Name: Irfan Ullah Khan

Assignment No: 2
Tutor Name: Sadia Bibi
Course Code: 0826
Allama Iqbal Open University

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Q. No. 1 Define instructional technology and compare different kinds of projected
and non-projected aids.
Ans: The 21st century increases the needs as a result to which invention flood has develop.
(It also re-evaluate educational sector so when we talk IT we talk it in education).Thus
Instructional Technology is a systematic way of designing, developing, and evaluating the
total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific goals and objectives, based on
research in human learning and communication, and employing a combination of human
and non-human resources. Instructional:- “That teach people something” It means to give
knowledge for understanding or to teach something. Technology: - (noun) ‘’New or modern
invention which helps to save time and energy’’. Modern inventions which makes life easy
and save time are known as technology. Instructional Technology is the art and study of
building a learning system and also building a feedback mechanism into the learning
system in such a way that the system is sensitive to the dynamics of each individual’s
learning experience as well as the whole of everyone’s experience and is built in such a way
that the system is ever improving in its effectiveness and delivery of the subject matter. So
instructional technology with the help of education for better understanding and make the
technology useful and valuable. Storm of IT interrupted life in 21 century and still it’s going
on. The scientist Eric Ashby define 4 revolutions era in 1967. According to him revolution
periods:-

i. 1st (Greek period):- home to school, parents to teacher, change in learning setup.

ii. 2nd:- Thing which learnt in orally form begin to change in written form.

iii. 3rd:- Printing media revolution: - In those days material and knowledge printed
on the form of text books, magazine, handout etc.

iv. 4th:- IT

PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Instructional technology encompasses all the materials and physical means an instructor
might use to implement instruction and facilitate students' achievement of instructional
objectives. This may include traditional materials such as chalkboards, handouts, charts,
slides, overheads, real objects, and videotape or film, as well newer materials and methods
such as computers, DVDs, CD-ROMs, the Internet, and interactive video conferencing.

PROJECTED AIDS AND ITS KINDS

Projected visual aids are pictures shown upon a screen by use of a certain type of machine
such as a filmstrip projector, slide projector, overhead projector or TV/VCR. It is refer to

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those aids where a bright light is passed through a transparent picture by means of a lens
and an enlarged picture is thrown or projected on the screen or the white wall.
Values of projected AIDS
● Provides greater enjoyment in learning
● Stimulates more rapid learning
● Increases retention: larger percentages and longer retention.
● Makes teaching situation adaptable to wider range
● Compels attention
● Enlarges or reduces actual size of objects
● Brings distant past and the present into the classroom
● Provides an easily reproduced record of an event.
● Influences and changes attitudes

Films (Used in the text as processed movie film.) A long, narrow strip of cellulose nitrate,
acetate or similar material containing a succession of small transparent photographs.
Common sizes are 8 and 16 millimeter, referring to the width of the strip.
Film Strips Film strips are sequence of transparent still pictures with individual frames on
35 mm film. A tap recorded narration can be synchronized with film strip. Each strip
contains from 12 to 18 or more picture. It is a fixed sequence of related still on a roll of 35
mm film or 8 mm film. Principles
1. Preview filmstrips before using them and selected carefully to meet the needs of the
topic to be taught.
2. Show again any part of the filmstrip needing more specific study.
3. Use filmstrip to stimulate emotions, build attitudes and to point up problems.
4. It should be introduced appropriately and its relationship to the topic of the study
brought out. 5. Use a pointer to direct attention, to specific details on the screen.
Types of filmstrip
1) Discussion filmstrip: it is continuous strip of film consisting of individual frames
arranged in sequence usually with explanatory titles.

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2) Sound slide film: it is similar to filmstrip but instead of explanatory titles or spoken
discussion recorded explanation is audible, which is synchronized with the pictures
Advantages
1) Are compact, easily handled and always in proper sequence.
2) Can be supplemented with recordings.
3) Are inexpensive when quantity reproduction is required.
4) Are useful for group or individual study at projection rate are controlled by instructor or
user. 5) Are projected with simple light weight equipment

Power point slides

It has definitely become a trend these days to come with a power point presentation for
various tasks. Starting from games to educational content there seems to be no dearth to
the things which this app can do. It is a very easy to make and use and students are
definitely pulled towards these flashy slides. A few carefully selected slides or even one
pertinent slide can:
(i) Attract attention,
(ii) Arouse interest, (
iii) Assist lesson development,
(iv) Test student understanding.
(v) Review instruction, and
(vi) Facilitate student-teacher participation. A glass side is made up of a piece of
sensitized glass similar to the sensitized paper for use in photography. The slide may be
in colour or in black and white. Different forms of glass slides- photographer etched-
glass, slide, ink slides, etc.-may be used for teaching purposes.
Non-Projected Aids and its Kinds
Those aids which do not require projector, projection screen or electricity. Such materials
can be simply shown, hung on the wall, touched and handled by any student.
Non-Projected two Dimensional Aids
Non projected Aids are those aids which are used without any projection. So they translate
abstract ideas into a more realistic format. They allow instruction to move from verbal
representation to a more concrete level.

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Photographs
Photographs provide a picture of reality and are easily included in slides where they can be
used to illustrate a point or just provide a background. They are good for illustrating action,
evoking emotion and more. When you show a person doing something is shown the
audience may well emphasize with the image putting themselves in the place of that
person.
Instructional technology is a specific technology field that deals with creating resources for
learning. The nature of instructional technology is traced back to academics like B.B. Seels
and R.C. Ritchie, who defined it as "the theory and practice of design, development,
utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning." From this
definition, it is clear that instructional technology does involve things like Web-based
training and other learning resources. It is more of a comprehensive term for all of those
designs that accommodate successful learning technologies. Different kinds of projected
and non-projected aids: Using non-projected visuals Teachers can use these for learners of
all ages. They can involve groups to work collaboratively to prepare a presentation, with
drawings and charts. There are many types of different charts: Organization charts,
Classification charts, Time lines, Tabular charts, and Flowcharts. There are many types of
graphs: Bar graphs, Pictorial graphs, Circle graphs, Line graphs. Posters Posters are easy to
produce .They are used to catch and hold the viewer’s attention at least long enough to
communicate a brief message quickly for a new topic or a special event. Cartoons Cartoons
are very popular and familiar visual design. Cartoons are also easily and quickly read and
appeal to learners of all ages. You can use cartoons to reinforce a point of instruction. 
**Limitation 
-Durability: It is easy to damage with regular learner use it. There is a problem to keep
non-projected visuals- Storage. -May be too small for group viewing: non-projected visuals
are not suitable for use for group because they are small. 
**Using non projected visuals in the classroom 
1. Use visuals whenever possible to demonstrate ideas. 
2. Present a single idea in each visual. Break down complex visuals into simpler ones or
build them up step-by-step. 
3. Minimize text on each visual; maximum of six words per line and six lines per visual. 

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4. Cover irrelevant material with plain paper. 
5. Use just one visual at time. 
6. Teach your learners to understand visuals 
7. Provide written cues to highlighted important information contained in the visuals. 
Advantages 
* Readily available 
* Inexpensive 
* No equipment required 
* Easy to use 
* Available for all levels of instruction 
* Available for all disciplines 
* Simplification of complex ideas.

Non-projected media can make your instruction more realistic and engaging Posters,
cartoons, charts, pictures and graphs and what students produced by themselves can
provide powerful visual support for learning abstract ideas. The non-projected media can
be presented in the classroom or used as part of classroom activity. No need to use
equipment for observation so non-projected visual are easy to use. Projected visual are
detained as media design in which still images are enlarged and displayed on a screen .The
types of projected visuals that we can use in the classroom are software, digital visuals and
document cameras. 
** Some general guidelines for using projected visuals 
* Use visual variety. * Rehearse your narration. 
* Keep it moving and limit your discussion. 
* Pause for discussion. 
* Avoid irrelevant images. 
* Test it visually. The advantages for using projected visuals ·
Easy to create and use · Not projected for you and your students: It helps you on track ·
Supports inclusion of multimedia · 
Supports interactivity: it easy to go to any slide in the presentation Or link one to included
multimedia files · 

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Fields multiple formats: Using the mouse to create handouts, Notes pages, and outlines. 
** Limitation 
* Just words: Many students are visual learners, so they may not learn if there are not any
visuals. 
* Too much on one slide: Limit the number of words on each slide up to 36 words. 
* Too many “bells and whistles”: Irrelevant sounds can be distracting.
Educational technology is often considered, erroneously, as synonymous with instructional
innovation. Technology, by definition, applies current knowledge for some useful purpose.
Therefore, technology uses evolving knowledge (whether about a kitchen or a classroom)
to adapt and improve the system to which the knowledge applies (such as a kitchen’s
microwave oven or educational computing). In contrast, innovations represent only change
for change sake. Given this distinction, it is easy to argue that educators are correct to resist
mere innovation, but they should welcome educational technology. Unfortunately, the
history of educational technology does not support this hypothesis. Finally, non-projected
media and materials is this time is very useful into the rural area which is not been reach
into the advancement of our technology and it is very important indeed only seldom uses
the projected media and materials. On the other hand, projected media and material very
often uses by rich and advance in technology countries its important to them. These two
materials both are useful for both learners and teachers indeed.

Q. No. 2 Discuss different types of behavior problems usually seen in children at

elementary level. How can be the teachers prepared to tackle these
problems?
Ans: It is common for children to break the rules and go against the norm to ‘test’ authority.
Only that way do they understand what behavior is appropriate and what is not. Read on to

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learn about the behaviors that kids tend to exhibit from time to time and how you can
handle a child with behavior problems. 
1. Disrespect and backtalk When your three-year-old daughter talks back to you, it may
seem funny and adorable. But when your seven-year-old girl shouts out a ‘no’ every time
you tell her to do something, it can get on your nerves. If not handled properly, backtalk can
lead to arguments between parents and children. So what do you do? 
• If your child talks back but follows your instructions, then ignore it. Ignoring backtalk
may be okay if the behavior is not threatening or destructive.
• If the child follows instructions, even though he talks back, appreciate that they did what
you asked, even if they didn’t want to. You can then explain that it is okay to be angry, but
not okay to speak to you disrespectfully.
• But if the child’s responses are threatening others or self, then you need to pay attention
to what they say and handle it carefully.
• Do not respond impulsively. Let the child calm down and then address what he or she
said. Tell them calmly about what behavior is acceptable and what is not.
• Set limits and make them aware of the consequences. Do not threaten, just state plain
facts that if they talk back, they won’t get ice cream or go to the movie. For example, tell
them if they continue to yell and shout, then they will have to forgo the dinner. However, if
they stop shouting and listen to you, then they will get something nice for the dinner. Such
give-and-take will look less controlling but giving the option to the child themselves.
• Set expectations, but you can be a little flexible sometimes if it makes them happy.
• Finally, take a quick check of how you behave with the kids or others when the kids are
around. Are you rude or disrespectful? If yes, you need to start by changing your behavior.

2. Abusive language Children scream and yell when they are angry. But if they start
swearing even before they are all of ten years old, you should be worried. They may start
yelling or using abusive language to bring you into an argument or simply to get their way.
When your child uses offensive language and swears, here is what you should do.
• Make sure you are not using such language in front of kids.
• Have zero tolerance for verbal abuse at home. There is no excuse for swearing or cursing.
So if they use such language, there is a consequence. 

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• Explain the consequences clearly and ensure they are in place. So if your nine-year-old
girl is grounded for one day for abusive language, she will have to miss her soccer practice
or music class. There should be no two ways about it.
• If your toddler is using such language, correct them immediately. Tell them it is a “bad
word” and people do not like that word or kids who use that word.
If you have used that word in front of your child, apologize immediately. You can even ask
your child to remind you that it is a bad word, should you ever say it in front of him. 
3. Aggressive or violent behavior It is okay for children to get angry. But if that anger
becomes violent or turns into aggressive behavior in children it is a problem. Mood
disorders, psychosis, conduct disorder, trauma, impulsiveness or frustration can cause
aggression in young children. At times, your child may resort to violence for self-defense.
Aggression can also be a learned behavior. How is the environment at home? Or is the child
learning to be violent, at school? If your child tends to react to a negative response by
hitting, biting or kicking, this is what you should do.
• The easiest way to respond to aggression in children is to yell back at them. But if you do
so, you end up teaching them the wrong things. Your kids look up to you to learn how to
control their impulses and emotions. So rather than raising your voice, lower your tone and
tell them to calm down.
• Reflect their feelings, empathize, but make it clear that hitting or kicking or biting is not
allowed. You could say something like “I know you are angry. But we do not bite, hit or kick.
No hitting!”
• Tell them what the consequences would be if they turn violent. If you are dealing with a
younger child, tell them what they can do instead. Give them an alternative, but don’t leave
them hanging. For instance, teach them to use words and phrases like “I’m angry,” or “I
don’t like it,” or“I’m not happy about it” when they are upset, instead of resorting to
physical violence.
Most importantly, be a good role model and avoid giving them physical punishment. Also,
reward positive, non-aggressive behavior. 
4. Lying It is common for children to lie. It is also common for parents to worry when they
catch the kids lying. You may feel betrayed, hurt and even wonder if you can trust the child
again. But here is what you should do to prevent your kid from lying.

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• Do not take it personally. Think about it from your child’s perspective to understand what
compelled him to lie.
• Kids may lie when they are scared that the truth might have negative consequences.
Appreciate the positives rather than punishing negative behavior to prevent your child’s
need for lying.
• Teach them to be honest. Start by being a role model.
• Have consequences for lying. No arguments or discussions about it. Your kid lies, he gets
to deal with the consequences.
5. Bullying Bullying is a serious problem and could result in emotional and physical abuse
of the victim. Children tend to bully others to feel powerful. Also, bullying resolves their
social problems easily. When dealing with feelings becomes difficult, kids tend to take on
bullying to fix things. If you find that your child has been bullying others, you should act
immediately.
• Start teaching your kids from an early age that bullying is wrong. More importantly,
explain to them what or who a bully is and give them examples of what bullies do. For
example, you can say, “A bully is someone who calls people names, or does mean things to
them, or takes their property by force.”
• Set rules and standards in the house early on. Make a statement like “we do not bully in
this house” or “You do not get away with such behavior in this house”.
• Watch out for signs of bullying: see if your older kids are trying to bully the younger ones,
and rectify the behavior immediately.
6. Manipulation Manipulation is tricky and a very exhausting behavior to handle.
Children tend to act out, lie, or cry to get what they want. If you give in to the bad behavior
in children, your child feels justified. For example, if your child throws a tantrum in public
for a candy bar and you buy her one, she has just manipulated you. In simple words, when
your child manipulates you, she has power over you. As an adult, you can always break the
pattern and stop falling for your child’s manipulative behavior.
• Expect your child to fight every time you say ‘no’. That way, you can figure out how to
deal with their behavior and not fall for manipulation.
• Make it clear that when you say ‘no’, it means no. You can give them a brief explanation of
your position, but don’t get into justifying it.

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• Avoid discussion, but don’t shut them off completely. Try to listen to their side of the
argument as long as the child is respectful and not rude or abusive.
7. Lack of motivation and laziness Your child doesn’t seem interested in doing anything
at all. Be it schoolwork, art or music practice or even playing, he refuses to participate.
Motivating kids is not easy, especially if they are lazy and tend to find an excuse for not
doing anything. When your son or daughter is unmotivated, here is how you can help.
• Don’t get anxious by your child’s behavior. When you do, you may be seen as pushy, and
that can encourage them to resist you.
• You can tell them the stories about your childhood and share your experiences to inspire
and encourage them to try something new.
• Do not force your child to take up a hobby. Give them options and let them choose. Kids
are more interested in something that they choose.
• Take a step back and check: are you forcing your kid to do something? Ask what your
child really wants and what motivates him? See your child as a separate person to identify
what motivates them. 
• Try to find ways to get your kids motivated on their own. Self-motivation is more
powerful than being driven by others.
• Encourage younger children to take up daily chores by making them fun. You may set a
competition of who picks up the most number of toys or bits of paper from the floor or who
makes their bed first.
• For older children, making them responsible for tasks such as washing the dishes, setting
the table or cleaning up to set the expectations clear. Set limits like we will watch a movie
once you have finished your chore.
8. Behavior problems in school “I hate school!” Is that something you hear your five-
year-old say every morning? Kids often give parents a hard time by refusing to go to school
or complete homework assignments in time. Children could refuse to go to school for many
reasons: bullying, academic issues, resistance to authority and rules, or anxiety of being
separated from parents.
• Start by getting to the root of the issue. Find out why your child hates school or refuses to
do his homework. You may want to help him with his homework if he has trouble with it.
• Your child may take time to perform academically and be okay with school. Understand

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that the change will not happen overnight.
• Offer incentives, not bribes, to encourage positive behavior. For example, you can say,
“you have earned an ice cream tonight because you did your homework without any
reminders”.
• Ask the child if they want you to talk to the teacher about a problem that they are facing.
Let them feel and understand that you are available for them when they face a problem in
school. Encourage them by asking what they like doing in the school. Help them with their
homework, and make it more interesting.
One of the best strategies for teaching in an environment like this is to learn methods that
help to prevent the occurrence of behavioral issues. While every student’s needs are
different, there are some simple steps teachers can take to help prevent problems as a
group.
 Increase the amount of supervision present during high-risk periods. When
misbehavior is likely to occur, such as during group work sessions or at specific times of
the day, adding additional supervision can be a helpful step in preventing problems.
 Make tasks manageable. To avoid driving stress factors that can cause a child to begin
to misbehave, ensure that all the tasks you assign can provide the student with small
bits of information at one time. By dividing a lesson in chunks, you’re less likely to
overwhelm the student.
 Offer choices whenever possible. Rather than creating a strict classroom routine,
provide the students with choices. For example, let students choose which project they
work on rather than having to focus on a specific project.
 Ensure children reach out for help. In some cases, behavior issues occur because the
child does not know how he or she can receive help or does not, for some reason, feel
that help is available. Reassure children that they can reach out for the help they need. If
they feel comfortable coming to you when they’re lost, upset or overwhelmed, they’re
not as likely to have an outburst.
Prevention is always the best step, but of course it’s not always possible to stop every
occurrence of poor behavior.

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When behavioral problems begin to occur, it’s important for teachers to react in the right
way. Here are some strategies:
 Apologies. Apologies help to repair the social conflicts between two individuals. Ensure
that apologies are encouraged by all offending parties.
 Ignore. In some cases, the teacher ignores the behavior, meaning he or she does not
react to it or reinforce or reward it.
 Reduce privilege access. After defining the privileges that students have, the teacher
sets in place a rule system for taking those away. For example, things like having free
time or being able to talk with friends are removed when rules are broken.
 Praise. Praising positive behavior (not just expected behavior) is also a way of
managing negative outcomes. When teachers praise students more readily than scold
them, the student learns that to get attention he or she must act positively.
Dealing with conflict in the classroom is never easy. But by getting parents involved,
putting time aside to understand the cause of the problem, and by engaging children in
positive rewards, it may be possible to reduce some of the risk that behavior problems will
get in the way of learning—for you and for your students.

Q. No. 3 What should be the characteristics of a well-managed classroom? Also

identify principles related to sound management.
Ans: Classroom Management
Classroom management is the process by which teachers and schools create and maintain
appropriate behavior of students in classroom settings. The purpose of implementing

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classroom management strategies is to enhance prosocial behavior and increase student
academic engagement (Emmer & Sabornie, 2015; Everston & Weinstein, 2006). Effective
classroom management principles work across almost all subject areas and grade levels
(Brophy, 2006; Lewis, et al., 2006). Classroom management systems are effective because
they increase student success by creating an orderly learning environment that enhances
students' academic skills and competencies, as well as their social and emotional
development. Classroom management systems are most effective when they adhere to
three basic principles (Brophy, 2006, pp. 39-40):

Emphasize student expectations for behavior and learning.

Promote active learning and student involvement.
Identify important student behaviors for success.
More specifically:
What behaviors are required to reach the goals of learning activities?
What implications does a particular learning activity have for student roles?
How will the teacher prepare students to take on these roles?
Control
Control, or controlling, is one of the managerial functions like planning, organizing, staffing
and directing. It is an important function because it helps to check the errors and to take
the corrective action so that deviation from standards are minimized and stated goals of
the organization are achieved in a desired manner. According to modern concepts, control
is a foreseeing action whereas earlier concept of control was used only when errors were
detected. Control in management means setting standards, measuring actual performance
and taking corrective action. The Organizational Control Process. The control process
involves carefully collecting information about a system, process, person, or group of
people in order to make necessary decisions about each. Managers set up control systems
that consist of four key steps: Establish standards to measure performance.

TYPES OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

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Teachers who can draw on a range of responses when dealing with common classroom
misbehaviors are more likely to keep those students in the classroom, resulting in fewer
disruptions to instruction, enhanced teacher authority, and better learning outcomes for
struggling students (Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002). A good organizing tool for teachers
is to create a classroom menu that outlines a range of response options for behavior
management and discipline. Teachers are able to assert positive classroom control when
they apply such a behavior management menu consistently and flexibly-- choosing
disciplinary responses that match each student's presenting concerns (Marzano, Marzano,
& Pickering, 2003). Teachers can use these categories as a framework for organizing their
own effective strategies for managing students’ behavioral problems.

Behavioral Reminder
A behavioral reminder is a brief, neutral prompt to help the student to remember and
follow classroom behavioral expectations (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers & Sugai,
2008). When to Use: This strategy is used when the student appears to be distracted or
otherwise requires a simple reminder of expected behaviors. Examples: Here are examples
of behavioral reminders: The teacher makes eye contact with the student who is
misbehaving and points to a classroom rules chart. The teacher approaches the off-task
student to remind him/her of the specific academic task the student should be doing. The
teacher proactively provides behavioral reminders just when the student needs to use
them
Academic Adjustment
An academic adjustment is a change made to the student's academic task to improve
behaviors. Such changes could include the amount of work assigned, provision of support
to the student during the work, giving additional time to complete the work, etc. (Kern,
Bambara & Fogt, 2002). When to Use: Academic adjustments can be useful when the
teacher judges that the student's problem behaviors are triggered or exacerbated by the
required academic task(s). Examples: Here are examples of academic adjustments: The
teacher pre-teaches challenging vocabulary to the student prior to a large group discision.

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The teacher adjusts the difficulty of the assigned academic work to match the student's
abilities ('instructional match'). The teacher allows the student additional time to complete
an academic task.
Environmental Adjustment
An environmental adjustment is a change made to some aspect of the student's
environment to improve behaviors (Kern & Clemens, 2007). When to Use: This strategy is
used when the teacher judges that an environmental element (e.g., distracting activities,
proximity of another student) is contributing to the student's problem behavior. Examples:
Here are examples of environmental adjustments: The teacher moves the student's seat
away from distracting peers. The teacher collects distracting objects from a student (e.g.,
small toys, paperclips) during a work session. The student is given a schedule of the day to
prepare her for upcoming academic activities.
Students, as well as teachers, spend a majority of their time in classrooms and in school.
The classroom should, therefore, be a stress-free environment where students and
teachers feel comfortable spending so much time. It is essential to have a well-managed
classroom to improve classroom efficiency and create an environment conducive to
learning. A well-managed classroom is not limited to discipline, unlike the popular belief
that discipline is the only vital management skill a teacher must have. There are various
characteristics that describe a well-managed and efficient classroom.
Student Engagement
Classroom management includes various aspects, but one of the most vital is that the
students are engaged. A well-managed classroom will keep the students engaged at all
times in the learning process. Students are involved in the learning process, which helps
foster higher-level thinking skills in students. Teaching creatively can be a major factor in
student engagement because a lesson that is not interesting will cause the students to stop
listening and become distracted. A more creative teaching method will capture the
student's attention and allow them to focus.
Clear Expectations
Expectations such as class objectives are clear in a well-managed classroom. Students know
the material they will be tested on, as well as the teacher's expectations for the various
assignments they will be graded on. This also allows for efficiency in the classroom because

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students manage their time accordingly to move from one task to another effectively. A
good way to ensure that students are clear on what the class objectives are is to write the
daily tasks on the board at the beginning of each lesson, as well as write any exam dates in
a place that students can see regularly.
Effective Time Management
To minimize wasted time and improve efficiency, a well-managed classroom has good
time-management skills. The students know which areas in the classroom are accessible to
them, as well as where items are placed in the classroom. They also know exactly what to
expect from each class in order to ensure good time management. Procedures for
distractions such as using the bathroom are in place to avoid minimizing the time students
can spend on tasks during class time.
Positive Work Environment
A positive work environment is one of the main characteristics of a well-managed
classroom. Students are comfortable asking the teacher questions. The classroom
environment is also stress-free to ensure a good workflow and positive environment.
Decorating the classroom, as well as allowing the students to participate in classroom
decorating, can help encourage a positive work environment.
Firm Discipline
Discipline is an important factor in well-managed classrooms and one of the main
characteristics. Students have clear and firm guidelines on which behaviors are allowed in
the classroom and which are not, which allows students to remain disciplined and
encourage an efficient workflow. Simple things such as guidelines on going to the bathroom
or raising their hands when speaking are in place to help keep a positive and effective work
environment. Students should also be given positive reinforcement and praise for
appropriate behavior and good work to help encourage them and others in the classroom.
Discipline, management frequently interchanged in the education field, although they are
distinctly different, and need treated as separate entities. Classroom management is the
teacher’s responsibility and discipline is the student’s responsibility. Behavior and
misbehavior are also terms that get confused. Classroom management, discipline, behavior
and misbehavior are important aspect of every classroom. In order to have a well-
organized classroom, the need to define and understand these terminologies becomes

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imperative. Classroom management describes the process of ensuring that classroom
lessons run smoothly. It is the groundwork for the classroom. When constructed well there
is room for growth and progress, as well as penalties for non-compliance. Without good
classroom management, learning is inefficient and the teacher becomes stressed. A
stressed teacher leads to unruly students, which is where discipline comes into play.
Discipline is “the enforcement of order – that is, ensuring instructions are carried out – is
often regulated through punishment.” (Discipline, 2011) Teaching children to behave
appropriately in different circumstances is discipline; this is done with punishment, or loss
of privileges. Discipline is necessary in order to have a harmonious classroom. “Classroom
management deals with how things are done. Discipline deals with how people behave.”
The most important thing about classroom management is control. A teacher must have
control to be successful. When a teacher losses control, students become bored,
disinterested, and restless, which often causes behavior problems. Avoid misbehavior by
setting classroom rules early in the year. These guidelines allow students to know the
expectations the teacher has for them and the consequences of not following the rules.
Never continue instruction when rules are broken, this cause total loss of control, which
leads to behavior problems. Normal or "good" behavior, usually determined by whether it
is socially, culturally and developmentally appropriate. Misbehavior is any improper
behavior.
Management
"Management refers to your role as a teacher in creating a classroom environment where
success is possible. It refers to how order is established and maintained in the classroom".
Discipline
"Discipline is defined as the actions that facilitate the development of self-control,
responsibility, and character".
Good classroom management is important because it can prevent many discipline
problems.  In order to avoid becoming overbearingly bossy, It recommend that teachers
partake in lead management.  As implied in the term, the teacher and students should view
the teacher as the leader, rather than the boss.  "In lead management, power among
classroom participants is shared and teacher power is used in service to others rather than
as something to enhance one's status" (Savage & Savage, 2010, p.7).  Characteristics of

18
teachers with lead management include:

 Allowing student input when making classroom decisions

 Communicating clear expectations to students
 Listening to students
Because there is not a constant struggle for power, students feel a sense of power,
influence, and importance to the teacher.  This, in turn, gives the teacher more power and
influence. For example, in the beginning of the year, teachers usually provide students with
expectations.  As a form of lead management, teachers can create a classroom contract with
the students.  This contract is a two-way contract that is put together by both the teacher
and the students.  The teacher can detail what she or he expects of the students, and the
students can detail what they expect from the teacher. For example, the teacher will expect
that students turn their work in on time. In return, the teacher promises to return their
work graded within a week. As a teacher who desires for a classroom that is conducive to
learning, I must make sure that discipline is not an intruding problem.  One of the best ways
to prevent discipline problems is to establish effective classroom management.  I will do so
by utilizing the lead management style within my classroom.  Another way to do so is
through the implementation of discipline within my classroom. Aspects of management
discussed on this website:
 Authority and leadership
 Physical environment
 Mobility and proximity
 Preferred Activity Time (PAT)
The classroom is not just a place for academic goals.  One of the goals every teacher should
have is to help students develop not only academically, but socially and personally as well. 
Proverbs 25:28 says, "A person without self-control is as defenseless as a city with broken-
down walls."  Self-control is a crucial aspect of humanity and life, an aspect that separates
humans from animals and denotes impulsiveness.  Naturally, some students possess more
self-control than others, but each student will fall short at one point.  Savage & Savage
(2010) recommend that their definition of discipline (namely, helping students develop

19
self-control), should dictate how teachers respond to misbehavior. Before responding to
student misbehavior, teacher's should ask themselves the following:
 "What action will be the best choice in helping the student move toward self-
control?".
Because I believe that having adults possessive of self-control, character, and responsibility
are vital to the future of America, it is one of my main goals to see students develop and
demonstrate self-control.  Therefore, I will always ask myself the above question when
dealing with misbehavior.  For example, let us say that a student is talking to his neighbor
while I am teaching a lesson.  Rather than immediately putting his name on the board, I will
insert his name into the lesson in order to get his attention.  By stating his name, the
student will become aware that I know he is not on task.  Thus, he has an opportunity to
stop talking to his neighbor before experiencing consequences. Aspects of discipline to be
discussed on this website:
 Responding to inappropriate behavior
 Responding to minor problems
 Limit setting

Q. No. 4 Discuss teacher made achievement tests? Construct six items of each, short
answers, completion, true false, matching, multiple choice and essay type
from the English of class VII (Public Sector).
Ans: Teacher Made Test

20
There are generally two types of tests used to evaluate education programs: standardized
tests (prepared by publishing companies, formal testing agencies, and universities), and
classroom tests (prepared by the teacher). Standardized tests are formal tests that allow to
compare students with other students in the region or country. These tests are usually
valid and reliable because they have been tested on large sample populations and have
been revised to eliminate unreliable or invalid questions. They are useful to compare your
students with other students or to rank students against the "norm." The norms for
standardized tests depend on where the tests were developed. One serious drawback to
standardized tests is that they are not effective with students that have abilities, needs, or
problems that differ from those of the "normal" student population. In addition, the content
of standardized tests does not always match what is taught in a certain school or
classroom. As Therese found out, many students in less developed countries do poorly on
standardized tests--especially on tests that are developed in other countries. One reason
for this is that these tests are usually given in English, which is a second language for many
students. Another reason is that the content and culture of the test usually does not match
the classroom content and culture in a particular school. Standardized tests are often not
appropriate measures of environmental education learning. Not only do the questions
often not deal with environmental issues or ecological content, but the types of questions
mainly test for knowledge and facts--not skills and attitudes, two important components of
an environmental education program. Although standardized tests are changing to include
more variety and to encourage higher-level thinking, they are still very limiting and should
not be used as the sole measure of a student's performance. Standardized tests definitely
have their drawbacks. Yet, in many school systems, scores on standardized tests determine
a student's academic future. If a student passes, he or she can move ahead. If a student fails,
he or she will not have the same opportunities. The number of students that pass and fail is
also seen as a reflection of the quality of teaching and the success of the school system
itself. Unlike standardized tests, teacher developed tests have not been tested on sample
populations of students and do not allow to compare students to a standard. Instead, these
tests (also called criterion-reference tests), help to test a student’s understanding of a
particular (and often limited) body of knowledge. For example, while a teacher is teaching a
unit on ecology and want to determine whether the students have learned about predator-

21
prey relationships in Pakistan, he/she would include test questions about predator-prey
relationships in Pakistan that related to the specific objectives (Corps, 1993). Some other
differences are also discussed by Erienkoma (2011) which are given in the table below:
Standardized test
1. generally prepared by specialists who know very well the principles of test construction;
2. prepared very carefully following principles of test construction;
3. given to a large proportion of the population for which they are intended for the
computation of norms;
4. generally correlated with other tests of known validity and reliability or with measures
such as school marks to determine their validity and reliability;
5. generally are high objective;
6. have their norms computed for purposes of comparison and interpretation;
7. measure innate capacities and characteristics as achievement;
8. Intended to be used for a long period of time and for all people of the same class in the
culture where they are validated.
9. accompanied by manuals of instructions on how to administer and score the tests and
how to interpret the results;
10. Generally copyrighted
Teacher-Made Test
1. made by teachers who may not know very well the principles of test construction;
2. Often prepared hurriedly and haphazardly to be able to meet the deadline for
administration;
3. Usually given only to a class or classes for which the tests are intended; usually, no
norms are computed;
4. Teacher-made tests are not subjected to any statistical procedures to determine their
validity and reliability;
5. May be objective and may be essay type in which case scoring is subjective;
6. Have no norms unless the teacher computes the median, mean, and other measures for
comparison and interpretation;
7. Generally measure subject achievement only;

22
8. Intended to be used only once or twice to measure achievement of students in a subject
matter studied during a certain period;
9. Do not have manuals of instructions, only the directions for the different types of tests
which may be given orally or in writing.
10. Not copyrighted.
Writing Essay Test Items
Essay items are useful when examinees have to show how they arrived at an answer. A test
of writing ability is a good example of the kind of test that should be given in an essay
response format. This type of item, however, is difficult to score reliably and can require a
significant amount of time to be graded. Grading is often affected by the verbal fluency in
the answer, handwriting, presence or lack of spelling errors, grammar used and the
subjective judgments of the grader. Training of graders can require a substantial amount of
time and needs to be repeated at frequent intervals throughout the grading. The following
rules may be useful in developing and grading essay questions:
1. The shorter the answer required for a given essay item, generally the better. More
objectives can be tested in the same period of time, and factors such as verbal fluency,
spelling, etc., have less of an opportunity to influence the grader. Help the examinees focus
their answers by giving them a starting sentence for their essay.
2. Make sure questions are sharply focused on a single issue. Do not give either the
examinee or the grader too much freedom in determining what the answer should be.

Writing Multiple-Choice
Test Items The general rules used for writing multiple-choice items are described below.
Recognize that these are general rules; not all rules will be applicable to all types of testing.
1. The stem should contain the problem and any qualifications. The entire stem must
always precede the alternatives.
2. Each item should be as short and verbally uncomplicated as possible. Give as much
context as is necessary to answer the question, but do not include superfluous information.
Be careful not to make understanding the purpose of the item a test of reading ability.
3. Avoid negatively stated items. If you have to use this kind of item, emphasize the fact by
underlining the negative part, putting it in capital letters or using italics. (For test

23
construction purposes, if possible, put all such items together in a single section and
indicate this with separate directions.)
4. Keep each item independent from other items. Don't give the answer away to another
item. If items require computation, avoid items that are dependent on one another.
5. If one or more alternatives are partially correct, ask for the "best" answer.
Carefully constructed teacher-made tests and standardised tests are similar in many ways.
Both are constructed on the basis of carefully planned table of specifications, both have the
same type of test items, and both provide clear directions to the students. Still the two
differ. They differ in the quality of test items, the reliability of test measures, the
procedures for administering and scoring and the interpretation of scores. No doubt,
standardised tests are good and better in quality, more reliable and valid. But a classroom
teacher cannot always depend on standardised tests. These may not suit to his local needs,
may not be readily available, may be costly, may have different objectives. In order to fulfill
the immediate requirements, the teacher has to prepare his own tests which are usually
objective type in nature. Teacher-made tests are normally prepared and administered for
testing classroom achievement of students, evaluating the method of teaching adopted by
the teacher and other curricular programmes of the school. Teacher-made test is one of the
most valuable instrument in the hands of the teacher to solve his purpose. It is designed to
solve the problem or requirements of the class for which it is prepared. It is prepared to
measure the outcomes and content of local curriculum. It is very much flexible so that, it
can be adopted to any procedure and material. It does not require any sophisticated
technique for preparation. Taylor has highly recommended for the use of these teacher-
made objective type tests, which do not require all the four steps of standardised tests nor
need the rigorous processes of standardisation. Only the first two steps planning and
preparation are sufficient for their construction. Features of Teacher-Made Tests: 1. The
items of the tests are arranged in order of difficulty. 2. These are prepared by the teachers
which can be used for prognosis and diagnosis purposes.
3. The test covers the whole content area and includes a large number of items. 4. The
preparation of the items conforms to the blueprint. 5. Test construction is not a single
man’s business, rather it is a co-operative endeavour. 6. A teacher-made test does not cover
all the steps of a standardised test. 7. Teacher-made tests may also be employed as a tool

24
for formative evaluation. 8. Preparation and administration of these tests are economical. 9.
The test is developed by the teacher to ascertain the student’s achievement and proficiency
in a given subject. 10. Teacher-made tests are least used for research purposes. 11. They do
not have norms whereas providing norms is quite essential for standardised tests.
Steps/Principles of Construction of Teacher-made Test: A teacher-made test does not
require a well-planned preparation. Even then, to make it more efficient and effective tool
of evaluation, careful considerations arc needed to be given while constructing such tests.
The following steps may be followed for the preparation of teacher-made test: 1. Planning:
Planning of a teacher-made test includes: a. Determining the purpose and objectives of the
test, ‘as what to measure and why to measure’. b. Deciding the length of the test and
portion of the syllabus to be covered. c. Specifying the objectives in behavioural terms. If
needed, a table can even be prepared for specifications and weightage given to the
objectives to be measured. d. Deciding the number and forms of items (questions)
according to blueprint.
e. Having a clear knowledge and understanding of the principles of constructing essay type,
short answer type and objective type questions. 
f. Deciding date of testing much in advance in order to give time to teachers for test
preparation and administration. g. Seeking the co-operation and suggestion of co-teachers,
experienced teachers of other schools and test experts. 2. Preparation of the Test: Planning
is the philosophical aspect and preparation is the practical aspect of test construction. All
the practical aspects to be taken into consideration while one constructs the tests. It is an
art, a technique. One is to have it or to acquire it. It requires much thinking, rethinking and
reading before constructing test items. Different types of objective test items viz., multiple
choice, short-answer type and matching type can be constructed. After construction, test
items should be given lo others for review and for seeking their opinions on it. The
suggestions may be sought even from others on languages, modalities of the items,
statements given, correct answers supplied and on other possible errors anticipated. The
suggestions and views thus sought will help a test constructor in modifying and verifying
his items afresh to make it more acceptable and usable. After construction of the test, items
should be arranged in a simple to complex order. For arranging the items, a teacher can
adopt so many methods viz., group-wise, unit-wise, topic wise etc. Scoring key should also

25
be prepared forthwith to avoid further delay in scoring. Direction is an important part of a
test construction. Without giving a proper direction or instruction, there will be a
probability of loosing the authenticity of the test reliability. It may create a
misunderstanding in the students also. 
Students can generally respond to these type of questions quite quickly. As a result, they
are often used to test student’s knowledge of a broad range of content. Creating these
questions can be time consuming because it is often difficult to generate several plausible
distractors. However, they can be marked very quickly.
Tips for writing good multiple choice items:

Avoid Do use

In the stem: In the stem:

 Long / complex sentences  Your own words – not
 Trivial statements statements straight out
 Negatives and double- of the textbook
negatives  Single, clearly
 Ambiguity or indefinite formulated problems
terms, absolute In the choices:
statements, and broad  Plausible and
generalization homogeneous
 Extraneous material distractors
 Item characteristics that  Statements based on
provide a clue to the common student
answer misconceptions misconceptions
In the choices:  True statements that do
 Statements too close to not answer the questions
the correct answer  Short options – and all
 Completely implausible same length
responses  Correct options evenly
 ‘All of the above,’ ‘none of distributed over A, B, C,

26
 Avoid Do use

the above’ etc.

 Overlapping responses  Alternatives that are in
(e.g., if ‘A’ is true) logical or numerical then
‘C’ is also true) order
 At least 3 alternatives

Suggestion: After each lecture during the term, jot down two or three multiple choice
questions based on the material for that lecture. Regularly taking a few minutes to compose
questions, while the material is fresh in your mind, will allow you to develop a question
bank that you can use to construct tests and exams quickly and easily.
True/false
True/false questions are only composed of a statement. Students respond to the questions
by indicating whether the statement is true or false. For example: True/false questions
have only two possible answers (Answer: True).
Like multiple choice questions, true/false questions:
 Are most often used to assess familiarity with course content and to check for
popular misconceptions
 Allow students to respond quickly so exams can use a large number of them to test
knowledge of a broad range of content
 Are easy and quick to grade but time consuming to create
True/false questions provide students with a 50% chance of guessing the right answer. For
this reason, multiple choice questions are often used instead of true/false questions.
Tips for writing good true/false items:

Avoid Do use

 Negatives and  Your own words

double-negatives  The same number of true and
 Long / complex false statements (50 / 50) or

27
 Avoid Do use

sentences slightly more false statements

 Trivial material than true (60/40) – students are
 Broad more likely to answer true
generalizations  One central idea in each item
 Ambiguous or
indefinite terms

Suggestion: You can increase the usefulness of true/false questions by asking students to
correct false statements.
Matching
Students respond to matching questions by pairing each of a set of stems (e.g., definitions)
with one of the choices provided on the exam. These questions are often used to assess
recognition and recall and so are most often used in courses where acquisition of detailed
knowledge is an important goal. They are generally quick and easy to create and mark, but
students require more time to respond to these questions than a similar number of
multiple choice or true/false items.
Example: Match each question type with one attribute:
1. Multiple Choice a) Only two possible answers
2. True/False b) Equal number of stems and choices
3. Matching c) Only one correct answer but at least three choices
Tips for writing good matching items:

Avoid Do use

 Long stems and options  Short responses 10-15

 Heterogeneous content items on only one page
(e.g., dates mixed with  Clear directions
people)  Logically ordered choices
 Implausible responses (chronological,

28
 Avoid Do use

alphabetical, etc.)

Suggestion: You can use some choices more than once in the same matching exercise. It
reduces the effects of guessing.
Short answer
Short answer questions are typically composed of a brief prompt that demands a written
answer that varies in length from one or two words to a few sentences. They are most often
used to test basic knowledge of key facts and terms. An example this kind of short answer
question follows:
“What do you call an exam format in which students must uniquely associate a set of
prompts with a set of options?” Answer: Matching questions
Alternatively, this could be written as a fill-in-the-blank short answer question:
“An exam question in which students must uniquely associate prompts and options is
called a
___________ question.” Answer: Matching.
Short answer questions can also be used to test higher thinking skills, including analysis or
evaluation. For example:
“Will you include short answer questions on your next exam? Please justify your decision
with
two to three sentences explaining the factors that have influenced your decision.”
Short answer questions have many advantages. Many instructors report that they are
relatively easy to construct and can be constructed faster than multiple choice questions.
Unlike matching, true/false, and multiple choice questions, short answer questions make it
difficult for students to
guess the answer. Short answer questions provide students with more flexibility to explain
their understanding and demonstrate creativity than they would have with multiple choice
questions; this also means that scoring is relatively laborious and can be quite subjective.
Short answer

29
questions provide more structure than essay questions and thus are often easy and faster
to mark and often test a broader range of the course content than full essay questions.
Tips for writing good short answer items:

Type of Avoid Do use

question

All short-  Trivia  Your own words

answer  Long / complex  Specific problems
sentences  Direct questions

Fill-in-  Taking out so  Prompts that omit

the-blank many words that only one or two
the sentence is key words at the
meaningless end of the
sentence

Suggestion: When using short answer questions to test student knowledge of definitions
consider having a mix of questions, some that supply the term and require the students to
provide the definition, and other questions that supply the definition and require that
students provide the term. The latter sort of questions can be structured as fill-in-the-blank
questions. This mix of formats will better test student knowledge because it doesn’t rely
solely on recognition or recall of the term.
Essays
Essay questions provide a complex prompt that requires written responses, which can vary
in length from a couple of paragraphs to many pages. Like short answer questions, they
provide students with an opportunity to explain their understanding and demonstrate
creativity, but make it hard for students to arrive at an acceptable answer by bluffing. They
can be constructed reasonably quickly and easily but marking these questions can be time-
consuming and grader agreement can be difficult.
Essay questions differ from short answer questions in that the essay questions are less
structured. This openness allows students to demonstrate that they can integrate the

30
course material in creative ways. As a result, essays are a favoured approach to test higher
levels of cognition including analysis, synthesis and evaluation. However, the requirement
that the students provide most of the structure increases the amount of work required to
respond effectively. Students often take longer to compose a five paragraph essay than they
would take to compose five one paragraph answers to short answer questions. This
increased workload limits the number of essay questions that can be posed on a single
exam and thus can restrict the overall scope of an exam to a few topics or areas. To ensure
that this doesn’t cause students to panic or blank out, consider giving the option of
answering one of two or more questions.
Tips for writing good essay items:

Avoid Do use

 Complex, ambiguous  Your own words

wording
 Questions that are too
broad to allow time for
an in-depth response
 Words like ‘compare’ or
‘contrast’ at the beginning
of the question
 Clear and unambiguous
wording
 A breakdown of marks to
make expectations clear
 Time limits for thinking
and writing

Suggestions: Distribute possible essay questions before the exam and make your marking
criteria slightly stricter. This gives all students an equal chance to prepare and should
improve the quality of the answers – and the quality of learning – without making the exam
any easier.
Oral Exams
Oral examinations allow students to respond directly to the instructor’s questions and/or
to present prepared statements. These exams are especially popular in language courses
that demand ‘speaking’ but they can be used to assess understanding in almost any course

31
by following the guidelines for the composition of short answer questions. Some of the
principle advantages to oral exams are that they provide nearly immediate feedback and so
allow the student to learn as they are tested. There are two main drawbacks to oral exams:
the amount of time required and the problem of record-keeping. Oral exams typically take
at least ten to fifteen minutes per student, even for a midterm exam. As a result, they are
rarely used for large classes. Furthermore, unlike written exams, oral exams don’t
automatically generate a written record. To ensure that students have access to written
feedback, it is recommended that instructors take notes during oral exams using a rubric
and/or checklist and provide a photocopy of the notes to the students.
In many departments, oral exams are rare. Students may have difficulty adapting to this
new style of assessment. In this situation, consider making the oral exam optional. While it
can take more time to prepare two tests, having both options allows students to choose the
one which suits them and their learning style best.
Computational
Computational questions require that students perform calculations in order to solve for an
answer. Computational questions can be used to assess student’s memory of solution
techniques and their ability to apply those techniques to solve both questions they have
attempted before and questions that stretch their abilities by requiring that they combine
and use solution techniques in novel ways.
Effective computational questions should:
 Be solvable using knowledge of the key concepts and techniques from the course.
Before the exam solve them yourself or get a teaching assistant to attempt the
questions.
 Indicate the mark breakdown to reinforce the expectations developed in in-class
examples for the amount of detail, etc. required for the solution.
To prepare students to do computational questions on exams, make sure to describe and
model in class the correct format for the calculations and answer including:
 How students should report their assumptions and justify their choices
The units and degree of precision expected in the answer

32
Q. No. 5 Describe the role of teacher training in deterioration of the education
system. Suggest measures for improvement.
Ans: TEACHER TRAINING
Teachers play a crucial role in the establishment of an effective system of education. It is
important that these teachers are equipped with proper knowledge, skills and attitudes in
carrying out the goals of education and fulfilling their obligations. Teachers training have
certain levels which correspond with the general education ability of the teachers. There
are three levels of teachers training. i) Pre- service Teachers for the primary schools after
passing Secondary School examination are provided one year training. After completion of
this training they are awarded a certificate called Primary Teacher’s certificate (PTC).
Those who possess FA/F.Sc certificate are given one year training and awarded a certificate
called Certificate in Education (CT). PTC and CT training is provided by the Government
Colleges of Elementary Education (GCEE). There are separate Elementary Colleges of
Education for girls and boys who have been established at all the district headquarters
within the country. Those who possess BA/.Sc degrees are provided one year training
called “Bachelor of Education” (B.Ed) at the Government Colleges of Education. These
colleges are at a few selected places in each province of the country. Those who further
want to specialize in the subject of education undergo one year course called Master in
Education (M.Ed). This course is conducted by the Colleges of Education and in the
Institutes of Education in the Universities. Teachers also do M.Phil and Ph.D in Education
from the universities. Those who possess M.Ed or M.Phil teach in the Colleges of Education.
At the University level Ph.Ds are employed to train teachers. Allama Iqbal Open University
has started teacher training courses through its distance education system for those
students who cannot afford to attend formal regular courses in the teacher training
institutions. National Education policy (1998-2011) provides for modernizing the courses
in teachers training. Accordingly, the duration and period of training at all levels of training
is being increased, including better salaries for the teachers. There are few problems in the
teacher-training programme which include non - availability of qualified teaching faculty
for the Colleges of Education, quality training programmes, financial problems of the
Training Institutions, lack of quality material for training and lack of effective system of
management and supervision. But the most serious problem is that the teachers do not use

33
those teaching skills and methods in their classes which were taught to them in the training
institutions. ii) In-service In-service education and training of teachers has its own
historical roots. Its journey from pre-independence to post independence period is
characterized by numerous policy statements recommendations of different commissions
regarding its content and strategies for implementation it has grown from a concept to a
process and gained its importance for preparing teachers towards professional growth and
development.
In our country, the trend is that once a teacher has joined service as a teacher, s/he
continues to be so, though he may or may not study. In-service education is badly needed
for all types of teachers in Pakistan. Programmes of In-Service Teacher Education Seminar-
In a seminar some problems of education are taken up and there is collective thinking.
Discussions are held and conclusions are arrived at all under the guidance of some experts.
Refresher Courses: - A refresher course means an educational programme organized for
refreshing the knowledge of in-service teacher. Generally they acquire the teachers with
the new development in the field of education. With the coming up of new education policy,
refresher courses were arranged all around for teachers of different categories.
Workshops: - Workshops are organized for giving in-service education to teachers. They
involve more of practical work and less theoretical discussion. These types of programmes
are more useful for the teachers. The teachers have to work practically and come out with
final materials to be seen by others. Organization of workshops consumes more time than a
seminar or conference. Conference: - In a conference, there is a broad discussion of
subjects of practical interest. Generally there is a central theme around which several sub
topics are given. Teachers as per their interest, present paper at the time of conference. The
session ends with the concluding remarks of the president Study Groups: - Forming study
groups and using them as a technique for in-service education for teachers can work
wonders. A group of teachers of the same subject and a subject expert in the college of
education are combined and start working. They choose some topics of common interest
(or) it may be a problem related to their teaching subject. Discussion is started under
guidance and they continue thinking, studying and discussing that subject. If need arises,
someone may be invited for extension lecture. The study groups may be meeting once in a
week or even once in a month.

34
Teacher Training Through Distance Education Is distance education a viable solution to
attain the kind of high quality teachers students need? Evidences from Pakistan reveal mix
opinion about the quality of distance education in general and for professional degrees
including teacher education in particular. On one hand the oldest distance teacher
education program in Asia was started in Pakistan through Allama Iqbal Open University in
1974. Till late eighties, the university had international students in this program. Even
today everyone in Pakistan acknowledges the quality of the material produced by the
University Teacher Education Programs and access to these programs. It has provided
access not only to urban communities but also to the people live in remote areas.
Nevertheless, quality of the graduates produced by the university is big question mark due
to the management of the delivery of these courses. This experience from Pakistan guide us
that this is a viable solution for meeting rapidly increasing demands of professional
teachers but to maintain quality we need especially measures including supervision,
monitoring and mentoring of prospective teachers during the practicum component of the
programs. This is same as we cannot have risk for human lives as we do for medical
students.
It has been found that only 10 % of Indian youth go to college. This percentage is 40-50% in
developed countries. As per the available reports, two third of the Indian universities are
providing sub-standard education while 90 % colleges in India are below average.
Today, most of the institutions have become factory of degrees only. Students / teachers
are running after attaining or providing degrees and not towards the gaining knowledge
and wisdom. Attendance in the institution has dropped drastically and class room teaching
is becoming only a ritual, to be followed mechanically. Though, it is said that the destiny of
nation is shaped only in the class rooms, very little importance is being given to class room
teaching. The overall scenario of higher education in India does not match with the global
quality standards. It does not foster the global competencies and even does not make
significant contribution to the national development. The present education system does
not match with the needs and expectations of the employment sector. The role of the
teacher assumes greater significance in this deteriorating scenario of higher education. It is
a daunting task for the teachers to improve the quantity, quality and equality in higher

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education. It is said that a good teacher can bring the entire world to the class room. The
teacher being a sculptor has to play multidimensional role to inculcate the nuances of
subjects to the heterogeneous cult of students. He has to inspire to students to show
interest in their subjects, even if he confronts students who are completely demotivated
and dispirited. Quality education is the solution to all the problems and teachers are the
main ingredients in giving quality education. 
The success of any education system depends on the quality of teachers, which, in turn,
depends on the effective teaching / learning process. Teachers' role is of vital significance
for the development of society and appropriate changes in the society. Thus, the quality of
higher education depends upon quality of those who impart it. Teachers are the most
important components of any educational system. Teachers play most crucial role in the
development of the education system as a whole and also in imparting and maintaining the
standards of higher education. In the present scenario, the 'personality' of the teachers has
deteriorated. Teaching is considered as one of the noblest professions but unfortunately
this profession is losing its status in the society because of modernization, political
influence, castism, corruption and other unfair means. For many teachers, especially in
medical and dental sciences, teaching profession has become easy source of earning money.
Making many money by unfair means like malpractices in examination resulted in decline
of the quality of teaching values. Changing social attitude, non-responsiveness and poor
level of accountability, emphasis on western system of education, impact of modernization,
absence of the traditional Indian education system, etc. are the factors responsible for the
degradation of teaching values in the society. “The primary task of a society is to find a real
teacher, one who performs his duty with perfection and dedication and is a perfect moral
example for the society” - Rabindranath Tagore Thus, teachers play critical role in taking
quality education and in shaping the future and destiny of a nation. Teachers teach the
ways of life, channelize youth power and mold their character. In a real sense, the teachers
are the backbone of the nation.
Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country
by education policies at domestic level and getting involved into international
commitments on education. In this regard national education policies are the visions which
suggest strategies to increase literacy rate, capacity building, and enhance facilities in the

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schools and educational institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global commitments of
Pakistan for the promotion of literacy.
 
A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in
Pakistan’s schools since 2010, when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a
fundamental human right in the constitution. Problems of access, quality, infrastructure
and inequality of opportunity, remain endemic.
Issues
A)    MDGs and Pakistan
Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in
achieving its MDGs of education. The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector:
Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015,
children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary
schooling. By the year 2014 the enrolment statistics show an increase in the enrolment of
students of the age of 3-16 year while dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing
enrolment of students remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province
wise in net primary enrolment rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh
province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and primary enrolment rate in
Balochistan is 45%.
Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. It is
aimed at eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and in
all levels of education not later than 2015. There is a stark disparity between male and
female literacy rates. The national literacy rate of male was 71% while that of female was
48% in 2012-13. Provinces reported the same gender disparity. Punjab literacy rate in
male was 71% and for females it was 54%. In Sindh literacy rate in male was 72% and
female 47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%, while in Balochistan male 62% and female
23%.
B)    Education for All (EFA) Commitment
The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-schooling,
universal primary education and secondary education to youth, adult literacy with gender
parity and quality of education as crosscutting thematic and programme priorities.

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EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy commitments,
primary education in Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its target of universal primary
education. Currently the primary gross enrolment rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan
requires increasing it up to 100% by 2015-16 to fulfil EFA goals.  Of the estimated total
primary school going 21.4 million children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are enrolled in schools,
of which 8.2 million or 56% are boys and 6.5 million or 44% are girls. Economic Survey of
Pakistan confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much higher in urban
areas than in rural areas and higher among males.
C)    Vision 2030
Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic environment which
promotes the thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is one curriculum and one
national examination system under state responsibility. The strategies charted out to
achieve the goal included:
(i)                  Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation from 2.7% of
GDP to 5% by 2010 and 7% by 2015.
(ii)                Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two years of
secondary schools.
(iii)             Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to 25-30% of all
secondary enrolment by 2015 and 50 per cent by 2030.
(iv)              Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale and quality
of scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.
Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are faced in the
development of education system and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven
major problems such as:
1)      Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it
seems that it will not be able to achieve these international commitments because of
financial management issues and constraints to achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.
2)      Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the
provision of education are not just due to issues of management by government but some
of them are deeply rooted in the social and cultural orientation of the people. Overcoming

38
the latter is difficult and would require a change in attitude of the people, until then
universal primary education is difficult to achieve.
3)      Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty,
cultural constraints, illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of
their daughters. Society’s emphasis on girl’s modesty, protection and early marriages may
limit family’s willingness to send them to school. Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than
that of urban girls; while for boys the difference is 10% only, showing that gender gap is an
important factor.
4)      Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are
located in richer settlements only. The paradox is that private schools are better but not
everywhere and government schools ensure equitable access but do not provide quality
education.
5)      War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the
promotion of literacy campaign. The militants targeted schools and students; several
educational institutions were blown up, teachers and students were killed in Balochistan,
KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute not as much as other factors, but this remains
an important factor.
6)      Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89%
education expenditure comprises of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only
11% comprises of development expenditure which is not sufficient to raise quality of
education.
7)      Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and
vocational education in Pakistan. The number of technical and vocational training institutes
is not sufficient and many are deprived of infrastructure, teachers and tools for training.
The population of a state is one of the main elements of its national power. It can become
an asset once it is skilled. Unskilled population means more jobless people in the country,
which affects the national development negatively. Therefore, technical education needs
priority handling by the government.
Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access,
poor quality, equity, and governance have also contributed in less enrolments.
An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that:

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The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but there is no
mechanism which ensures the proper expenditure of those funds on education.
 The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several parts of the
country.
 There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional and capacity
issues, forging national cohesion, uniform standards for textbook development, and
quality assurance.
 The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It is because of this
that the quality of teaching suffers and even more so when low investments are
made in teachers’ training. As a result teachers are not regular and their time at
school is not as productive as it would be with a well-trained teacher.
 Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of teachers, teacher
absenteeism, missing basic facilities and lack of friendly environment.
 Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance – especially for
females, insecurity, poverty, cultural norms, parents are reluctant or parents lack
awareness.
The nations which have been given priority to Education are at the top in the present
scenario. It is a recognized fact, that the key to success and prosperity is education and to
get education is the right of every child. In 1990, one hundred and fifty five countries from
all over the world and some 150 governmental and non-governmental organizations at the
World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand (5-9 March 1990) agreed that
primary education will be accessible to all the children by 2010. The goals of this
conference included:
Universal access to learning.
 A focus on equity
 Emphasis on learning outcomes
 Broadening the means and the scope of basic education.
 Enhancing the environment for learning.
 Strengthening partnerships by 2000.

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Education is a fundamental human right. It is the key to sustainable development
and peace and stability within and among countries, and thus an indispensable
means for effective participation in the societies and economies of the twentyfirst century,
which are affected by rapid globalization…. The basic learning
needs of all can and must be met as a matter of urgency.
On the other hand Report on “Education for All -2010” shows the following facts about the
condition of children in the world: There were 72 million children out of school in 2007.
Business as usual would leave 56 million children out of school in 2015. Around 54% of
children out of school are girls. In sub-Saharan Africa, almost 12 million girls may never
enroll. In Yemen, nearly 80% of girls out of school are unlikely ever to enroll, compared
with 36% of boys. Literacy remains among the most neglected of all education goals, with
about 759 million adults lacking literacy skills today. Two-thirds are women. Millions of
children are leaving school without having acquired basic skills. In some countries in sub-
Saharan Africa, young adults with five years of education had a 40% probability of being
illiterate. In the Dominican Republic, Ecuador and Guatemala, fewer than half of grade 3
students had more than very basic reading skills.
Some 1.9 million new teacher posts will be required to meet universal primary education
by 2015 United Nations (2008) in its report entitled “The Millennium Development Goals
Report 2008” pointed out that in almost all regions, the net enrolment ratio in 2006
exceeded 90 per cent, and many countries were close to achieving universal primary
enrolment. The report mentions that the number of children of primary school age who
were out of school fell from 103 million in 1999 to 75 million in 2006. The report further
says that in subSaharan Africa, the net enrolment ratio has only recently reached 71 per
cent. Around 38
million children of primary school age in this region are still out of school.
Pakistan is one of the most populated countries in the world. National Education Policy and
Implementation programme (1979) declared that a minimum level of education for all
citizens is not only a basic human right but also is imperative for conscious participation of
the masses in the development process of sovereign nation. To educate maximum mass
government of Pakistan announces in the Education Policy (1972, :3) that education will be
made free and universal up to grade 10. National Education Policy (1992) documented that

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Universalization of primary education has remained a desired goal of successive
policies and plans. The policy highlighted the following limitations which have obstructed
Universalization:
Low female participation
Rapid increase in the population of 5-9 age groups. Drop out rate of up to 50 %. Lack of
access to primary Schools. Resource availability. School hours
Opportunity cost. UNESCO (2003) states: Pakistan is a signatory of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and many other declarations down to the World
Declaration on Education for All (1990), the World Education Forum: Dakar Framework for
Action 2000, the Recife Declaration of E-9 Countries 2000 and the Beijing Declaration of E-
9 Countries on ICT and EFA 2001. But Pakistan, despite policy statements and target
setting in various education policies and five-year plans is still far below universal primary
education access and retention.
Almost all the governments launched different campaigns for awaking awareness about
education among the parents and offer different rewards for sending children to schools.
National education Policy (1992) recognized the following strategies to meet the challenge
of Universalization of primary education: About 265,000 new primary school teachers will
be trained and recruited. As far as possible, female teachers will be recruited for primary
schools. The upper age limit for appointment as primary teacher will be relaxed. The non-
government organizations (NGOs) will be encouraged to set up resource centres for the in-
service training of teachers.
National education Policy (1998-2010) states that in 1996-97, out of total 19.22 million
primary school age (5-9 years) population, only 13.72 million were in school and 5.5
million were left-out, who were never enrolled. The policy highlights the following
strategies for achieving the Universalization of primary education: National Literacy
movement will be launched on emergency basis in every village, tehsil and district.
Mosques, wherever feasible, will be utilized as one of the means to provide nonformal basic
education to increase literacy.
In unreached areas 25000 NFBE (Non-Formal Basic Education) community
schools will be gradually upgraded to the middle level, over the policy period.
UNESCO (2000)a in its Country report “The Education for All: Assessment (2000)”

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highlight the following situation about the primary education in Pakistan:
Investment in primary education has increased from Rs.9563 million in 1990-91
to Rs 38674 million in 1998-99. It is a record increase of 304% in a short period
of 9 years. … Inspite of these achievements net enrolment /participation rate
could not exceed 60% against the Jomtein target of 100% net enrolment by the
years 2000.It shows that around 8 million children of 5-9 age group are never
enrolled in school and half (50%) of those (12 million enrolled) may drop out
before completing primary education. At this rate total number of out of school
children may reach 14 (8+6) million by the year 2002.03. (Here Rs is the basic unit of
Currency in Pakistani system) According to Economic Survey of Pakistan (2009)a, literacy
rate is 56 % (69% for male and 44% for female) in 2007-08. Literacy remains higher in
urban areas (71%) than in rural areas (49%) and more in men (69%) compared to women
(44%). High population growth, cultural and socio- economic barriers have kept literacy
rates depressingly low in Pakistan (Mohammad & Bregman, 1998). Federal and Provincial
Governments are introducing projects with the aid of foreign countries and Public-private
partnership to increase the net enrolment at primary level. Government also, collaborating
with nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to provide education in the far flung areas of
the country. One of the reasons of not sending children to schools or drop out in the mid-
way is the children labor. To meet the expenditures, parents send their children to
workplaces. These children are unable to join the formal institutions. To attract such
children to schools is a challenge for the government. The result of the formal institutional
structure is that millions of children have been deprived of elementary education because
institutional facilities did not exist but primary education clashed with their jobs (National
Education Policy, 1998-2010). Shami and Hussain (2005) conducted a study entitled “Basic
Education in Pakistan” and found the following reasons of low enrollment in primary
schools in Pakistan: Majority of boys and girls could not be enrolled in the schools because
of Expensive education, Non-availability of schools, Remote schools, No facility for further
education, Providing help at home, Teachers’ harsh behavior and Less conveyance to
remote schools. The reasons for leaving school during the academic year were expensive
education, Lack of parents’ interest, large family size, Remote schools, Security problems,
Non-availability of good teachers, harsh behavior of teachers and corporal punishment.

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Pakistan is facing the challenge of Universalization of primary education. Government of
Pakistan is trying to increase the net enrollment in primary education, but there are lot of
issues and problems in this regard. Poverty is a main problem of Pakistan and the teachers
confirm that parents do not send their children to schools because they think; child is more
productive for them if he/she becomes an earning hand, even government is providing free
education. It is a common view of the peoples that in public schools corporal punishment
is a common practice. Teachers disagreed with the statement that “Children left school due
to strict environment of the public schools”, because “Mar Nahe Piyar”) is the slogan of the
government educational institutions. Teachers corroborated that parents hesitate to send
children to schools because they think what they will be do after completing primary
education, if they have not resources for further education. Why not child got a skill in
these five years which will be an asset for further life. Teachers are of the orated that
Cultural values, shortage of teachers are the reasons of low enrollment at the primary level,
they speaks out that role of community and high level efficiency of educational are very
important for accelerating the number of students in primary. Teachers orate that Evening
shifts in schools can accommodate those schools who remain busy in some work in the
morning time. Government of Pakistan is providing all the facilities to ensure the
universalization of primary education, it is needed that awareness about education may be
created among the parents so that they may send their children to schools. Public schools
may play their role in decreasing the dropout rate. Curriculum may design in such a way
that it may be helpful for the students out of schools. In addition, teachers may be
appointed in the far flung areas so that people send their children. Local Community may
be involved after providing special training about importance of education. It is also
considered that public institutions are not catering quality education, this notion may be
abolished.

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