects in which they serve. This means that their safety and security feature
very prominently in the minds of the LNG sellers and buyers who believe that the
vessels also carry their individual reputations. This concern is most evident when the
vessels are alongside loading or discharging terminals where any type of incident could
reflect adversely on the terminal owner's business.
The carriage of liquefied gases in bulk began in the late 1920s and the earliest ships
carried butane and propane in pressure vessels at ambient temperature. The
subsequent development refrigeration techniques and, more particularly, materials
suitable for containment at low temperature permitted the carriage of cargoes at
temperatures below ambient.
In the late 1950s these gases began to be

carried commercially in a partially refrigerated
state in ships equipped with
pressure vessels made with material tolerant
of low temperatures. By the mid-1960s fully
refrigerated LPG ships were in service
carrying cargo at atmospheric pressure;
ethylene and LNG ships had also entered
service. In the meantime ammonia had become
a common cargo, and “chemical”
gases such as butadiene also became commercially important.
The process of liquefaction changing a gas to a liquid may be achieved in one of three
ways:
 Reducing its temperature by
refrigeration at atmospheric pressure.
 Applying pressure at ambient
temperature.
 A combination of the above.
WHERE DO THE PRODUCTS COME FROM? LNG is produced from natural gas. LPG
may be produced either from natural gas or from refining crude oil.
Different forms of liquefied gas cargo require different transport modes, means and
storing methods.
Gases and liquids have to be contained in some form. They may be stored into tank
containers or flasks, or alternatively be moved without packaging in pipelines and
special carriers.
When gas is moved in tanks onboard ships, it is often liquefied by low temperature. This
is a highly specialised form of transport requiring not only expensive, purpose built
carriers, but also special terminals and handling equipment. There are two forms of gas
which are shipped by sea, liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG). The advantages of cooling gases can be evidenced in the simple arithmetic that
liquid gasses can be reduced by about 600%.
Most liquefied gases are hydrocarbons and the key property that makes hydrocarbons
the world’s primary energy source – combustibility – also makes them inherently
hazardous.
Because these gases are handled in large quantities, it is imperative that all practical
steps are taken to minimize leakage ,to limit all sources of ignition and prevent marine
pollution.The majority of liquefied gases are clean, non-polluting, products and create
no danger to the marine environment. If however certain liquefied gases spill on to the
sea you should be aware that they may:
 create large quantities of vapour sea water rapidly vaporises the liquid gas-
which may cause a fire or explosion or a health hazard.
 generate toxic vapours, which can drift, sometimes over a considerable distance.
 dissolve in seawater and cause local pollution
The cargo Data Sheets will give information on pollution, if any Pollution is most likely to
occur during cargo or bunkering operations:
1. if the operation is not correctly monitored
2. if the cargo hose or loading arm connections are not properly made
3. when disconnecting cargo lines that have not been drained.
4. if moorings are not checked and excessive strain is placed on the cargo
connections or the ship "breaks out" of the berth.
5. if cargo equipment is not properly maintained
Carrying low temperatures cargoes

When carrying low temperature, or cryogenic, cargoes this introduces other potential
hazards like frosbite. If exposed to severe cold flesh will become frozen.
At first the skin becomes red (but turns subsequently white); the affected area is
painless but is hard to the touch. If left untreated the flesh will die and may become
gangrenous.
Wherever you are at risk of contact with very cold liquids always wear sufficient clothing
to protect your entire body in cargo areas full PPE (personal protective equipment) may
be required.
Treatment:
1. remove any clothing that may restrict circulation to the frozen area of the skin
2. immediately immerse the affected area in a water bath having a temperature of
between 40ºC and 46ºC until it has thawed
3. do not `massage' the affected area
4. obtain urgent medical assistance
Caution ! AVOID SKIN CONTACT WITH UNINSULATED PIPES AND VALVES IN THE
CARGO AREA
Advantages of dual fuel diesel electric propulsion of LNG carriers

Increased Cargo Capacity for LNG ships
A number of studies have focused on the increase in cargo capacity that could be
obtained from changing to dual fuel diesel electric (DFDE) propulsion. When comparing
the engine room size of the conventional steam LNGC with the DFDE LNGC, it would
be possible to move the engine room bulkhead further aft when using DFDE propulsion.
Electric propulsion systems allow the prime movers to be located away from the
propeller shaft into areas where there is more space. By having only the propulsion
motors and the reduction gearbox on the tank top, the engine room can be shortened
substantially. While additional cargo capacity estimates fluctuate, the consensus is that
it should be possible to gain some extra cargo space. The space saving argument is
reinforced by the lower fuel consumption of the DFDE LNGC. Because the fuel
consumption is lower, less bunkers need to be carried, which saves additional space
and weight.
However, this additional cargo space is mostly located in way of cargo tank number 4
just in front of the engine room bulkhead, where the hull starts to taper in towards the
propeller. Lengthening tank 4 too much would result in sloshing issues.
Additional cargo capacity also results in higher cost for building the containment system
and tanks with complicated geometry are more expensive to build than parallel mid ship
tanks. Without having access to shipyard engineering data it is very difficult to exactly
predict the cost of the additional cargo capacity. Consequently, it becomes difficult to
precisely predict the economic benefits of the additional cargo space.
Crewing
Much has been written about the shortage of steam qualified crew for LNG carriers. By
moving away from steam to DFDE propulsion this issue is not entirely solved, as there
are still many steam driven LNGC on order and the current fleet of more than 200 steam
driven LNGCs will need steam qualified crews for decades to come.
However, it might be a bit easier for DFDE LNGS operators to find crews. The dual fuel
diesel engines basically work on the same principles as regular medium speed engines.
The dual fuel system is not very complicated to understand and has been in marine
operations for a few years now. With a bit of equipment specific training most engineers
should be able to operate and maintain the engines properly.
The electric drive system is mostly made up of components with which most engineers
onboard are very familiar; switchboards, generators, electric motors and transformers.
Everything is just a bit bigger and the voltage is higher. High voltage safety training
should be a prerequisite for operation and maintenance of these systems.
The only “new” technology for the crews to be introduced onboard the DFDE LNGCs is
the frequency converters that control the speed of the electric motors. These frequency
converters are actually not new technology as they have been used in many demanding
onshore applications for many years. There are equipment specific training courses
available from the OEM to train the crews in proper operation and maintenance of these
frequency converters. Actually, the main question might not be whether the crews can
handle the propulsion plant, but can they perform all cargo operations adequately and
do these engineers have sufficient experience onboard gas vessels?
Cargo handling and monitoring equipments for liquefied gas

carriers
Liquefied gas carriers fitted with cargo, booster, ballast and stripping pumps, lines,
eductors and their associated instrumentation and controls should be in good order and
evidence of regular testing should be kept. Instrumentation, valves and pipe work
should be clearly marked to indicate their service and where applicable the
compartment to which they relate.
Equipment used for Cargo Operations, varies with the type of vessel and its age. Some
of the equipment which may be found on board is listed below. Other items of
equipment will be found on board and the instruction manuals for the equipment and
Ship Specific Operating Manuals should be consulted for details.
1. Inert Gas and Dry Air Generator

2. Nitrogen Generator
3. Cargo / Spray pumps
4. Compressor ( High & Low Duty)
5. Cargo Heaters (High and Low Duty)
6. LNG Vaporizer
7. Forcing Vaporizer
8. Mist Separator
9. Vacuum Pumps
10. Fixed Gas detection Systems
11. Emergency shutdown system (ESD) and Cargo Tank Protection System
12. Ship Shore Link
13. Relief Systems
14. Cargo Tank Gauging Systems
Inert gas, dry air & Nitrogen generator
Many LNG vessels are equipped with an inert gas generator which may also be used to
produce dry air. The inert gas and/or dry air is used for the inerting and gas freeing of
cargo tanks, cargo pipes and void spaces when required prior to and after a refit or
inspection period.
Cargo & spray pumps
LNG ships are typically fitted with submerged, electric, centrifugal cargo pumps. The
motor windings are cooled by the pumped LNG which also serves to lubricate and cool
the pump and motor bearings. As the LNG serves as both lubricant and coolant, it is
critically important that the pumps are never allowed to run dry, even for short periods.
In addition to main cargo pumps, each tank will also be served by a spray pump. This
pump is of limited capacity, typically around 50m3/hr, and will be used for the following:
1. To cool down the liquid header prior to discharging.
2. To cool the cargo tank during a ballast voyage prior to arrival at the loading
terminal by discharging LNG to the spray nozzles in the tanks.
3. In exceptional circumstances, to pump LNG from the tanks to the vapourisers
when forced vaporisation of LNG to the boilers is required.
4. To enable the tanks to be stripped as dry as possible for reasons such as tank
entry.
In the case of total cargo pump failure, provision is made for Moss ships to discharge
under pressure.
On LNG vessels where cargo pumps are 440V supply, insulation test are to be carried
out before arrival in both the loading port and discharge ports. Also during insulation
test, air temperature and humidity must be recorded.
The insulation tests will establish that all pumps are operational and to allow time for the
preparation of emergency pumping arrangements should it be necessary.
On newer LNG vessels, the insulation test should be done before pump removal and
after pump’s re-installation in the tank during DD period and it is not necessary to take
readings monthly. However if cargo tanks are in a gas free condition and pumps have
not been operated for some considerable time, readings should be taken before the
pumps are brought into operation again. The preferred time may be when LNG is being
loaded.
Reference should be made to on board documentation for procedures for starting,

stopping and operating cargo and spray pumps, together with the specific arrangements
for rigging emergency cargo pumps.
Compressor ( High & low duty)

High duty (HD) compressors are installed in the compressor room on deck and are
routinely used for compressing the LNG vapour for return to shore during cargo tank
initial cool down, cargo loading, tank purging and to circulate heated cargo vapour
through the tanks during warming up. Low duty (LD) compressors are installed in the
compressor room on deck and are routinely used for compressing the LNG vapour
produced by natural boil-off to a sufficient pressure to be used in the boilers as fuel.
The HD and LD compressors are normally driven by electric motors or steam, installed
in an electric motor room segregated from the compressor room by a gas tight
bulkhead. The drive shafts penetrate the bulkhead with a gas tight shaft seal.
Cargo heater ( High & low duty)

Steam heated cargo heaters are provided for the following functions:
1. Heating the LNG vapour, delivered by the HD compressors, to the specified
temperature for warming up the cargo tanks before gas freeing.
2. Heating the boil-off gas, delivered by the LD compressors, or by free-flow, prior
to supplying it to the boilers or venting to atmosphere.
The heaters are typically heat exchangers of the shell and tube type. The number of
plugged tubes in cargo condensers, heaters or vaporizers should not exceed 25%.
LNG Vaporizer
The LNG vaporiser is a shell and tube type heat exchanger that is used for vaporising
LNG liquid for the following operations:
 Exceptionally, when discharging cargo at the design rate without the availability
of a vapour return from the shore. If the shore is unable to supply vapour return,
liquid LNG is fed to the vaporiser by using one stripping pump or by bleeding
from the liquid header. The vapour produced leaves the vaporiser at
approximately –140 degree C and is then supplied to cargo tanks through the
vapour header.
Vapour pressure in the cargo tanks will normally be maintained at 110kPa abs.
(minimum 104 kpa) during the whole discharge operation. Additional vapour is
generated by the tank sprayer rings, the LNG being supplied by the
stripping/spray pump. If the back pressure in the discharge piping to shore is not
sufficient to have a minimum of 300kPa at the inlet to the vaporiser, a
stripping/spray pump will be used to supply liquid to the vaporiser.
 Purging of cargo tanks with vapour after inerting with inert gas and prior to cool
down. LNG is supplied from the shore to the vaporiser via the stripping/spray
line. The vapour produced at the required temperature of +20 degree C is then
passed to the cargo tanks.
 Emergency forcing by manual operation. The LNG vaporiser can function as the
forcing vaporiser when the forcing vaporiser has failed.
Forcing vaporizer
The forcing vaporiser is used for vaporising LNG liquid to provide gas for burning in the
boilers to supplement the natural boil-off. The LNG is supplied by a stripping/spray
pump. LNG flow is controlled by an automatic inlet feed valve which receives its signal
from the Boiler Gas Management System.
Each forcing vaporiser is equipped with a temperature control system to obtain a

constant and stable discharge temperature for various ranges of operation. The
temperature of the gas produced is adjusted by spraying a certain amount of bypassed
liquid into the outlet side of the vaporiser through a temperature control valve and liquid
injection nozzles.
Mist separator
The mist separator shall prevent liquid from entering the compressors. It receives
natural boil off from the cargo tanks and forced boil off gas from the forcing vaporizer.
Vacuum pumps
On GT96 membrane cargo containment vessels, the vacuum pumps where fitted are
used to evacuate the atmosphere within the primary and secondary spaces in the
following cases:
1. To replace air with nitrogen for inerting.
2. To replace methane with nitrogen for gas freeing before dry docking after there
has been a leakage of cargo.
3. To test the tightness of the membranes at regular intervals or after membrane
repairs
4. When the associated tank is opened up.
5. It also helps pull the tank membrane on to the associated supports and insulation
when the cargo tank is not pressurised.
Care must be taken to ensure that the pressure within the primary space is not reduced
below that in the secondary space as there is a danger of distorting the secondary
barrier by lifting it off its supporting insulation. A maximum pressure difference of 3kPa
should not be exceeded.
Fixed gas detection systems

There are two types of gas detection system commonly used on board LNG carriers, a
sampling system and a gas detection system incorporating remote heads.
The sampling system draws gas samples from each monitored location into a central
analyser located in a ‘safe’ area. Typically, samples will be drawn from cargo areas in a
pre-programmed sampling sequence and will be passed through an infrared analyser.
The system alarms if pre-set limits are exceeded.
Remote detector heads may also be used to monitor gas concentrations. The signal
from flameproof infrared gas detectors will be passed to a central control unit having
visual and audible alarm functions.
Emergency shut down ( ESD) and cargo tank protection

The emergency shutdown (ESD) system is a requirement of the IMO code for the
carriage of liquefied gases in bulk and is a recommendation of SIGTTO. It is fitted to
protect both the ship and terminal in the event of power loss, cryogenic or fire risks, on
either the ship or in the terminal. The system will stop the flow of LNG liquid and vapour
by shutting down the pumps and gas compressors as well as manifold and shipside
valves, by the activation of a single control. Shut down of the cargo system can be
initiated either manually or automatically if certain off-limit conditions occur.....
Ship shore link

Linked ship/shore emergency shut down systems have been recommended by SIGGTO
since the early days of LNG transportation and are now mandated by IMO. The ship
and terminal emergency systems are linked via a ship-shore umbilical that carries ESD,
telecommunications and data signals.
Relief systems
As required by IMO, each cargo tank is fitted with two pressure/vacuum relief valves. In
addition, on membrane ships, the primary and secondary insulation spaces around
each tank are protected by two pressure relief valves. On Moss Rosenberg ships, hold
spaces around each tank are similarly protected.
The cargo tank relief valves vent to their associated vent mast riser. The valves are of
the pilot operated relief valve type. A cargo tank pressure sensing line relays the
pressure directly to the pilot operating valve. In this manner, accurate operation is
assured at the low pressures prevailing inside the tank.
It is extremely important that the vent mast is checked at regular intervals and drained
of any accumulation of water. This is to ensure that the relief valves operate at their
correct settings which would otherwise be altered if any water were to accumulate in the
vent mast and flow onto the valve assembly.
In addition to the cargo tank and hold or interbarrier space relief valves, each section of
the cargo pipework that can be isolated by two valves will be fitted with an overpressure
relief valve. Arrangements for safely relieving pressure in the lines to the cargo tanks
will vary from ship to ship.
Cargo tank gauging systems

All gauging systems used are specifically designed for the extreme low temperatures
experienced on LNG carriers.
Various systems may be fitted to a vessel dependent upon the owner’s specifications
and cargo containment system. There will generally be at least two independent
gauging systems fitted to each tank, in addition to low, high and high-high level alarms
FLOAT ACTUATED GAUGES – these employ a float connected by an invar tape to a

tensator spring. This spring acts as a counter balance system, maintaining a constant
tape tension at the float. This ensures that the float maintains the same level of
immersion irrespective of the amount and weight of the tape paid out. The accuracy of
this system is dependent upon tank construction and on the operating conditions,
however the accuracy should remain within 1 cm.
CAPACITANCE TYPE GAUGES – these gauges operate using the variation of

electrical capacitance between two probes when a liquid level changes. A coaxial
sensor is installed within a tank, and is constructed of a number of individual segments,
depending upon the height of the tank. As the liquid level in the tank changes, the
capacitance varies.
RADAR TYPE GAUGES – these gauges operate by generating and transmitting radar
waves from a generating device mounted externally on the tank. As the speed of the
radar waves is known, if the time needed by the signal to reach the cargo liquid level,
bounce back and be picked up by the antenna, can be measured accurately, the cargo
ullage can be calculated.
ULTRASONIC TYPE GAUGES – these gauges operate in a similar manner to an echo

sounder, where the time taken for a sound wave to be reflected back through the liquid
is accurately measured, and then used to calculate the liquid level.
All cargo measuring systems in use are highly accurate, and form part of the Custody
Transfer System, which is checked and verified by an independent organisation during
vessel dry docking periods. A certificate of accuracy for the system will be issued.
Generally if any ship repairs are carried out on any gauging system, it will be necessary
for the gauge to be re-calibrated and a new certificate issued.
The vessel will carry out and record comparison checks of the various gauging systems
in use during each cargo operation, to enable the early detection of any problems with
any of the systems. Where the completion of these tests reveals any significant errors
the Company is to be advised immediately with a request for attention.
Cargo piping system

Cargo piping systems comprise of the following and to be kept in order :
 Liquid lines ( or headers)
 Vapour lines
 Spray lines
 Fuel gas line
 Vent line
 Inerting / Aeration line
Cargo pump emergency shutdown system

Pump alarms and trips, level alarms, etc., where fitted, should be tested regularly to
ensure that they are functioning correctly, and the results of these tests should be
recorded
Cargo and ballast system valves;To be kept in order
Cargo system innage gauges;To be kept in order
Remote and local temperature and pressure sensors and gauges Each cargo tank
should be provided with at least two devices for indicating cargo temperatures, one
placed at the bottom of the cargo tank and the second near the top of the tank below
the highest allowable liquid level. The temperature indicating devices should be marked
to show the lowest temperature for which the cargo tank has been approved by the
administration. The vapour space of each cargo tank should be provided with a
pressure gauge which should incorporate an indicator in the cargo control position
Cargo tank high level & overflow alarms;To be kept in order
Within 5 days of the ship’s estimated time of berthing, the following checks and tests
shall be carried out, and the results recorded. These records are to be made available
to the terminal upon request.
(1) Deck water spray line

(2) Water curtain
(3) Gas free condition of hold space
(4) Alarm function of fixed gas detection equipment
(5) Cargo gauging system and alarm set points.
(6) Operation of the emergency shutdown system(ESD) the permitted operation
period for emergency shut-down equipment of up to 30 seconds
(7) Operation of cargo system remote control valves and their position indicating
systems.
(8) Confirm Cargo transfer emergency stops fully operational and date of last
test.
(9) Confirm tank high level and pressure alarms operational.
(10) Confirm that remotely operated manifold valves have been operated through
a complete open/closed cycle, functioning and advise valve type(ball,gate,
etc)and actual closing time. The corresponding records shall be produced by
the master on the ship arrival at berth. Any defects or deficiencies must be
reported to the terminal as an addendum to the Pre-Arrival information notice
(11) Deep well cargo pump and booster pump mechanical seals are free of oil
leaks.
Terms and Definitions

 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE = is the total of the gauge pressure plus the pressure of
the surrounding atmosphere.
 ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE = is the fundamental temp. scale with its absolute

expressed in degrees Kelvin. One degree Kelvin is equal to one degree Celsius.
For the purpose of practical calculation in order to convert Celsius to Kelvin add
273.
 ABSOLUTE ZERO = is the temperature at which the volume of gas theoretically

becomes zero and all thermal motion ceases. It is generally as being – 273.16 C.
 AUTO IGNITION TEMPERATURE = is the lowest temperature to which a liquid

or gas requires to be raised to cause self-sustained spontaneous combustion
without ignition by a spark of flame.
 Brittle fracture = most metals and alloys become stronger but less ductile at low
temperatures because the reduction in temperature changes the materials crystal
structure.
 Normal shipbuilding steels rapidly lose their ductility and impact-strength below 0
C. For this reason, care should be taken to prevent cold cargo from coming into
contact with such steels, as the resultant rapid cooling would make the metal
brittle and would cause stress due to contraction. In this condition the metal
would b e liable to crack. Phenomenon occurs suddenly and is called fracture.
 B.L.E.V.E = Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion. Associated with the

rupture under fire conditions of a pressure vessel containing liquefied gas.
 BOIL OFF = is the vapor produced above the surface of a boiling cargo due to
evaporation. It is caused by heat ingress or a drop in pressure of the cargo.
 BOOSTER PUMP = a pump used to increase the discharge pressure of a liquid

from another pump.
 BONDING = is the connecting together of a metal parts to ensure electrical

continuity.
 BULK CARGO = a cargo as a liquid in cargo tanks and not shipped in drums,
containers or packages.
 CARCINOGEN CARGO = a substance capable of causing cancer.
 CRITICAL PRESSURE = is a pressure which a substance exists in the liquid

state at its critical temperature. In other – it is the saturation pressure at the
critical temperature.
 MARVS = Maximum Allowable Relief Valve = The setting for this relief valve as
stated on the ship’s certificate of fitness.
 PRESSURE/VACUUM RELIEF VALVE (PV Valve) = is a device which provides

for the flow of the small volume of vapor air or inert gas mixtures caused by
thermal variations in a cargo tank.
 SHELL & TUBE CONDENSER = is a heat exchanger where one fluid circulates
through tubes enclosed between end plates in cylindrical shell and where other
fluid circulates inside the shell.
 VAPOUR DENSITY = is the density of a gas or vapor under specified conditions

of temperature and pressure.
 FROSBITE = a cold gas spilled to a person freezes the skin. This effect can
cause extensive frostbite to exposed parts of the body.
 DEW POINT = is the temperature at which condensation will take place within a
gas if further cooling occurs.
 FLAME ARRESTOR = a device incorporating corrosion resistant wire meshes. It

is used for preventing the inward the passage of sparks (for a short period of
time, the passage of flame), yet permitting the outward passage of gas.
 FLAMMABLE RANGE = is the range of gas concentrations in air between the

mixture is flammable. This describes the range of concentrations between the
LFL (LEL) and the UFL (UEL) mixtures within this range are capable of being
ignited.
 FLAMMABILITY = when a gas is released to atmosphere, if within its flammable

range and if exposed to a source of ignition it will burn. Depending upon the
conditions under which combustion takes place. Some degree of over pressure
will occur due to the rapid expansion of the heated gas.
 FLASH POINT = is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient
vapor to form a flammable mixture with air near the surface of the liquid.
 UPPER FLAMMABLE LIMIT (UFL) = is the concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in

air above which there is insufficient air to support combustion.
 LOWER FLAMMABLE LIMIT (LFL) = is the concentration of a hydrocarbon gas

in air below which there is insufficient hydrocarbon to support combustion.
 OXYGEN ANALYSER/METER = is an instrument for deter-mining the

percentage of oxygen in a sample of the atmosphere drawn from a tank pipe or
compartment.
 SPAN GAS = a vapor sample of known composition and concentration used to

calibrate gas detection equipment.
 TOXICITY DETECTOR = is an instrument used for the detection of gases or

vapors. It works on the principle of a reaction occurring between the gas being
sampled and a chemical agent in the apparatus.
 STATIC ELECTRICITY = is the electricity produced by dissimilar materials

through physical contact and separation.
CHEMISTY OF CARG0ES
 Atom – is composed of a nucleus formed by protons, particle which are
positively charged; and neutrons which are electrically neutral.
 The Protons and Neutrons forms the massive nucleus of the atom. This
nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons, which
are so small that their mass can be forgotten in all equations.
 Atomic Number – is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
 Atomic Weight – is the number which indicates how many times heavier one
atom of that element is as 1/12 of the weight of the atom of carbon.
 Periodic Table of Elements – is an orderly arrangement of the elements in

ascending atomic number and increasing atomic weight.
 Reactant – is any substance that is initially present and changed during a

chemical reaction.
 Product – is any substance produced during a chemical reaction
 The way a chemical reaction proceeds is indicated in a reaction equation.
Where the relative number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon

molecule permit the carbon atoms to use their bonds singly to other carbon atoms
the molecules are said to be saturated.
 Where there is less then the full complement of hydrogen atoms, two or more
carbon atoms become inter-linked by double or triple bonds. The molecules is
called unsaturated.
 Aromatic – are compounds that contain benzene ring or structural units like
benzene ring.
 Alcohols – are hydrocarbon derivatives whose molecules contain one or more

hydroxyl (-OH) groups in place of hydrogen atoms.
 Acid – is a chemical compound which will contribute a hydrogen ion *H+) to a

reaction.
 Base – is a chemical compound which will receive a hydrogen ion (H+) to a

reaction.
 pH – is the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration (in moles per liter) given
a negative sign.
 The scale for a acidity/alkalinity can be made by the pH values for acid and base.
Water has a pH=7 which is neutral values below 7 denotes acidic solution
values above 7 denotes an alkaline solution.
 Catalyst – is a substance that influence the speed of a reaction without itself

being permanently change whilst an inhibitor is a negative catalyst.

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Advanced Training for LIQUEFIED Gas Tanker Cargo Operations 1

ADVANCED TRAINING IN LIQUIFIED GAS TANKERS

The carriage of liquefied gases

In the late 1950’s these gases began to be carried commercially in a particularly in a

FIVE GROUPS OF LIQUEFIED GAS CARGOES

Flammability data for some liquefied gases

Gas tankers ship type according to cargo hazard

Illustration of the pressure law for ideal gases

Illustration of Charle’s law for ideal gases

Illustration of Boyle’s law of ideal gases

A schematic Mollier diagram

Properties of liquefied gases

Type of gas Tanker

1. Fully pressurized ship

 Type C tank (17,5 kg/cm2 pressure)

2. Semi pressurized ship

 Type C tank (5-8 kg/cm2 pressure)

3. Fully refrigerated ship

 Mostly type A tank (0,28 kg/cm2 pressure)

 Predominantly type C tanks

 Membrane system of type B tanks

The introduction of a tanker designed to carry compressed natural gas (CNG) is

The liquefied gases

“The carrier shall properly and care- fully load, handle,

Carefully to Carry Advisory Committee

Design of gas carriers

As alluded to above, gas carriers were in existence

Cargo tanks may be of the independent self-supporting type or of a membrane design.

The pressurised fleet

The semi-pressurised fleet

In these ships, sometimes referred to as ‘semi-refrigerated’, the cargo is carried in

The Ethylene fleet

The fully refrigerated fleet

The LNG fleet

Crew training and numbers

In addition to the official certification for hazardous cargo endorsements, a number of

Gas carriers and port operations

Hazards to shore workers and crewmembers at refit

Cargoes carried on gas carriers

Gas carrier codes

Gas carriers built after June 1986 (the IGC Code)

Cargo Containment Systems in Liquefied Gas Carriers

 Independent Type 'A'

Type A Independent Tanks are prismatic and supported on insulation-bearing blocks

 Independent Type 'B'

 Independent Type 'C'

 Internal insulation Type '1'

Membrane Tanks (membrane – 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick)

The membrane is designed in such a way that

The semi-membrane concept is a variation of membrane tank system. The primary

Internal Insulation Tanks

Materials of cargo tank construction and insulation of modern

Treatment of structural carbon steels can be used to achieve low-temperature

• Low thermal conductivity.

The vapour-sealing property of the insulation system, to prevent ingress of water or

As most insulation materials are flammable, great care is required at times of

Hazards on gas carriers

Vinyl chloride commonly carried on gas carriers is a known as a human carcinogen,

A person affected may experience headache, dizziness and inability to concentrate,

Health Effects of specific cargoes carried on gas carriers

6. Draining of Ammonia into sea while pre-cooling of the hard-arm or during

The carriage of liquefied gases in bulk -Where do the products

In the late 1950s these gases began to be