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The Gassing Tendency of Various Insulating Fluids under Electrical Discharge

Article  in  IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation · November 2011

DOI: 10.1109/TDEI.2011.6032832 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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1616 J. S. N’Cho et al.: The Gassing Tendency of Various Insulating Fluids under Electrical Discharge

The Gassing Tendency of Various Insulating Fluids

under Electrical Discharge
J. S. N’Cho1, I. Fofana2, A. Beroual1, T. Aka-Ngnui1 and J. Sabau3

1
Ecole Centrale de Lyon, AMPERE CNRS UMR 5005, 36 avenue Guy de Collongue, 69134 Ecully, France
2
Canada Research Chair on Insulating Liquids and Mixed Dielectrics for Electrotechnology (ISOLIME),
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Qc, Canada
3
InsOil Canada Ltd, Canada

ABSTRACT
Since gas evolvement deteriorates the dielectrical properties of insulating fluid, its
ability to resist decomposition under electrical discharge is of paramount importance
for the safety of power transformers under operating conditions. In this paper, a series
of experiments have been performed under electrical discharge according to ASTM
D6180. Various insulating fluids were considered. The samples include minerals oils,
synthetic and natural esters, and silicone fluid. The results indicate that the gassing
tendency of natural esters is much lower than their counterparts. No significant
differences between synthetic esters and silicone fluid were observed. Severely
hydrotreated and hydrocracked oils indicate a higher gassing tendency. It is also shown
that service-aged oil gassing tendency decreases with reclamation passes. The
reclamation of service aged oil by three commercially available Fuller’s Earth (FE)
showed a declined gassing tendency when FE helped reducing the DDF and turbidity.
In addition, the theoretical premises that, oil born decay products contribute to the oil
gassing, is experimentally confirmed under laboratory conditions. Extended stability
test (3 times longer than the standard specification) also provide convincing evidences
that each brand of mineral insulating oil might contain a limited amount of unstable
hydrocarbons and volatile compounds. This finding indicates that when in service
conditions these are gradually decomposed, the gassing tendency should go down.

Index Terms - Insulating fluids, reclamation, Fuller’s earth, stability test, dissolved
decay products, turbidity, gassing tendency, electrical discharge.

1 INTRODUCTION Decay products which darken the color of in-service-aged

POWER transformers are critical, highly loaded and
expensive part of the electricity generation and distribution
network. The potential consequences of transformer failure can
be quite damaging [1, 2]. In these expensive equipments, large
quantities of fluids are used, with a two-fold function: to insulate
electrically and to dissipate the heat generated by the windings.
Although insulating oils are very carefully refined and
pressboards carefully manufactured, the oil-paper composite
insulation of power transformer undergo a slow decay
process, even under normal operating conditions. The decay
products gradually affect the physical, chemical and dielectric
properties of the whole insulation. Additionally the decay
products are partially adsorbed on the large surface of paper
insulation leading to premature aging of power transformers.
Consequently the service reliability is diminished and the life
expectancy of power transformers shortened [3].
Manuscript received on 25 October 2010, in final form 18 April 2011.
oil, cannot be formed without breaking the hydrocarbon chains.
Since this process implies the decomposition of vulnerable
hydrocarbons, the question arises as to the source of energy
required for the splitting of a covalent bond. The ageing process
is attributed to the decomposition of hydrocarbon molecules by
either thermal or electric stresses (that originate from the design
factors, operating conditions and electric transients) and the
chemical aggressiveness of dissolved oxygen [4]. Knowledge of
the resistance to gassing of insulating fluids under high
electrical stress is of upmost important to both electrical-
equipments designers and operating engineers. The energy
required for the decomposition of weakly bonded hydrocarbons
is supplied in this case by the high voltage stress. The
absorption of large amount of energy causes electronic
excitation of molecules, which in certain cases leads to the
homolytic breakdown of weak chemical bonds generating
“gases (along with low molecular weight hydrocarbons)”. When
this process takes place, the evolve gas leaves behind in the
liquid phase the bulk of the broken molecule. Since this

1070-9878/11/$25.00 © 2011 IEEE

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 18, No. 5; October 2011
remaining part of the decomposed hydrocarbon is a free radical,
there is a high probability that it will react with a similar free
radical which is no longer soluble in the blend of hydrocarbons.
This is an invisible solid suspension, known under the generic
name of x-waxes.
2 BACKGROUND ON OXYDATION AND
DECAY PRODUCTS
The decay process of insulating oil begins initially by the
breakdown of valence bonds in unstable hydrocarbon and
volatile molecules. If the hydrocarbons chains are not broken,
the formation of decay products is not possible [4].
The sources of energy capable of splitting of a covalent
bond made up of a pair of electrons are three fold:
- The strong electric field that triggers the free electrons
injection in the liquid injection.
- The thermal energy generated by the active part of
transformer.
- Finally, exposure to moisture, the aggressiveness of
dissolved oxygen, acids and other chemical contaminants
provides the chemical source of reaction (promoted by the
catalytic effect of copper) for the decomposition process.
The degradation is primarily a chemical process that is
substantially accelerated by heat and the presence of oxygen
and moisture. Moisture is particularly detrimental to paper, as
it will initiate hydrolysis and scission of the cellulose chain.
Oxygen molecule, which is “diradical” specie, has very
special electronic features. Since its ground state is a triplet,
the first two excited states of oxygen are singlet states that
have very long lifetimes [5-7]. According to Henry’s law, the
amount of gases dissolved in mineral oil is dependent upon
the partial pressure of existing gases above the surface. This is
the reason why the oil in contact with air at atmospheric
pressure dissolves 10% air by volume. The dissolved oxygen
content of an oil sample, taken from the tank of a free-
breathing transformer, shows values, between 5,000 and
40,000 ppm [7]. The omnipresence of oxygen (with the
catalytic effect of copper), heat and water will promote
insulating liquid oxidation even under normal conditions.
The oxidation process is a complex phenomenon involving
free radical reactions [8].
When the concentration of dissolved oxygen is high as it is in
a free breathing transformer, the electronic excitation energy of
the oxygen molecule can be transferred to vulnerable molecules.
Oxygen attacks both the paper and the oil producing a range of
acids and other polar materials. Over longer periods of time, the
degradation products accumulate in the insulation and become
increasingly active in promoting further degradation. The
oxidation process accelerated, by temperature, moisture or
other chemicals, results in peroxides, which dissociate to form
free radicals. Thus, the dissolved oxygen becomes a
contributing factor to the gassing of oil [9]. The auto-oxidation
reaction generates not only soluble decay products, which
darken the color of in-service-aged oil, but also produce
large insoluble molecules.
1617
The important role played by the free radicals as
intermediary reaction products in the decay process of oil-
paper insulation is generally accepted by the research
community. They are believed to be responsible for
initiating most of the oil and paper degradation processes
[10]. They play a major role in a wide variety of ageing
processes. In simple terms, free radicals are electrically
charged particles. To become stabilized, a free radical
must steal its missing electron from another molecule. In
general, free radicals have two properties. The first is an
important physical property: their paramagnetic nature.
Free radicals are paramagnetic because of their unpaired
electrons. In an inhomogeneous electric field, they are not
uniformly dispersed in the dielectric liquid. The
concentration of free radicals is therefore higher at the
place where the electric field is more intense, the
probability of a collision between two free radicals
followed by the formation of a product of decomposition
is increased. A liquid compound, liquid or solid can be
formed by such chemical reactions depending on the size
of free radicals that react. When the molecular size of a
new molecule exceeds the average molecular weight of
hydrocarbons, it may become insoluble in oil.
Sludge is formed and it is usually trapped inside the
porous structure of the insulation paper or it is adsorbed
on its large surface. The second property is the production
of charge carriers during the redox-reaction, which
increase the dissipation factor of oil:
R + [cation]+  R- + [cation]++
2R  R+ + R-
Free radical concentration is related to partial discharge
activity and indicative of poor oil quality as suggested by
its high power factor [10].
3 GASSING CHARACTERISTICS
While the gassing of insulating oils is considered as a
symptom of a potential threat to the operational safety of
transformers, its side effects on the purity of oil are generally
ignored. Scientifically, the gassing of oil is defined as the
chemical decomposition of certain vulnerable hydrocarbons,
under the impact of electrical and thermal stresses. When
hydrocarbon chains break down, a small fraction evolves as a
gas, and a chemically reactive large free radical. Supposing
that before decomposition, the molecular weight of this
hydrocarbon chain was between 250 - 300, after losing a
hydrogen atom or a methyl free radical, its size decreases by
less than 10%. The collision between such large free radicals
generates colloidal decay products with an average molecular
weight of 450 to 550, which are no longer soluble in oil.
Failure of liquid filled equipments can be caused by
discharge in bubble. Such phenomenon was first observed in
the early 1930s in oil filled cables [11]. So far, power
equipments are being designed with the aim of minimizing the
possibility of formation of gas. The formation of gas bubble in
the liquid under electrical stress, results in a stressed liquid-
1618 J. S. N’Cho et al.: The Gassing Tendency of Various Insulating Fluids under Electrical Discharge
gas interface [12]. If the field stress is high enough, non
disruptive or salient discharge will occur with ionization and
molecular activation of the gas and liquid molecules. Such
discharge is not accompanied by high temperature; therefore
the reactions which occur is due to the electrons, the electrical
stress, the frequency of the applied voltage, the nature and
pressure of the gas phase, the temperature and the chemical
composition of the liquid and the physicochemical reactions
initiated by the atomized gas phase [11-13]. There is a direct
relation between certain molecules in the fluid and its ability
to gas absorption. It is now well established that aromatic
molecules affect gassing [14].
The existing methods to determine the stability of liquid-
to-gas formation (resistance to gassing) can be subdivided
into two groups. The first is the Modified Pirelli Method
[15, 16], which was originally developed for cable oils.
Discharges were initiated above the surface of the insulating
liquid, involving only the vapor produced by the insulating
liquid. This was an important step towards determining the
gassing tendency of insulating liquids. However, this
method has not been widely accepted [17]. The second
method to determine the gassing tendency of insulating
liquids involves initiating electric discharges directly in a
liquid sample in a test cell to simulate faults that occur in
operating equipment. Contrary to the first method, it
indicates, "whether insulating oils are gas absorbing or gas
evolving", which presents a confusing signal to electrical
engineers. As long as the gassing of a new or aged
insulating oil sample cannot be accurately measured, it is
practically impossible to identify the variables that might
have caused an increased concentration of fault gases.
Consequently, the alternate ASTM Designation D 6180 was
developed [18]. This “Standard Test Method for stability of
Insulating Oils of Petroleum Origin under Electrical
Discharges” can measure the amount of gases evolved by
new, in-service aged or reclaimed oils submitted to electrical
discharge. The amount of gas evolved by an oil sample as
well as the side effects of gassing can be accurately
measured. During the five-hour test a computerized
instrument visualizes the dynamics of gassing on the screen
of a computer.
4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
A Merell-based test cell type, defined in the ASTM Test
Method D6180, was used (Figure 1). The free electrons are
generated by a cylindrical copper electrode 15 mm (0.6
inches) in diameter and 10 mm long sealed in a 500 ml
Erlenmeyer glass. The electrode is placed in the center of the
discharge cell and suspended above the oil. The distance
between the central electrode and the surface of oil is
approximately 25.4 mm (1 inch).
Before applying the voltage, the discharge cell was
vacuumed down to 1 Torr (133 Pa). After vacuum degassing,
insulating fluid specimen is subjected to high voltage
discharge of 10 kV during 5 h. After measuring five times, the
pressure increases inside the discharge cell to assess the
quantity of gasses evolved.
Figure 1. Discharge cell according to ASTM Designation D6180 [18].
Various fluids properties such as the Dielectric Dissipation
Factor (DDF) [19], at line frequency (60 Hz) and 100°C, the
Dissolved Decay Products (DDP) [20], Turbidity [21],
Interfacial tension (IFT) [22], and Water content [23] were
measured before and after voltage application to assess the
discharge deleterious impact. The Dielectric Dissipation
Factor measurements were performed with the Insulation
Diagnostic Analyser IDA200 [24] using the liquid test cell
type 2903 for liquid insulants manufactured by Tettex. This
test cell, equipped with guard rings, were designed in
accordance with the specifications of VDE (Verband Deutsh
Elektrotechnik) 0303, 0370 and the recommendations of
CIGRE, IEC and ISO, as well as with ASTM standards. A
ratio turbidimetric optical system is used to measure the
turbidity of insulating fluids relative to turbidity standards.
The dissolved decay products are determined by a scanning
spectrophotometer [20].
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Comparison between insulating fluids
Fluids samples collected from various manufacturers were
considered for these investigations. Mineral based oils, natural
and synthetic esters as well as silicone fluid were considered
in these investigations (Table 1).Table 2 presents some of the
technical data for the investigated liquids. The data reported
for NEB, SEA and SEB were performed as per IEC 61099. It
should be noticed that Oil always represents Mineral Oil, NE
for Natural Ester, while SE stands for Synthetic Ester.
Basically, the gassing of an insulating fluid under electrical
discharge depends on the chemical composition of the fluid,
electric field stress, temperature and time. The dynamics of
the fluids gassing was visualized on the screen of a computer
during the test and summarized in Figure 2. The pressure
increases inside the discharge cell indicates the amount of
gases evolved due to the primary decomposition of un-stable
molecules. Oil A, which is an isoparaffin base fluid, indicates
a higher gassing tendency. Oils severely hydrotretead and
hydrocracked to eliminate carcinogenic polyaromatic
hydrocarbons, are generally known to be gas evolving,
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 18, No. 5; October 2011 1619

whereas those containing the aromatic ones absorb hydrogen Obviously, the gassing tendency of natural esters is much
[25]. While silicone fluid and the synthetic esters depict lower than that of synthetic esters and mineral oils. This is
almost the same behaviour, natural esters obviously show a well-known fact as emphasized by German and Fuoss [26].
very low gassing tendency. According to these authors, vegetable fluids are generally
Table 1. Basic chemical characteristics of insulating fluids considered in
better than mineral oils. This can be traced to fact that the
these investigations. former are chemically better defined and more uniform, while
Insulating fluids Characteristics mineral oils always contain various admixtures, and if they are
Synthetic ester A halogen-free pentaerythrite-tetra fatty acid based excessively refined they may even lose traces of un-saturates
ester that are actually desirable. This low gassing tendency of
Synthetic ester B halogen-free pentaerythrite-tetra fatty acid based natural esters is most likely due to the amount of unsaturated,
ester
Natural ester A triglyceride or fatty acid ester consisting of a
non-aromatic molecules as compared to mineral oils [14].
mixture of satured and unsatured fatty acids with By comparing stability of synthetic esters, minerals oils and
C14 to C22 chains
Natural ester B fatty acid ester triglycerides
silicone in our study, results indicate that mineral oils B and C
Silicone fluid polydimethyl-siloxane are more stable under electrical discharge in comparison to
[(CH2)2 SIO]Y (CH3)2 synthetic esters A, B and silicone. This may be due to the fact
Mineral Oil A ultra-pure synthesized isoparaffin base fluids. that the synthetic fluid contains substantial quantities of
Mixture of severely hydrotretead and olefins, which are known to be oxidatively unstable [27].
hydrocracked based-oil (petroleum)
Mineral Oil B naphthenic oil
Synthetic esters A and B are more stable than mineral A. The
Mineral Oil C naphthenic oil results clearly indicate that superiority of an electrical
Mineral Oil D distillated (petroleum), hydrotreated light insulating fluid is not a heritage of a family of oils. The
naphthenic. gassing tendency are to be traced to the individual make-up
2,6-di-tert-butyl-p-cresol and refinement. Either mineral oils, synthetic fluids or
Mineral Oil E Naphthenic oil silicones can be carefully refined to improve gassing
Determining the water content, DDF at line frequency and tendency.
100 °C, DDP, IFT and Turbidity of the fluid samples before From the results reported in Tables 3 and 4, the following
the stability tests (Table 3), and comparing them with those - The properties of new oil samples (DDP, DDF, IFT and
obtained after (Table 4), assesses the outcome of random Turbidity) indicate that some of the oils are not
secondary chemical reactions between large fluid born free excessively refined and contain substantial amount of
radicals. residual polar compounds or unstable hydrocarbon and
Significant differences exist between natural esters and volatile molecules that affect the gassing tendency.
typical mineral oils. Certain tests such as aniline point and - The value of DDP after stability test increases because the
interfacial tension may not have as much applicability for large amounts of free radicals generated by the gassing of
natural esters as mineral oils. Because of the high hydrophilic oil. At the same time the turbidity goes also up due to the
nature of the liquid, the interfacial tension test may not be secondary chemical reactions between the broken
very sensitive to, changes in oil quality [14]. hydrocarbon chains.

Table 2. Some of the technical data of the Insulating fluids.

ASTM TEST Oil A Oil B Oil C Oil D Oil E NE A NE B SE A SE B Silicone
Dissipation factor @ 60Hz, 100°C, D 924 0.001 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.04 0.084 1.850 - - - 0.00004
Breakdown voltage (kV),
ASTM D 877 55 55 55 42 40 51 40
CEI 60156 < 75 < 75 99
Gassing tendency (µL/min), D 2300 -10 +15 negative +24 6.7 -80.5 - - -
Water content (ppm), D 1533 < 25 < 20 < 20 11 15 < 80 - 50 55 -
Interfacial tension (dynes/cm @ 25°C), D 48 50 50 48 51 24 - - 20.8
971
Viscosity (cSt @ 40°C ), D 445 9.2 8.5 7.3 9.23 9.8 35 37 28 25 32 (@50°C)
Color, D 1500 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 L0.5 L0.5 L0.5 (green) Pale yellow 125 -
Flash point (°C), D 92 170 150 150 151 149 326 327 260 274 300
Pour point (°C), D 97 -60 -60 -63 -56 -55 -24 -31 -60 < -50 -55

Table 3. Insulating fluid samples assessment before D6180 stability test.

Oil A Oil B Oil C Oil D Oil E NE A NE B SE A SE B Silicone
Water content (ppm) 23 15.6 8.5 11.7 30.5 90.7 186 107.1 107.2 50.2
DDF @60Hz, 100°C (%) 0.0439 0.0461 0.0496 0.0494 0.016 2.05 1.93 3.125 1.41 0.0435
DDP – D 6802 (area) 0.05 0.73 3.71 1.9 11.58 20.92 22.03 5.1 1.52 -
Interfacial Tension (IFT) 47 41.2 42.1 45 43.4 27 23 23.5 24 27
Turbidity D 6181 (NTU) 0.1 0.2 0.72 0.27 0.29 0.37 0.35 0.47 0.16 0.08
1620 J. S. N’Cho et al.: The Gassing Tendency of Various Insulating Fluids under Electrical Discharge

Figure 2. Insulating fluid samples gassing diagrams.

Table 4. Insulating fluid samples assessment after D6180 stability test.

Oil A Oil B Oil C Oil D Oil E NE A NE B SE A SE B Silicone
Water content (ppm) 11 11.7 10.3 14.5 11.1 175.6 183.5 283.7 281.2 24.2
DDF @60Hz, 100°C (%) 0.1046 0.1264 0.101 0.1119 0.719 3,74 6,134 11.51 15.97 0.0776
DDP – D 6802 (area) 4.94 16.89 19.03 37.78 36.78 24.31 28.66 4.34 7.65 3.22
Interfacial Tension (IFT) 38 33.5 34.8 31.2 34.5 20.8 20 21 22.9 21
Turbidity D 6181 (NTU) 1.29 1.03 1.58 2.08 2.19 2.43 1.91 0.95 0.82 3.84

5.2 COMBINED SUMMARY ON THE FLUIDS

GASSING SIDE EFFECT
The properties of esters or silicones fluids cannot be
correlated directly to that of a mineral oil as their
chemistries are very different. However, some tests used to
evaluate mineral oil are generally used to evaluate ester
fluids [14]. Results and the meaning of the tests are different
between the fluids. Because the formation of sludge and
other by-products results from the fluid decomposition,
correlations between the fluids gassing tendency and its
physicochemical properties have to be established. To be
able to compare the side effect of their gassing, baseline for
comparison is required. All the parameters were plotted in Figure 3. Comparative summary of the fluids properties in per unit values
per unit scales (value measured before D6180 and reported (value before D6180/ value after D6180 stability tests).
in Table 3/value measured after D6180 and reported in
Mineral oils when submitted to electrical stress/discharge
Table 4) so that they can be accommodated in the same
tend to break into free radicals and precipitate sludge,
graph (Figure 3) for a better comparison. It is observed from
potentially increasing DDP and Turbidity. Oil A which
Figure 3 that, changes in IFT is almost similar for all the
depicted the higher gassing tendency also reveals the side
fluids.
effects of gassing due to the secondary chemical reactions
The increases in IFT and DDF are almost the same for the between broken hydrocarbons with increase in DDP and
investigated fluids, except Oil E which show a higher Turbidity. On the contrary, esters tend to polymerize but not
increase in the DDF. Indeed, esters are more polar and have form sludge precipitates [28] potentially depicting lower DDP
a larger solubility against sludge [9]. and Turbidity while the DDF increases. Therefore, the
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 18, No. 5; October 2011 1621

Table 5. Oil samples assessment before and after D6180 stability test.

Aged oil Reclaimed aged oil Reclaimed aged oil

(one pass) (second pass)
Before D6180 After D6180 Before D6180 After D6180 Before D6180 After D6180
Water content (ppm) 11.8 16 26 10.9 15.4 16.8
DDF @60Hz, 100°C (%) 5.376 1.65 0.02887 1.067 0.00978 1.289
DDP - D6802 (area) 231.07 133.48 152.91 103.79 101.13 90.12
Turbidity D6181 (NTU) 1.36 2.98 1.06 2.42 0.74 1.92

solubility of insoluble or suspended colloids and by-products
in the fluids should be taken into account.
5.3 GASSING TENDENCY OF RECLAIMED OILS
Oil reclamation has an important role in the preventive
maintenance of transformer. The dissolved impurities, mainly
consisting of decay products ionized (charge carriers), free
radicals, gas, and oxidized molecules, which multiply in the
useful life insulating fluids for transformers can be eliminated
by passing the oil through a bed of Fuller’s earth. Fuller’s
earth is a mined product (a clay type material with a
composition of alumina, silica, iron oxides, lime, and
magnesia in various proportions) which, after drying and
processing by acid activation, is usually supplied as a fine
powder. The colour can be grey, buff, green, brown or blue.
Fuller’s Earth removes both moisture and neutralises
carboxylic acids [29]. In our laboratory made-plant, oil is
heated at 60°C when passing through the activated Fuller's
Earth cartridge to remove acids and impurities. The
reclamation rejuvenates the transformer oil by eliminating
contaminants formed due to entry of foreign particles,
oxidation of oil and insulation deterioration, sludge formation,
thermal cracking etc.
It is well known that reclaimed oil does not have the same
stability as new oil even though it complies with the same
industry standards [21]. This is because Fuller’s Earth is not
effective at removing some of the polar compounds that are
precursors to acids. The poor stability has been attributed to
removal of dissolved decay products and colloidal
suspensions was not complete.
Out of Figure 4, it can also be seen that, in the same
experimental conditions, gas amount generated by the
service aged oil (pressure increase in the discharge cell 
4000 Pa) is far higher than that generated by the reclaimed
service aged ones (pressure increase in the discharge cell 
3000 Pa). The behaviour of oil sample reclaimed second
time improves again. Currently, these very important side
effects of gassing are not taken in account. Without knowing
how much gas, charge carriers and colloidal suspensions
arise in oil samples submitted to electrical discharge, the
stability (resistance to gassing) of liquid insulation cannot be
reliably determined. In addition, the theoretical premises
that, colloidal suspensions contribute to the gassing of oil is
experimentally confirmed under laboratory conditions
(Figure 4). The increase in turbidity proves the formation of
colloidal suspensions measured by ASTM Test Method
D6181 [21]. The DDP lowered since some gaseous charge
carriers (dissolved in the oil) were removed during the
degassing of oil sample. In the same time, some of the
unstable oxidation decay products also decompose
decreasing the value of DDP. The oxidized compounds do
not increase both properties.
35 5000
Aged oil
30
Reclaimed aged oil 4000
(one pass)
25
Reclaimed aged oil
Pressure (torr)

Pressure (Pa)
(second pass)
residual polar compounds that are precursors to acids. The 20
3000

influence of oil decay product onto the gassing tendency

under electric stress can be assessed by measuring the rise of 15
2000
pressure of a sample of in-service deteriorated oil and 10
reclaimed oil according to the ASTM Test Method D 6180. 1000
5

5.3.1 INFLUENCE OF RECLAMATION PASSES 0 0

Oil sample collected from a Canadian utility (18.75 MVA –
154/13.2 kV, commissioned in 1975) company ageing
transformer were reclaimed by chemical treatment using
Fuller’s Earth based reclamation techniques [30]. The amount
of gases evolved under the impact of electrical discharge by a
sample of reclaimed or in-service deteriorated oil was
measured. The gassing dynamics during the five-hour test are
summarized in Figure 4. Determining the DDF, DDP and
turbidity of the oil specimen before and after the stability test
(Table 5), assesses the outcome of random secondary
chemical reactions between large oil born free radicals. Data
reported in this Table indicates that, even after two passes, the
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hour)
Figure 4. Gassing tendency of in-service-aged oil, reclaimed aged oil (one
pass) and reclaimed aged oil (two pass).
Aged oils basically contain dissolved impurities, mainly
consisting of decay products ionized (charge carriers), free
radicals, gas, and oxidized molecules, which multiply in
service. Free radicals and decay products concentration is
indicative of poor oil quality as suggested by its high power
factor [31]. Aged oils show a decline in dissipation factor after
D 6180 testing. This may have been due to the evaporation of
certain unstable and volatile constituents of the oils during
1622 J. S. N’Cho et al.: The Gassing Tendency of Various Insulating Fluids under Electrical Discharge

vacuum degassing (before voltage application). The reduction substantial amount of residual polar compounds or unstable
in such volatile constituents affects the number of random hydrocarbon and volatile molecules that might affect the
secondary chemical reactions that usually maintain the steady gassing tendency. So to speak, care in refining crude oils may
increase in dissipation factor. be influence its gassing tendency. A naphthenic based mineral
oil sample was considered for these investigations. Fraction of
Impurities are partially eliminated by passing aged oil
the oil sample was reclaimed by FE techniques. The amount
through a bed of Fuller’s Earth thus depicting an intermediate
of gases evolved under the impact of electrical discharge by
behavior between new oil and aged oil. the new oil sample and the reclaimed new oil was accurately
measured (Figure 6).
5.3.2 INFLUENCE OF FULLER’S EARTH Determining the DDP and turbidity of the oil specimens
Three different types of FE from various manufacturers before and comparing them with those obtained after the
were used to reclaim the same service-aged oil: a normal stability test (Figure 7), assesses the impact of residual polar
one (FE 1) and two improved ones (acid washed clays) compounds or unstable hydrocarbon and volatile molecules.
referred as FE 2 and FE 3. The samples of in-service
deteriorated oil were collected from a Canadian utility 30 4000

company ageing power transformers (47 MVA, 161/26.5

kV, commissioned in 1984) were reclaimed in laboratory 25
New oil
conditions. During the five-hour test, the pressure increase 3000

inside the discharge cell was recorded (Figure 5). 20 Reclaimed New oil

Pressure (Torr)
Determining the Dielectric Dissipation Factor (DDF), the

Pressure (Pa)
DDP and turbidity of the oil specimens before and after the 15 2000
stability test (Table 6), assesses the outcome of random
secondary chemical reactions between large oil born free
10
radicals. The amount of gases evolved by the in-service
1000
deteriorated oil samples, decreases after the selective
removal of dissolved and insoluble decay products by 5

reclamation. Better results, in regard to the gassing

tendency, were obtained with FE 3. Hence, the selective 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
removal capability of the FE on its gassing tendency might Time (Hour)
also be emphasized.
Figure 6. Gassing tendency of new and reclaimed new oil samples.

35 5000
Aged oil
2,5
New oil after stability test
30 Reclaimed with FE 2 DDP = 36,78
4000 Turbidity = 2,19 NTU
Reclaimed with FE 1
25
2
Reclaimed with FE 3 New oil before stability test
Pressure (torr)

Pressure (Pa)

3000 DDP = 11,58

20
Absorbance (a.u)

Turbidity = 0,29 NTU

1,5

15
2000
Reclaimed new oil after stability test
1 DDP = 14,78
10
Turbidity = 1,47 NTU
1000
5
0,5 Reclaimed new oil before stability test
DDP = 1,46
0 0 Turbidity = 0,17 NTU
0 1 2 3 4 5 0
Time (hour) 360 400 440 480 520 560 600

Figure 5. Gassing tendency of service-aged oil and reclaimed service-aged Wavelength (nm)
oils subjected to electrical discharge. Figure 7. Absorbance illustrating the Dissolved Decay Products of new oil
and the reclaimed same new oil submitted to the high voltage discharge before
and after stability test.
5.3.3 INFLUENCE OF NEW OIL REFINEMENT
GRADE
Out of Figure 7, it can be seen that the new oil was not
It is now a well known fact that gases may be produced in excessively refined. Even though the DDP and turbidity of the
oil, not as a result of incipient electrical/thermal failure [32]. reclaimed new oil improve, a noticeable change in the gassing
New oils may not be excessively refined and contain tendency was not observed (Figure 6).
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 18, No. 5; October 2011 1623

Table 6. Oil samples assessment before and after D6180 stability tests.
Aged oil Reclaimed with FE 1 Reclaimed with FE 2 Reclaimed with FE 3
Before After D6180 Before After D6180 Before After D6180 Before After D6180
D6180 D6180 D6180 D6180
Water content (ppm) 32.4 25.8 23.9 20.8 14.7 12.6 21.1 13.4
DDF @60Hz, 100°C (%) 3.603 1.604 0.2108 1.324 0.2154 1.805 0.1532 1.096

DDP - D6802 (area) 241.06 175.31 163.55 123.93 178.6 124.98 181.87 130.37
Turbidity D6181 (NTU) 1.62 2.37 1.34 1.99 1.6 2.16 1.22 2.47

5.4 NEW OIL SUBMITTED TO ELECTRICAL 2,5

3rd Cycle of 5 Hours
DISCHARGE FOR AN EXTENDED PERIOD DDP = 57,78
Turbidity = 2,1 NTU
The amount of gases evolved under the impact of electrical 2

discharge by a new oil sample for an extended period (three 2nd Cycle of 5 Hours

Absorbance (a.u)
cycles of 5 h) was accurately measured (Figure 8). DDP = 47,41
1,5
Determining the DDP and turbidity of the oil specimens Turbidity = 1,96 NTU
before and comparing them with those obtained after (Figure
9) the stability test, assesses the impact of residual polar 1
1st Cycle of 5 Hours
DDP = 36,74
compounds or unstable hydrocarbon molecules. Even Turbidity = 1,81 NTU
though the amount of decay products increases (Figure 9),
the gassing tendency decreases. From this extended stability 0,5 New oil before stability test
DDP = 11,58
test, it seems that mineral insulating oil contains a limited Turbidity = 0,29 NTU
amount of unstable hydrocarbons. When in service 0
conditions these are gradually decomposed, the gassing 360 400 440 480 520 560 600
tendency goes down. Wavelength (nm)

Figure 9. Absorbance curves illustrating the Dissolved Decay Products of

35 5000 new oil before stabilty test and the same new oil submitted to the high voltage
discharge after stability test.
30 1st Cycle of 5 Hours
2nd Cycle of 5 Hours 4000 6 CONCLUSIONS
25 3rd Cycle of 5 Hours The gassing characteristics of different brands of
commercially available insulating fluids, i.e. synthetic, natural
Pressure (torr)

Pressure (Pa)

20
15
10
5 stability test under electric stress (D 6180). Whilst the D 6180
0 0
0 1 2 3
Time (hour)
Figure 8. Gasssing tendency of a new oil submitted to three cycles of five
hours test under electrical discharge.
Although the quantity of gas evolved decreases, there is
an increase of dissolved decay products and turbidity
(Figure 9). After each cycle the same oil contains a limited
amount of unstable hydrocarbons which in their turn will
generate a certain amount of dissolved decay products and
colloidal suspensions. This amount added to the amount of
dissolved products generated by the cycle i-1 explains the
increase of dissolved decay products and turbidity
generated by the cycle i.
3000
esters, silicone fluid and mineral oils were studied according to
ASTM D6180. In addition to the dielectric dissipation factor
(ASTM D 924) and interfacial tension (ASTM D 971); fast,
2000
inexpensive and reliable laboratory testing procedures
developed by ASTM (D 6802 and D 6181) have been used to
1000 monitor decay products as trace impurities before and after the
stability test accurately measures the gases evolved, it also
reveals the side effects of gassing due to the secondary chemical
4 5
reactions between broken hydrocarbons. The results indicate
that the gassing tendency of natural esters is much lower than
that of the other fluids. This is not to say that natural esters are
superior to mineral oils/silicone fluid. Each liquid type has its
advantages and disadvantages and must be fitted to specific
application. No significant differences between synthetic esters
and silicone fluid were observed. The severely hydrotretead and
hydrocracked oil, indicates a higher gassing tendency.
It is also shown that the gassing tendency of service-aged oil
decreases with reclamation cycles. The type of Fuller’s Earth used
for the reclamation process also affects the gassing tendency. In
addition, the theoretical premises that, oil born decay products
contribute to the oil gassing, is experimentally confirmed under
1624 J. S. N’Cho et al.: The Gassing Tendency of Various Insulating Fluids under Electrical Discharge
laboratory conditions. The reason that this information is so
important is that it can significantly affect the results of the
dissolved gas-in-oil (DGA) test. DGA is one of the most widely
used diagnostic tools for assessing the condition of electrical
transformers and in more recent years load tap-changers and bulk
oil circuit. Submitting oil to an extended period under electrical
discharge (3 times longer), the gassing tendency decreased,
indicating that mineral insulating oil might contains a limited
amount of unstable hydrocarbons or volatile compounds.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was carried out within the framework of the Canada
Research Chair, ISOLIME at the University of Quebec in
Chicoutimi. The authors would like to thank Jaxon Filtration
(United States) and Rio Tinto Alcan , division Énergie Électrique
(Canada) for their support in materials. Thanks are also extended to
Region Rhônes Alpes (France) for supporting the research stay of
Mr N’Cho in Canada.
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Janvier Sylvestre N’Cho (M’09) received the Master
degree in 2007 from the Ecole Centrale de Lyon, France
where he is currently enrolled as a Ph.D. degree Student.
His main research interests include high voltage engineering
phenomena, electrical insulation and, dielectrics materials.
He has authored/co-authored four technical papers.
Issouf Fofana (M’05-SM’09) received the Electro-
mechanical Engineering degree in 1991 from the University
of Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire), the Master and Ph.D. degrees,
respectively in 1993 and 1996, respectively from the Ecole
Centrale de Lyon, France, where he was a postdoctoral
researcher in 1997. From 1998 to 2000, he was researcher
(fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung from 97 to
1999) at the Schering Institute of High Voltage Engineering Techniques
(University of Hanover, Germany). He joined the Université du Québec à
Chicoutimi (UQAC) as an Associate Researcher in 2000. He is currently a
Professor at the UQAC, Quebec, Canada. Since 2005, Dr Fofana is Chair
holder of the Canada Research Chair, tier 2, on Insulating Liquids and mixed
dielectrics for Electrotechnology (ISOLIME). He is registered as a
professional engineer in the province of Quebec, and is currently appointed to
the Technical Committee of the IEEE CEIDP and the International Advisory
Committee of the IEEE ICDL. He is a member of the IEEE Task Force on
Atmospheric Icing performance of line insulators and member of the ASTM
D27 Task Group to develop a test method for Partial Discharge Inception
Voltage. He has authored/co-authored over 150 scientific publications,
twobook chapters and has 3 patents.
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 18, No. 5; October 2011
Abderrahmane Beroual (M’92-SM’09-F’11) is currently
Professor at the Ecole Centrale de Lyon, France. Presently,
he is the head of the Dielectric Materials and High Voltage
Group at AMPERE Lab-CNRS as well as responsible of the
Master research program in electrical engineering. From
1994 to 1998, he chaired the International Study Group on
Streamer Propagation in Liquids of the IEEE–DEIS. He is
member of many Advisory Committees of International Conferences (ICDL,
ISH, APTADM, Gas Discharge, ICHVE, CMD, INSUCON, NIWE, iREED,
Technical Committee of the IEEE CEIDP, UF10 Technical Commission –
MT30 of IEC) and responsible for various research projects. His main
research interests include high voltage insulation, dielectric materials, long air
gaps discharge and lightning, modelling of discharges and composite
materials. He supervised more than 40 Ph.D. degree Students. He is author/co-
author of more than 330 technical papers including more than 110 refereed
journal papers, 4 patents and 5 book chapters.
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1625
Thomas Aka-Ngnui received the physical engineering
degree in 1995 from the Faculty of Science and Technology,
University of Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire), and the M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees from the Ecole Centrale, Lyon, France in 1996
and 2000, respectively. He is presently an associate professor
at the Ecole Centrale de Lyon where he is Head of High
Voltage Test Center (CEHT) – AMPERE Lab-CNRS. His
main research interests include high-voltage phenomena, electrical insulation,
dielectric materials, modeling, and computer simulation. He has authored/co-
authored over 20 scientific publications.
John Sabau is a specialist in the physical chemistry of
mineral insulating oils and the principle researcher of
INSOIL Canada Ltd., which he founded in 1985. After
graduation from the University of Bucharest, where he
studied chemistry, he joined a large electrical utility
company in Romania. During his thirty years as laboratory
manager for the electrical power industry he studied the
impact of electrical stress on the chemistry of liquid
insulation in high voltage power transformers. In 1985, he
developed, several new technologies and laboratory testing procedures
designed to enhance the service reliability of power transformers by
improving the chemistry of mineral insulating oils.