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1
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t1:I
ntr
oduct
iont
oLaw

1.
1Meani
ngofLaw
Thet erm‘ law’i sder i
vedf rom t
heol dt eut
oni
cwor d‘lag’whichmeansf i
xed,unifor
m or
constant.Differentlanguageshavetheirownterm equi
valenttolaw.TheLat i
nterml exorj
usor
j
uris,Spanisht erml ey,Frenchter
m droit
,Sanskri
tterm VidhiandAr abit
erm Kanoonar eused
forlawinr espect i
velanguages.Li
kewise,lawiscall
edDhar mainHi ndujur
isprudence,Hukm i
n
Isl
amicandr esi nGerman.Thet erm Kanoonwhichisusedi nNepaliandrecognisedasourown
ter
m butt histermi sadopt edfr
om Arabi.

Law i
sabodyofr ules,boundaryorl i
mit
ati
on,r egulationsandbindi
ngr ul
eofconductt hat
cont
rolsandregulateshumanbehav iors.I
talsor egulatestherel
ati
onsbetweeni ndi
vi
dual
st o
i
ndiv
idual
sandi ndiv i
dualstostate.Law ist heenf orceablebodyofr ul
est hatgover
nst he
soci
etybycreati
ngr ightsandduti
esf orpeople.Ther ights,l
i
bert
iesandobli
gationsofhuman
bei
ngsareregul
atedt hroughthepowerfuli
mplement ationoflaw.

Thelaw isasetofr ul
esmadebyl aw makingauthori
tyf
ort heproperregul
ati
onsofhuman
behavi
oursinsoci et
yandt omaint
ainpeaceandor derinthesociety.Law makingauthor
it
y
meansf ederall
egisl
ature,pr
ovi
nci
allegi
slat
ureorlocall
egislat
ureormoder nstate.Law i
s
madef ort
hewel l
-bei
ngofsociet
yandbettermentofhumanli
fe.Themai naim ofmakingl
awis
toprov
idejusti
cetov i
cti
ms.

Gener all
y,theterm'law'ref
erstothebodyofr ul
eswhi chgovernshumanconduct.Lawi st
he
enforceabl ebodyofr ul
esthatgovernsthesoci
etybycreati
ngri
ghtsanddut i
esfort
hepeople.
Lawpr otectsandregulat
edtherightsandduti
esofcit
izens.Lawismadef orthewel
lbei
ngand
bettermentofpeopl eandsoci ety.Law pr
ohibi
tsunnecessarydist
urbancetobehappeni n
societybypuni shi
ngcr i
minal
s.

Lawi sabodyofruleswhi chismadebyst at

et oregulatehumanbehav i
ortomaint
ainpeaceand
securit
yinsoci
ety.Lawpr eventscri
meandcr i
minalacti
viti
esi
nt hesocietyandprov
ideabett
er
placet oli
ve.Law createsr i
ghtsanddut i
esofpeopl eandpr ovideremediestov i
cti
m and
punishmenttoof f
ender.Themai naim ofmaki nglaw i stoprovidejusti
cetothev i
cti
m and
punishmenttothecr i
minals.Lawi sessent
ialforsocietyandhumanbei ngs.I
ntheabsenceof
l
aw, iti
sverydi
ffi
cultt
orunsoci etysmoothl
y .Lawcreat

Therei
snosi
ngl
e,preci
seanduni
versalaccept
edmeaninganddefi
nit
ionofl
awbecausej
uri
sts
bei
ngsborni
ndi
ffer
entphasesofti
me.Anddi ffer
entj
uri
stdef
inel
awont hebasi
sofdif
fer
ent
aspect
s.

Def
ini
ti
onsoflawgivenbyJur
ist
s
Di
ff
erentj
uri
stshav
egivendi
ff
erentmeani
nganddef
ini
ti
onofl
aw.Theyar
easf
oll
ow:

2
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Accor
dingt
oAust
in,
“Lawi
sacommandofsov
erei
gnbackedupbysanct
ions.
”

Accordi
ngt oHoll
and,“
Law i
sagener
alr
uleofext
ernalhumanact
ionenf
orcedbysov
erei
gn
pol
it
icalaut
hor
it
y.”

Accor
dingtoSal
mond“Lawmaybedef i
nedast
hebodyofpr
inci
plesr
ecogni
sedandappl
i
edby
t
hestatei
ntheadmi
nist
rat
ionofj
ust
ice.
”

AccordingtoH.L.
AHar
t,"
Lawi
sthecol
l
ect
ionofpr
imar
yrul
eofobl
i
gat
ionandsecondar
yrul
e
ofrecognit
ion.
"

Accordingt
oSav
igny
,“Law i
sar
uleofhumanact
ionandconductsanct
ionedbynat
ional
usage.”

Accordi
ng to Hol
mes,“The pr
opheci
es ofwhatcour
twi
l
ldo i
nfactand not
hing mor
e
pr
etenti
ous,
arewhatImeanbylaw.
”

Accor
dingt
oRoscoePound,
"Lawi
ssoci
alengi
neer
ing.
"

Accor
dingtoVedas,“
Law i
stheKingofKi
ngandnot
hingi
smi
ght
ert
hanl
aw,bywhoseai
d
evenweakermaypr
evai
lov
erthest
rong.
”

Accor
dingt
oPl
ato,
"Lawi
sthef
indi
ngofr
eal
i
ty.
"

Ul
piandef
inesl
awas"
whati
sequi
tabl
eandgood.
"

Dict
ionaryDef
ini
ti
ons
AccordingtoOxfordDi
cti
onary-"
Law ar
ethewhol
esy
stem ofr
ulest
hatev
ery
onei
nthe
countr
yorsociet
ymustobey.
”

Accordi
ngtoBlack'
sLawDict
ionary-"Lawasar
ules,whi
chmustbeobey
edandf
oll
owedby
ci
ti
zenstosanct
ionorl
egal
consequences.
"

Def
ini
ti
onofl
awaccordingtoschooloft
hought:
Nat
urall
awschool
:Accordi
ngtothi
sschool
,“Lawist
hedi
ctat
eofr
easons.
”

Anal
yti
cal
School
:Accor
dingt
othi
sschool
,“l
awi
sthecommandofsov
erei
gn.
”

Hi
stor
ical
School
:Accor
dingt
othi
sschool
,“Lawi
snotmadebutf
ound.
”

Soci
ologi
calSchool
:Accor
dingt
othi
sschool
,“Lawi
ssoci
alengi
neer
ing.
”

Real
istSchool
:Accor
dingt
othi
sschool
,“Lawi
sthepr
act
iceofcour
t.
”

Soci
ali
stSchool
:Accor
ding t
othi
s school
,“Law i
s an i
nst
rumentofexpl
oit
ati
on and
dominat
ion.
”

3
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

I
nconcl usi
on,from theabov eexplanat
ionanddef i
nit
ion,i
tiscleart hatthereisnosi ngl
e
meaninganddef i
nit
ionsoflawbecauseofj ur i
stsbei
ngbor nindif
ferentpointoftime.Lawis
thewholerul
esthatismadebyst ateforregulat
inghumanbehav i
ourf ormaintai
ningpeaceand
orderi
nsociet
y.Lawi snecessar
yforregulat
ingandsmoot hfunct
ioningofstate.

Lawist hemaintool
sofev eryst
atetocont
rolandregulatestheconduct
sofit
scit
izens.Law
provi
desrightt
oit
scit
izensandimposeduti
es.Thus,
lawi stheenfor
ceabl
ebodyofr
uleswhich
regul
ateshumanbehaviourandsoci
etyt
hathel
pstomai ntainpeaceandor
deri
nsoci
ety.

2.
2Funct
ionofLaw
Lawisbodyofr ul
eswhi chregulateshumanbehavi
oursandmaintai
npeaceandsecur it
yinthe
soci
ety.Lawpuni shcriminal
sandpr ovi
dejust
icet
othev i
cti
ms.Lawplayesimport
antr ol
esin
thesociety.Soci
etycouldbel amei ntheabsenceofl
aw.Societ
ycannotrunsmoot hlywit
hout
l
aw.Lawi saninstr
umentofsoci alchangeandsoci
aldevel
opment.Thefunct
ionsoflawcanbe
summar izedinthefol
lowingpoints:

a)Maintainpeaceandsecur it
y:Lawismadef ormaintai
ningpeaceandsecur i
tyi
nsoci
ety.
Law pr ohi
bits and cont
r olunnecessar
y activ
iti
es happen in societ
y and mai
ntai
n
harmonyi nthesociet
y.Likecriminal
lawpreventscri
meandcr imi
nal act
ivi
ti
esi
nsociet
y.
Thereforelawmai nt
ainpeaceandsecur i
ty.

b)Tocont r
olhumanbehav our:Lawdet er
minest heri
ghtsanddutiesofpeople.Ifanyone
vi
olateslaw then he/
shewi l
lbepuni shed.So everyonehast o obeyl aw and act
accordi
ngly.Holl
andsaysthatl aw i
sabodyofr ul
est ocontr
oltheexter
nalact i
onof
human.Aust i
nalsosaysthatlaw isabodyofr ul
eslaiddownbyani ntel
ligenthuman
beingfortheguidanceofanot herhumanbei ng.Theref
orelaw ismadef orregulati
ng
humanbehav ior
.

c) Topr ovi
dejustice:Asweknow t hemai naim ofmaki nglaw ist oprovi
deJust i
ceto
thosewhohasbeenwr onglydeprived fr
om his/herr i
ghts.Law treat
sequal lyand
promotesjusti
ceandfairnessi
nt hesociet
y.Justi
ceistheendofl aw.Thereisapopular
sayingthatjusti
cedelay edisjusti
cedeni ed.I
tmeansdel ayi
ngi nprovi
dingjusti
ce
meanspr ovi
dingnojust
ice.Sothatlawfunctiont
opr ov
idejust i
cefai
rl
yandqui ckl
y.

d)Toprov i
deequalopportuni
tyf orever
yone:Lawpr ovi
desequalopport
unit
ytoev er
yone
forparti
cipat
ingi
nv ar
iousj obsandser vi
ces.Becauseitisthel aw t
ocr eat
ePubl i
c
Servi
ceforconducti
ngappr opriat
eexam forselecti
onofbestandcapabl epersonfor
governmentorpubl
icoffi
ce.

e) Toupli
ftpoororbackwardpeople:Thereareal otoflawsmadef orthebenefi
tsofpoor
andbackwardpeople.Lawhaspr ov
idedspeci alserv
icesandbenef i
tstothosewhoar e
economical
l
ypoorandf r
om backwardar ea.Law haspr ovidedquot aforgovernment
j
obst othepoorandbackwar dpeopl e.Gov ernmenthasal sopr ovi
dedalsopr ov
ided
hi
ghereducati
onforfr
eetothem.Thereforelawhel pstoupli
ftpoororbackwardpeople.

f
) Secur
eri
ght
sofci
ti
zen:Lawsecur
esr
ight
sofpeopl
eandpr
otectt
her
ight
sofpeopl
e

4
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

fr
om encr
oachmentofgov ernment
.Therearev ar
iousr
ightsofpeopl
esecuredbylaw
l
ikeconst
it
uti
onalri
ghts,
fundamental
sri
ghts,
legalri
ght
s,economicri
ght
s,heal
thr
ight
s
andsoon.Theref
orelawsecuresandprot
ectri
ghtsofpeople.

g)Li
mi tthepowerofgov er
nment :Law hasalsodeterminedthepowerofgov ernment.
Whatcangov ernmentand i
tsorgancando,al lt
hesethingsareexplainedbylaw.The
governmental
socannotfuncti
onagainstthelaw.Thepowerofgov ernmentofv ar
ious
l
abelisdeter
minedinschedule5t o9oftheconstit
uti
on.Therefor
e,lawal sol
imitsthe
powerofgovernmentandestabl
ishrul
eoflaw.

2.
3Nat
ureofLaw
a)Dynamic:Lawi sofdy namicnatureandi
tchangesaccordi
ngtot i
meandsi t
uation.Law
cannotberemainsamef orallt
hetimeother
wiselawcannoti
mplemented.Somet hi
ngi n
thepastrecognizedasl egalbylawbutmayber ecogni
zedasil
legali
nthepr esent.For
example:Sati
Sy stem waslegali
nthepastbutnowitisr
ecogni
zedasill
egalbylaw.
b)Equalforev
eryone:Lawisequall
yappli
cablet
oev er
y oneandever
yonei
sequall
ytr
eated
bylaw.No-oneissmal lorbi
ginfrontoflaw.Everyoneenjoy
sequalprot
ect
ionoflaw.
Art
icl
e18oft heconsti
tuti
onhasmentionedaboutequalit
y.

c) Bindi
nginnatur
e:Lawi sbindi
ngbyit
snatur
e.Lawisimper
ati
veinnature.Every
onehas
tofol
lowlawandi fanyonedisobeyl
awthem he/
shemaybepuni shed.Thereisav er
y
popul
arsayingthatignoranceoflaw i
snoexcuse.Austi
nalsosay st hatlaw i
sthe
commandofsov erei
gnbackedbysancti
on.I
tmeanslawhasbindi
ngf or
ce.

d)Determinesri
ghtsanddut
ies:Theri
ght
sanddut iesofpeoplear
esecur edbylawaswell
ast heright
s,powerandf uncti
onofst at
eandgov er
nmentar edet er
minedbyl aw.
Example,Consti
tuti
onisthemai nsourceofl aw thathasdet erminedtheright
sof
ci
ti
zensunderf undament
alright
sandt heright
sofdi ff
erentl
ev elofgover
nmentar e
determi
nedinschedule5t
o9.

e) Regulateshumanbehav iours:Lawi
sabodyofr ul
esmadef ortheregulat
ionofhuman
behaviorandconduct s.Austi
nsayslawisacommandofsov erei
gnbackedbysanct i
on.
I
tmeansi fpeopl
edisobeyl awthent
heywillbepunished.Andwecanal soseethatthere
arevariousnew law hasbeenmadet ocont rolhumanbehav ior.Forexample;law for
aci
dat tack,l
awf orpunishmentofrape,l
awf orchil
dr i
ghtThereforeitcanbesai dthat
l
awi smadef orr
egulati
nghumanbehav i
ours.

f
) Ensuresj usti
ce:Justi
cest heendsoflaw.Themainaim ofmakinglaw istoprovi
de
j
usti
ce.Just iceist heul t
imategoaloflaw.Law prov
idesjusti
cet othev i
cti
m and
punishmentt otheof fender.Ifl
aw f
ail
stoprov
ideandensurejusti
cethenthereisno
meani ngofr emaini
ngl aw.Justi
cemeansthewayinwhicheveryoneistreat
edequal
ly,
fai
rl
ywi thoutanyself-
inter
ests.

g)Amendabl
e:Thenatur
eoflaw ischangeabl
eaccor
dingtotheti
meandsituati
on.The
l
aw shoul
dbeamendedaccor dingtot hetimeandsituat
ionandaccor
dingt othe
demandofpeopl
eotherwi
sesuchlaw creat
esconf
li
ctbetweenr
ulerandr
uled.Sothe
l
awshouldbenat
ureofeasi
lyamendable.

5
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t2:Jur
ispr
udence
2.
1Meani
ngofJur
ispr
udence
Thesci encewhi chstudieslaw i
sjurisprudence.Thetermj ur
isprudencei sderiv
edf rom t
he
Latinterm Jur
isprudent
ia.Theter
mj urisprudenti
aiscomposedoft woLat i
ntermsi.e.juri
sand
prudentia.InLat i
nlanguage,jur
isr eferstol aw and pr
udentiar efersto knowledge.Thus,
j
ur i
sprudencemeansknowl edgeoflaw.Wecansayt hatthejuri
spr udenceisasci encewhich
studieslaw.

I
not herwor ds,thesciencewhichst udiesl aw inasy stemati
candsci enti
fi
cwayi scalled
j
urisprudence.Jurispr
udenceisthestudyr elati
ngtolaw.Jurispr
udenceisthestudyofabst
ract
pri
nciples.Itistheknowledge,systemati
cal l
ypresentedoftheul t
imatepr
inci
plesthatpr
ovide
thebasi sforthespeci
ficandconcreteprovisionsofactual
legalsystem.

Theknowl edgeofanalysi
ngandsystemati
zi
ngtheessenti
alel
ementsunderl
yi
ngt helegalr
ules
wit
houtspeci f
icrefer
encet otheinst
it
uti
onsofl aw ofanynati
onisJur i
sprudence.Itisa
knowledge;knowledgeoflawaswel lasknowledgerel
ati
ngtolaw,i
tstheory,basi
s,concepts
andtools.Juri
spr
udence,ther
efor
e,wasdescri
bedas“EyeofLaw”and“GrammarofLaw” .

Juri
sprudencei sani nvest
igat
ionofanabst ractandt heoreti
calnat ur
eofl aw.Itdealswi t
h
essentialpri
nci
plesoflawandl egalsyst
em.Itisnormat i
veev aluati
onofbasiclegalvaluesand
i
deaswhi chimpartvalidi
tyandr ecogni
ti
ont oal egalsy stem.I ti
saconcept ualanalysi
sof
theoryofl aw.Juri
spr
udencegener all
yconsi
stsofsci enti
ficandphi losophi
calinvest
igati
onof
socialphenomenonofl awandj usti
ce.

Jur
ispr
udencest
udiesaboutori
ginofl
aw,lawmaki ngprocess,l
egalsystem andmanymore.Al
l
l
awsarebornedfr
om lawsoi ti
salsocal
ledeyeofl aw.Juri
sprudenceisalsocal
ledknowl
edge
andski
ll
soflaw,
scienceandphil
osophyoflaw,heartoflaw,t
heoryoflawet c.

Defini
ti
onofjur
ispr
udencebyv ar
iousj
urist
s:
AccordingtoUl
pian-"Juri
spr
udenceistheknowl
edgeoft
hings,
humananddi
vi
ne,
thesci
ence
ofthejustandt
heunjust.
"

Accor
dingt
oC.
K.Al
len-"
Jur
ispr
udencei
sasci
ent
if
icsy
nthesi
soft
heessent
ialpr
inci
plesof
l
aw."

Accor
dingt
oCi
cer
o-"
Jur
ispr
udencei
sthephl
osophi
cal
aspectofknowl
edgeofl
aw.
"

Accor
dingt
oAust
in-"
Jur
ispr
udencei
sthephi
l
osophyofposi
ti
vel
aw.
"

Austi
n divi
des juri
sprudence intotwo cl asses i.
e.'generalJur
isprudence and Part
icul
ar
Juri
sprudence.Accordingtohim' GeneralJurispr
udencei sthephi
losophyofpositi
velaw.On
theotherhand'parti
cularjur
isprudenceist hescienceofanysuchsy st
em ofposit
ivelaw as
nowact ual
l
yobtainsoronceact uall
yobtainedinaspeci f
ical
l
ydeter
mi nednati
onorspecifi
call
y

6
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

det
ermi
nednat
ions.

Accor
dingt
oSal
mond,
"Jur
ispr
udencei
sthesci
enceoft
hef
ir
stpr
inci
pleoft
heci
vi
ll
aw.
"

Sal
mond,Juri
spr
udencecanbedef i
nedintwosenses(1)i
nthe'Gener
icSense'jur
ispr
udence
canbedefi
nedasSci enceofCiv
ilLaw'and(2)inthe'
Speci
fi
csense'Juri
sprudencecanbe
def
inedast
hescienceofthef
ir
stpri
ncipl
eofciv
ill
aw.

Accor
dingt
oHol
land-"
Jur
ispr
udencei
sthef
ormal
sci
enceofposi
ti
vel
aw.
"

Keeton def
ines j
uri
spr
udence as "
the st
udy and sy
stemat
ic ar
rangementoft
he gener
al
pr
incipl
esoflaw.
"

Accor
dingt oG.W.Paton,"Juri
spr
udenceisapar
ti
cul
armet
hodofst
udy
,nott
hel
aw ofone
count
ry,butoft
hegeneralnoti
onoflawit
sel
f.
"

DeanRoscoePounddef inesj
uri
spr
udenceas"t hescienceofl
aw,usingt
het er
mlaw i
nthe
j
uri
dicalsense,asdenot
ingthebodyofpri
nci
plesrecogni
sedorenf
orcedbypubli
candr
egul
ar
t
ri
bunalsintheadminist
rati
onofj
usti
ce"
.

Accor
dingt
oJul
iusSt
one"
Jur
ispr
udencei
sthel
awy
er'
sext
rav
ersi
on.
"

Accordi
ngtoJohnChi pmanGray"jur
ispr
udenceisthesci
enceoflaw,thestatementand
syst
ematicar
rangementoft
her
ulesf
oll
owedbyt heCour
tandthepr
inci
plesi
nvolv
edinthose
rul
es.
"

Accordi
ngt oDrM.J.Sethna,'
Jur
ispr
udenceisastudyoff
undament
all
egalpri
nci
plesi
ncl
udi
ng
thei
rphi
losophi
cal
,Hist
orical
andsociol
ogical
basesandanal
ysi
sofl
egalconcept
s.'

Byanaly
singt heabovementioneddefi
nit
ion,i
tiscleart
hatjur
ispr
udenceinvolvest
hestudyof
gener
altheoreti
calquest
ionsaboutthenatureoflaw andlegalsyst
em,relat
ionshi
psbetween
l
awandj ust
iceetc.

2.
2Impor
tanceofJur
ispr
udence
Juri
sprudenceisasciencewhichstudiesaboutlawinasy
stemat
icandsci
enti
fi
cway.I
tisvery
necessarytounder
standjur
isprudencetounderstandt
het
ruemeani
ngoflaw.Thei
mportances
ofJuri
sprudencehavebeendescr i
bedbelow:

a)Educati
onalValue:Juri
sprudencehaseducati
onalval
uebecauseiti
sasci
enceofl
aw
anditprovi
desf undamentalknowledgesandinf
ormati
onoflaw.Apersonmusthave
deepandcompl eteknowledgeofJur i
spr
udencetounder
standthetr
uemeani
ngofl
aw
andlegalt
heor
iesandi t
'sori
gin.

b)Usef
ult
oint
erpr
etl
aw:I
nter
pret
ingt
het
ruemeani
ngofl
awr
equi
rest
heknowl
edgeof

7
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

l
aw.Knowledgeoflawcanbegainedonlybyunder
standj
uri
sprudence.Aper
soncannot
i
nter
prett
hemeani ngoflaw i
ntheabsenceofgoodknowl edgeofJur i
spr
udence.So
knowl
edgeofJuri
sprudencei
snecessar
ytoint
erpr
etlaw.

c) Helpfulf
orl aw makers:Thel aw makersshoul dhaveknowl
edgeofJur i
sprudence
becausetheydraf
tdraf
tnewl awsforpeopleandcountry
.Agoodl
awandsui t
ableforal
l
peoplecanbeonl ymadei fsuchlaw satisf
yt heneedsofal
lpeopl
eofsoci et
y.Only
thosepersonwhohasknowl edgejuri
sprudencecanbestlawt
osati
sfyal
ltheneedsof
societ
ybecausehehasknowl edgeofeff
ectsandbenefit
sofmaki
ngsuchalaw.

d)Teachest oliveinsociety:Juri
spr
udenceprov i
desbasicandfundamentalknowledges
oflawandr i
ghts,duti
esar eimport
antaspectofJuri
sprudence.Whenaper sonknows
hisri
ghtsandhi s/herduti
estowardssociet
yt henhedoesn'tdoanythi
ngwhichviol
ates
other
srights.Therefor
e,knowledgeofJuri
sprudenceteachesapersontoberesponsibl
e
forhi
s/heractionsandliveli
fewell
.

e) Usefulforl
awyers:Itwil
lhelpalawyerthebasicideasandr easoningbehindthewrit
ten
l
aw.I thel
psthem betterunderst
andthef undamentalsofthel awandhel pthem fi
gure
outtheactualr
uleoft helaw.Thestudyofj ur
ispr
udencedoesnotser veonlyacademic
purposes.I
twil
lhelplawyersandotherpracti
ti
onersinthepracticalwor
ldaswell.

8
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arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t3:School
sofThought

Ther
earemajorsi
xschooloft
hought
s.Theyar
eimpor
tantt
ounder
standt
hemeani
ngofl
aw.
Theyar
edi
scussedbel
ow:

a)Nat
ural
School
Accordingtot hisschoolofthought,
"lawisthedictat
eofr easons."Itbeli
evesthatnaturall
awi s
theseedsofal lotherlaws.Thisschooloft houghtsay st hatl aw mustber ationaland
reasonable.Nat urall
awi saphil
osophyofl awthatf orcesont hel awofnat ure.Thisschoolof
j
urisprudencer epresentsthebel
iefthattheyar
ei nherentl awsthati scommont oallsocieti
es.
Hugo,Gr oti
us,Thomas Aqui nas,Ci cero,Pl
ato,Socr ates,Ar i
stotle,Cicero etc.ar ethe
phil
osopher sofnat ural
lawschool.

Nat
urallaw isal
soknownast hemor allaw Div
inelaw,t
helaw ofGod,law ofReason,l
aw of
nat
ure,Univer
sallawandunwr i
ttenlaw.Nat urallawisbel
iev
edtobear ationalf
oundati
onfor
moraljudgement.Thisschoolarguest hatnatur
allawisbi
ndingoveral
lperiodofti
me.Ifman
madelawgoesagai nstnatur
allawt henmanmadel awisnotvali
d.Thetimeperi
odofNat ur
al
l
awschool isdi
videdintofourparts.Theyar easfoll
ow:

I.AncientPer
iod
I
ti sthestart
ingpointofNat urallaw school.Inthi
speri
od,GreekgivetheideaofNatur
allaw
andRomandev el
opedt heconceptofNat urall
aw.Thej ur
ist
soft hi
speriodwereSocrates,
Arist
otle,Sai
ntAquinasandCi ceroetc.I nthisperi
od,Socratesgavehisi deat
hathuman
possesscapaci tyto di
stingui
shgood f rom bad.Arist
otleint
erpr
eted l
aw asdiscover
yby
reasonsandet er
nalpri
nciplesofjusti
ce.

Theanci
entper
iodi
sfur
therdi
vi
dedi
ntot
woper
iodst
hatar
e:

I
.Gr
eekper
iod

Themai
naut
hor
sofGr
eekper
iodar
easf
oll
ows;

Her
acl
it
es(530-
470B.
C)

Thefoundat
ionofNatur
all
awphil
osophywasbyt
heHer
acl
it
esandital
sogi
vest
hreeaspect
s_
unl
imit
edgoals,
stagesandr
easonarei
mport
antf
ort
henat
ural
law.

Socr
ates(
470-
399)

Accordi
ngtoSocr at
es“Lawisaproductofcor
rectr
easoni
ng”
.‘Humaninsi
ght
’thatamanhas
capacit
ytodist
ingui
shbetweengoodandbadandi sablet
oappreci
atethemoralval
ues.Thi
s
human‘ i
nsi
ght’
isthebasist
ojudget
helaw.

Pl
ato(
427-
347B.
C)

9
LawSchol
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shKumarTi
war
i

Heisasupport
erofmi ni
mum gover
nancepoli
cyt
hatmeans“
ult
imate”j
ust
icei
sdi
scoverabl
e
t
hroughr
eason.Plat
oalsosuppor
tstheSocr
atest
heor
yofNat
urall
aw.Accordi
ngt
oPlato,we
l
iv
einanorder
lyuniv
erse.

Ar
ist
otl
e(385-
322B.
C)

Hebel i
evesthatNatur
allaw haselement
sofr eason,justi
ceandet hicsmeant hat“Univ
ersal
andimmut abl
estandardsdiscov
erablet
hroughreasonandman- madel aw shouldconformt o
thesestandar
ds.Accor
dingtohim,mani sapartofnatur ei
nt woway s:Fi
rst
lyheisthepar tof
thecreatur
esofthegodandsecondl y
,hepossessesinsightandreasonbywhi chhecanshape
hiswil
l.
”

2.Romanper
iod

TheNatur
all
awphilosophyfoundonexpressi
onintheRomanl egalsy
stem t
hroughthediv
isi
on
ofRomanlawintothreedist
inctdi
vi
si
ons_j usci
vi
l,jusgent
iam andj usnatur
al.I
talsogiv
es
nat
ural
lawisequal
t ouni
versall
awandthecodeofgaudieral
so.

Themai
naut
horRomanper
iodsasf
oll
ows:
-

Ci
cer
o

Hesaidthel
awi sthehi
ghestreason,implant
edi
nnatur
ewhichcommandswhatoughttobe
doneandfor
bidstheopposi
te.Thi
sr easonwhenfi
rml
yfi
xedandful
lydev
elopedi
nthehuman
mindi
slaw.

II
.Medi evalPeri
od
Itisat i
meofcat hol
icphi l
osopher
sorl ogi ci
ansoft heMi ddl
eAgesgav eanew t heor
yof
‘
Nat urall
aw’.Thought heytoogaveitthelogicalbasis.Theydepartedf
rom t heorthodoxyofthe
earl
yChr isti
anfather
.Theirviewsaremorel ogicalandsy stemati
c.Dur
ingthisper i
od,l
awswer e
rel
atedt osuperiorgod,churchandr el
igi
on.ThomasAqui naswaspopul arjuri
stofthisperi
od.
Inthisperiod,t
herewasr ul
eoff at
herofchur ch.Lawmaki ngpowerwasint heirhands

Themai
naut
hor
soft
hemedi
eval
per
iodar
easf
oll
ows;
-

August
ine(
354-
430A.
D)

Itbel
i
evesthatwhatar
est at
eswithoutj
usti
cebutrobberhandsenlarged(
Decivi
tasDei)(The
cit
yofgod)
.Ital
sobeli
evesthatnatur
all
awasapar tofnatur
alfoundati
onofChr
isti
ani
tydueto
i
tsori
ginsi
ntheoldTestamentearl
ychurchfat
her
.

ThomasAqui
nas(
1226-
1274)

I
tbeliev
est hat‘
unjust
’law deser
venoobedience’meansthatmanfi
ndsoutnat
urall
aw by
appl
ying‘r
eason’andst udy
ingscri
pturesoft
herevel
ati
onofGod.St
.ThomasAquinasgave
four
-f
oldcl
assifi
cat
ionoflaw’snamely;
-

10
LawSchol
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shKumarTi
war
i

 LawofGodorext
ernal
law

 Lawofnat
ure(
whi
chr
eveal
edt
hroughnat
ure)

 Humanl
aw(
whi
chwenowcal
l
edposi
ti
vel
aw

 Lawofdi
vi
neort
hel
awofscr
ipt
ure.

I
II
.RenaissancePeri
od
I
nt hi
sper i
od,sci
enti
fi
cdev el
opmentandindustri
ali
zati
onwasst ar
tedandf at
herofchur
ch
werefail
i
ngt ocont
rolandregul
atethesoci
ety
.Becauseoft hi
s,thedominanceofchur
chwas
overt
hrownandthesociet
yregulat
edonthebasisof'Soci
alCont
ractTheory'
.

SocialContractTheor
yexplai
nst hatman who wer eli
ving f
reel
yaccordi
ng tot hei
rown
ci
rcumstancesenter
edint
oacont r
acttoform agrouporcommuni t
yforprot
ecti
onofl i
feand
proper
tywhichwasknownasPact um Unions.Thesuppor
tersofSocialCont
ractTheorywere
HugoGr ot
ius,ThomasHobbes,JohnLockeandRousseau.

Themai
naut
hor
sofRenai
ssanceper
iodar
easf
oll
ows:
-

HugoGr
oti
us(
1583-
1645)

Heisknownasfatherofi
nternat
ionall
aw.Groti
usbuilthi
slegaltheoryon‘Soci
alCont
ract
’.
4
Hi
sviewinbri
efi
sthatpol
it
icalsoci
etyrestona‘soci
alcont
ract’
Itisthedutyofthesov
erei
gn
t
osafeguar
dtheci
ti
zensbecausetheform wasgi
v enpoweronl
yforthatpurpose.

ThomasHobbes(
1558-
1679)

Itwasasuppor
terofabsol
utepoweroft
her
ulerandsubj
ect
shadno r
ightagai
nstt
he
sover
eign.

JohnLocke(1632-1704)

JohnLocketoorecogni
zedtheexi
stenceofcert
aini
nali
enabl
enatur
alri
ghts.Hecategor
ized
them as‘
’
li
fe,
li
ber
tyandest
ate(pr
operty
)Locke’
ssoci
alcont
racti
sbaseduponli
ber
ali
sm.

Rousseau(
1712-1778)

Accor
dingtoRousseau,“manbynatureneverthi
nksandhewhot
hinksi
sacorruptcr
eat
ure.
”
Hebeli
evedthatt
hest at
eofnaturewasanidyl
li
cstat
ewherei
nmandidnotr
easonthi
ngsout
andli
vedinabsol
utel
ibert
ywit
ht hef
reemind.

I
mmanuelKant(
1724-
1804)

Heemphasizedthatt
hebasi
sofsocialcontr
actwas‘r
eason’butKantgav
easharpdist
inct
ion
betweennatur
all
awright
sandacqui
redright
sandrecogni
zedonlyonenatur
alr
ightt
hatisthe
ri
ghttofr
eedom.

11
LawSchol
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shKumarTi
war
i

Hegel(
1770-
1831)

Hegelal
soplaysavi
tali
mpor t
antrol
einnaturall
awschool .SchoolofHegelianism Ar
ist
otl
eof
modernti
mes.Iti
sthemostpr ominentphi
losophyofthephil
osophicalschooljuri
standitalso
gi
vethei
rtheor
yinwhichtheysai
dthatstat
eandl awisareasonofgr owthofthehumanl ogic.

IV.Rev i
valofNaturalLaw
During19t hCentury,t
henat urall
awtheorywasf ail
ingt oregulat
esocietybecauseofchanged
societyduet oindustr
iali
zati
onanddev el
opment .Sot hatNaturallawtheorywasr ev
ivedagain
byt heendof19t hCent ury.Revi
valofNaturaltheoryaccept edsomepr act i
calt
echniquesof
problemssolv i
ng.Lonf ul
lerwrotehi
sbook'InnerMor ali
tyofLaw' inthi
speriod.

Themai
naut
hor
soft
he19t
hcent
uryt
heRev
ival
ofnat
ural
lawar
easf
oll
ows:
-

Rudol
fSt
amml
er(
1856–1938)

St
ammlerdef
inedl
aw as“speciesofwi l
lot
her
sregar
dingsel
f-
aut
hor
it
ati
veandi
nvi
olabl
efor
hi
m aj
ustl
awwasthehighestexpressi
onofman.”

Kohl
er(
1849–1919)

Kohlerdef
ineslawas“t
hestandar
dofconductwhichi
nconsequenceoft
heinnerimpulset
hat
urgesuponment owar
dsareasonabl
efr
om ofli
fe,emanat
esfrom t
hewholeandisfor
ceupon
theindi
vi
dual”

HLAHar
t(1907–1992)

Hart,attemptedt orestat
eanat ionall
awposi t
ionf
rom asemi-soci
ologi
calpoi
ntofvi
ew.Har t
pointsoutthatt herearecertai
nsubstanti
veruleswhi
chareessenti
alifhumanbeingsareliv
e
continuousl
yt ogetherincloseproximi
ty.“Thesesi
mplefactconsti
tuteacaseofindi
sputabl
e
tr
uthi nthedoctrinesofnatural
law”.

b)Anal
yti
calSchool
Thef ounderoft hi
sschoolwasJer emyBent hem andAust inisthef atheroft hi sschool.
Accordingt othi
sschool ,"Law ist hecommandofsov erei
gn."Itbel
ievest hatifther eisno
soverei
gn,thereisnol aw.Themaj orpremiseofanal yt
icalSchoolofj uri
sprudencei stodeal
withlawasi texistsint hepr esentform.Itseekst oanalysisthefir
stpr i
nci
plesofl awast hey
actuall
yexisti
nagi venl egalsystem.Thepur poseofthisschooloft houghti stoanal yseand
di
ssectt helawoft helandasi texisttoday.Theadvocatesoft hi
sschoolar eneitherconcer ned
withthepastoft helawnorwi t
ht hefutureofitbuttheyconfinethemsel v
estot hest udyofl aw
asitactuall
yexists.Theyst udywhatl aw"is"andwhatnotwhatl aw,"oughttobe" .Thi sschool
i
sal soknownasposi tiveschool ,imperativ
eschoolet c.Thesuppor tersoft hisschoolwer e
H.L.AHar t
,Sal
mond, Kel son,Hol l
andet c.

I
mpor
tantPoi
ntskeepi
nmi
nd

12
LawSchol
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shKumarTi
war
i

Austi
n:Aust
inisthefatherofAnaly
ticalSchool
.Anal
yti
calSchoolisal
soknownasposi t
ive
school
,Aust
ini
anschool,Imper
ati
veSchool,Engl
ishSchoolandSy st
emati
cSchool
.Itisal
so
sai
dImperat
iveSchool
becauseitsay
st hati
fyoudonotobeylawthenyouwil
lbepuni
shed.

Austi
ngav ehis' CommandTheor y'andaccor di
ngtothist heory,Law isthecommandof
sover
eignbackedbysanct i
ons.I
tmeansi fthereisnosov erei
gnt henther
eisnol aw.Onl y
sover
eignmadel awisl
aw.I nthi
stheory,
Austi
nhassaidthatindemocr at
iccountr
y,legi
slature
i
st hesoverei
gnbodywhi l
ekingisthesoverei
gninmonar chysy stem.Austi
nincludedt hree
el
ement si
nhistheoryi
.e.command, sov
erei
gnandsancti
ons.

Bentham:Bentham i
sthefounderofAnalyti
calSchool
.Hewasal
soknownasfoundi
ngf
ather
ofAnalyti
calSchool
.Hegavehis'Uti
li
tyTheory'whi
chsayst
hatl
awismadefort
hemaxi
mum
happinessofmaximum numberofpeople.

Kel
son:Kelsonisoneoft hepopularjuri
stofPositi
veSchool.Hedev eloped'Pur
eTheoryof
Law'.Hehasusedtheterm'grudnor
ms' i
nhistheor
y.Grandmeansgr eatandnormsmeansl aw,
soitmeansagr eatlaw.Grudnorm meanst hesuperi
orauthori
tyfrom whichlawscomeout .
Hecompar edgr undnor
m wi thConsti
tuti
on.Accordingto him,Constitut
ionisthehighest
aut
horit
yinthecountr
ywhichisknownasgr undnor
ms.Al l
otherlawsaremadeundergrudnorm.

H.
L.AHart:Lawi
sthecoll
ecti
onofpri
maryandsecondar
yrul
es.Pr
imar
yrul
esmeansi
mposi
ng
l
egaldut
yandsecondar
yrulesmeansconf
err
ingpower.

c)Hi
stor
icalSchool
Savignyisthefat
herofhist
oricalschool
.Accordi
ngtothisschoolofthought ,
"Lawisnotmade
butfound."Thi
sschoolbeli
evest hatl
awislikealanguageandculture,lawgr owswithsoci
ety
anddi eswithsociet
y.Li
kelanguagei sdi
ff
erenttosociet
ytosoci ety
,int hesamewayl aw is
al
sodi ffer
enttosociet
ytosoci ety
.Hist
ori
calSchoolisthebridgebet weenpastandpr esent
stat
usofl aw which.Thesuppor t
ersofthi
sschoolwer eSirHener yMai ne,Montesqui
euand
Puchht aet
c.

Thef
amousj
uri
stsofhi
stor
ical
school
ofl
awar
easf
oll
ow:
-

Montesqui
eu:Law ist hecr
eati
onofcl i
mat
e,societ
y,localsi
tuat
ion,accidentorimpostur
e.
Ther
eisamostf amoussayi
ngbyhim, l
awi
' snotmadebutf ound.'
Accordingtohim,lawisnot
madebysov er
eign.Theyonl
yrecogni
selawf
oundinconsist
entsoci
etyandenf or
ceit
.

Savigny :SavignyisthefatherofHistori
calLawSchool.Hedev el
oped'Vol
ksgei stTheory'which
means' spi
ritofpeopl e'orhuman consci ousness.Het r
aced theevoluti
on ofl aw asan
evol
ut ionaryprocessl ongbeforeDar winpubli
shedhistheoryofev ol
uti
oni nbi ol
ogy.Andf or
thi
sr eason, onlyDr.All
enrefer
redtoSav i
gnyasa“ Darwi
nianbeforeDarwi
n”f orhiscontri
buti
on.
Accor dingtohi m,dev el
opmentofl aw isconti
nuousandunbr eakabl
eprocess.Heal soadded
thatl aw dev el
opsl ikeal anguage.A languageisdi f
ferentfr
om societyt osoci et
yandi n
l
anguagesomechangeswi l
loccurf r
om timetot i
me.Int hesameway ,law isnotuni ver
sal

13
LawSchol
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war
i

char
act
erandl
awi
sdi
ff
erentf
rom soci
etyt
osoci
ety
.

HenryMai ne:Henr yMai negav esomedi ff

erenti deafrom otherj
uri
sts.Hest udiedlaw by
divi
dinglawi ntodif
ferentparts.Hetalkedaboutst ati
csociet
yandprogressi
v esoci
ety.Hesaid
thatLawati t
sor i
gini
sr elat
edt orel
igionandt hendev el
opedalongwithcustom,commandof
sovereign,codeandphi losophicalt
heor y
,equit
yandf i
cti
on.Tohim,thesocietyi
nwhi chlawis
l
imitedt ocodei sstat
icsocietyandinwhi chlawi sstil
ldevel
opedbyequityandfict
ioniscal
led
progressivesociet
y.

GeorgFr i
edri
chPucht a:Fri
edri
chPucht awasSav igny’
sstudent
,Pucht aimprovedSavi
gny’
s
viewsandgav et hem abet t
erlogi
calinter
pret
ati
on.Hesai dthatthel aw wast her
esul
tof
peopl
e’scoll
ecti
veconsciousnessandthemani f
estati
onofthei
rspiri
ts.“
Neit
herthepeopl
enor
thestat
ealonecanmakeandf ormul
atelaws,”wasPuchta’smainthought.

d)Soci
ologi
calSchool
Accordingtothi
sschooloft hought,"
Lawissocialengi
neeri
ng."Thi
sschoolofthoughti
salso
cal
ledf uncti
onaljur
ispr
udencebecausei tdealswi thpract
icaloflaw inprobl
emssol v
ing.
Socialengineer
ingmeansbal anci
ngt heconf
li
ctingint
erestsofsociety.Thesupport
ersof
Sociol
ogicalSchoolofJurisprudenceareAugustCont e,EugenEhr li
ch,RoscoePoundand
Duguit.

Thef
amousj
uri
stsofsoci
ologi
cal
school
ofl
awar
easf
oll
ow:
-

RoscoePound:RoscoePoundi sknownasf atherofAmer i

canJurispr
udence.Hesay sthat
studyofsocietyisimportantforlaw making.Themainai m ofmakinglaw i
stobalancet he
confl
ict
ing i
nterestofsoci et
yI.e.socialinter
est,pr
ivat
ei nt
erestand publ
icint
erest.He
devel
opedSoci alEngi
neer
ingTheor y
.

Soci
alEngi neeri
ng Theor
y :In Soci
alEngineeri
ng Theory,He compar ed lawyers wit
ht he
engi
neers.Engineer
sarer equi
redtouset hei
rengineer
ingskilltomanufacturenew products.
Simi
larl
y,socialengi
neersar erequi
redtobui l
dt hatt
y peofst ruct
ureint hesociet
ywhi ch
prov
idesmaxi mum happinessandmi ni
mum f ri
cti
on.Accordingt oPound,A " Law i
ssoci al
engi
neeringwhichmeansabal ancebetweenthecompet i
nginterestsi
nsociety.
"

AugustComte:HewasaFr enchphi
l
osopherandtheterm soci
ologyi
sfi
rstusedbyhim.
Accor
dingtohim,soci
etyi
slikeanorgani
sm anditcouldprogr
esswhenitisguidesby
sci
enti
fi
cpr
inci
ples.

Durkheim:Durkheim propounded his Soci

alSoli
dar
it
y Theoryt hatexpl
ains the soci
al
cooperati
onbetweenindivi
dual
sf orthei
rneedsandexist
ence.Noonecansur v
ivewi t
hout
dependingonothermen.Theobjecti
veoflawi
stopromotesoci
alsol
i
dari
tybet
weeni ndi
vi
duals.

Ehr
li
ch:Hewasthefoundingf at
heroftheter
m soci
ologyofl
aw.Sociol
ogyofl awisthestudy
ofl
aw fr
om thesoci
ologi
calperspect
ive.Ehr
li
chhadwr i
tt
enthat'
centr
eofgr avi
tyofalll
egal
dev
elopment
sisnotinl egi
slati
onorjudici
aldeci
sionsbuti
nsocietyitsel
f.
"Hear guedthat

14
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

soci
etyi
sthemai
nsour
ceofl
awandbet
tersour
ceofl
awt
hanl
egi
slat
ionandj
udi
cial
deci
sions.

RudolfVonIher
ing:Heisthefatherofmodernsociologicalschool
.Hisphi
losophywasalso
knownasJur i
sprudenceofInt
erest
.Accor
dingtohi m,t heprominentobj
ecti
veoflaw i
st o
prot
ectsoci
ali
nterest
.Hegav
et heTheor
yofSoci
alInterest.

TheoryofInterest:Iher
ingPoundi nhisinterestt
heoryment ionedt
hethreeki ndsofInt
erest
.
TherearePr i
v at
ei nter
est,Publi
cinterestandSoci ali
nterest.Hestat
edt hatifthepri
vate
i
nterestandsoci ali
nterestisconfl
i
ctingthensocialint
erestmustbeprot ected.Healsosaid
thati
fthesocietyishappinesssowillbeindiv
idual
s.

e)Real
istSchool
Thef atheroft hereali
stschoolofj uri
sprudencei s‘AxelHagerstorm.Ther eali
stschoolof
j
urisprudenceisthecombi nationoft
heanal y
ticalandsociol
ogicalschoolofj
urispr
udence.The
suppor t
ersofthisschoolwer eHolmes,Gray,Frankandsoon.Accor dingtothisschool
,"Lawis
thepracticeofcourt."Thi
sschooloft houghtbelievesthatonlyj
udgemadel awislaw.Itgi
ves
i
mpor tancetoj udgemadel aw.Thisschooloft houghtisr egar
dedasawi ngofSoci ol
ogical
School.Thisschoolfocusesonwhatt hejudgessayanddeci de.

Thisschooli
sknownas‘ r
eal
ist
’becauseitf
ocusesonapproachthatst
udieslawasitisint
he
actualworki
ngandit
seffect
sahead.Thisschoolreject
str
adi
ti
onaldefi
nit
ionoflaw andal
so
avoidsanydogmat
icfor
mulati
onandf ul
l
yconcentr
atesondeci
sionsgi
venbythecourts.

Real
istSchooli
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wopar
tsi
.e.Amer
icanReal
ism andScandi
nav
ianReal
ism.

I
.AmericanReali
sm
Ameri
canReali
sm isr
elat
ingt
opragmati
standbehavi
ori
stalsoemphasi
zingl
awi
ntoact
ion.I
t
i
srul
eskepti
c.Iti
sconcer
nedwit
hcourtandthei
roper
ati
ons.Thecer
tai
ntyofl
awi
smyth.

KARLLLEWELLYN[
1893-
1962]

 Accor
dingt
ohi
m“Lawasmeanst
oasoci
alend”
.

 Accor
dingt
ohi
m,l
awbooksar
eout
dat
ednowt
hef
ocal
poi
ntofat
tent
ion

 Hesai
dthat‘
j
udgesar
ethel
awmaker
s’.

JEROMEN.FRANK[
1889-
1957]

 Cl
assi
cal
wor
k‘l
awandt
hemoder
nmi
nd’
1930

 Fr
ankmadef
act
-f
indi
ngbyt
hecour
tast
hecent
ral
themeofhi
sreal
i
sm.

 Heexpl
odedt
hemy
tht
hatl
awi
scont
inuousl
yuni
for
m,cer
tai
n,i
nvar
iabl
e.

 Accor
dingt
ohi
m,t
hej
udgedoesnotmakel
awi
nst
eadt
heydi
scov
eri
t.

15
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

OLI
VERWI
NDELLHOMLES[
1841-
1934]

 Hedi
scussedl
awfrom thepoi
ntofview of‘
thebadman’i
.e.t
heper
sonwhoi
sbef
ore
t
hecour
tasanaccusedorawrongdoer.

 Pur
elybasedonj
udge-
madel
aws.

 Thedutyofajudgetodoj
ust
ice,i
ftherei
stheabsenceofanyl
egi
slat
ion,judgesshoul
d
gi
vejust
icebythei
rowndi
scr
etionbasedonequi
ty,j
usti
ce,
goodconscience.

 Accor
dingt
ohi
m“aj
udgmentmadebyj
udgesast
heessenceofl
aw”
.

JOHNCHI
PMANGRAY[
1839-
1915]

 Accor
dingt
ohi
m,t
hel
awi
swhatj
udgesdecl
are.

 Heemphasi
zedt
hatj
udgespl
ayacr
uci
alr
olei
nmaki
ngl
awsi
nagi
vensoci
alsy
stem.

II
.Scandinavi
anReali
sm
Scandinavi
anReali
sm assaul
tsonthemetaphy
sicalfoundat
ion ofl
aw.I
tismet
aphy
sical
skept
ic.Iti
sconcer
nedwit
hembraci
ngt
hel
egalsystem whol
e.

AxelHager
stor
m[1868-
1939]

 Thef
oundi
ngf
atheroft
her
eal
i
stmov
ementi
nSweden.

 Thi
sschool
wasal
soknownast
heUppsal
aschool
ofl
aw.

Kar
lOl
iv
ecr
ona[
1897-
1980]

 Accor
dingt
ohi
m,t
hel
awi
snot
hingbutasetofsoci
alf
act
s.

 Her
eject
edt
hev
iewt
hatl
awi
sacommandoft
hesov
erei
gn.

 Accor
dingt
ohi
m,t
her
eisnosucht
hingast
hebi
ndi
ngf
orceofl
aw,
iti
samy
th.

Al
fRoss[
1899-
1976]

 Heinter
pret
edlawsinter
msofsoci
alr
eal
i
ty.Hesuppor
tst
heAmer
icanl
i
neofappr
oach
i
.e.j
udge-madelaws.

 Hecl
assi
fi
edl
awornor
mint
otwo:
(i)Nor
msofbehav
ior(
ii
)Nor
msofPr
ocedur
e

LUNDSTEDT[1882-1957]

 Accor
dingtohim thelaw i
snotonl
ybasedont
henot
ionofj
ust
ice.I
tisf
ramed
accor
dingt
otheneedsofsoci
ety
.

 Heobser
vedt
hatj
udgesshoul
dthi
nki
nter
msofsoci
alai
msandobj
ect
ivesandnot

16
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

r
ightordut
ies.

 Hepr
efer
redt
ouset
het
erm soci
alwel
far
einpl
aceofj
ust
ice.

f
)Soci
ali
stSchool
Accordingtothisschoolofthought
,"Lawi saninstr
umentofexpl
oitat
ionandnomi
nati
on.
"The
Soci
alistSchoolofisalsoknownasMar xist
sSchool,Communism School
,Communi
stsSchool
et
ching.Social
istSchoolisbasedont hetheoryofKarl
Marx.

Thisschoolbelievesthatlaw i
smadef orexploi
ti
ngpoorpeoplebyr ichpeopl
e.KarlMarx,
Fredr
ichEngels,
Leninarethechiefsupport
ersofthi
sschool
.TheSocial
i
stSchoolofThoughti
s
basedondi al
ecticalmater
ial
ism.Italsosays,law i
smadef orpr
otect
ionofeconomicclass.
PashukinswroteCommodi tyExchangeTheor y
.

17
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t4:Ki
ndsandCl
assi
fi
cat
ionsofLaw

Therearevari
ouskindsandclassif
icat
ionsofl aw.Law canbeclassi
fi
edinvar
iouski
nds
accordi
ngtoneedsofsoci
ety
.Statemakesl aw asperthetimeandsit
uati
onsoft
hesoci
ety
.
Kindsandcl
assi
fi
cat
ionsofl
awhav ebeendiscussedbel
ow:

4.
1Ki
ndsofLaw
Ther
ear evari
ouski
ndsoflaw.Nosingl
elaw issuff
ici
enttocont
rolal
ltheact
ivi
ti
esoft
he
soci
etysodif
fer
entl
awhasbeenmadetoregul
atesuchacti
vi
ti
es.

1.CommonLaw:Commonl aw i
st helaw madebyjudi
cialdeci
sion.I
tisnotdecl
aredby
l
awmaki
ngbodyi.
e.sov
erei
gn.Itisbindi
ngi
nnat
ure.

2.EquityLaw:Equi t
ylaw referstot he pri
nciple off ai
rness.Whil
ei tis of
ten used
i
nterchangeablywi
tht
herelatedpr
incipl
eofequal i
ty,equityencompassesawidev ar
iet
y
ofeducationalmodel
s,pr
ogr ams,andst r
ategiest hatmaybeconsi deredfai
r,butnot
necessari
lyequal
.

3.Envi
ronment
alLaw:Envi
ronmentall
awist hel awrelat
ingtoenv
ironment
.Itdeal
swith
themanagementofenv i
ronmentandst r
at egiesfortackl
i
ngthepr obl
emsaf f
ect
ing
envi
ronment
.Exampl
e;Envir
onmentProt
ectionAct ,
2075

4.Mil
it
aryLaw:Mil
it
arylaw isthebodyofl
aw whi
chr egulat
esthebehav
ioursoft
hose
ser
vingi
nthear
medf orcesandsubj
ect
edt
othi
sjur
isdict
ionofcour
tmarti
al.

5.ByLaw:Thelegislati
onofsubordi
nat
elawmakingbodyisknownasbyl aws.Lawmade
byot
herthanlegislat
urei
scall
edbylaw.Exampl
e;Local
Sel
f-Gov
ernanceAct,2056

Sal
mondhasdescr
ibedt
hef
oll
owi
ngki
ndsofl
aw:

1.Posit
iveLaw:Thechi efadvocat eofpositiv
elaw isJohnAust i
nwhodef ineslaw asa
commandofsov ereignwhichmustbef ol
lowedbyperson.Ifanyonedoesn’ tfol
lowt his
l
awt henhe/shewil
lbepuni shed.I ti
salsocall
edimperati
velaw.I mperat
ivelawmeans
at y
pe oflaw whi ch i
senact ed and imposed bythe sovereign poli
ti
calaut hori
ty.
Examplesofposi t
ivelawsar el awsmadebyl egi
slat
urelikeEducat i
on Act ,2075,
Evi
denceAct,2031,LocalSel f
-GovernanceAct,2055etc.Anylawsmadebyl egisl
ature-
parl
i
amentiscall
edposi t
ivelaw.

2.Physi
calandScienti
fi
cLaw:Phy sicall
aw ort helaw ofsciencesareexpressi
onof
uni
for
miti
esofnatur
egeneralpr
inciplesexpressi
ngtheregul
arit
yandharmonyobserv
ed
i
ntheactiv
iti
esandoperat
ionsoft heuni v
erse.Physi
callaw areal
soknowsasl aw of
nat
ureandnatur
alas.E.
gruleofmot ion,
ruleofgrav
ity
,rul
eofheatetc.

3.Nat
uralandMor
alLaw:Nat
urall
awormor
all
awi
smeatt
hepr
inci
plesofnat
uralr
ight

18
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

andwr ongandf ol
l
owstherul
esofnatur
alj
ust
ice.I
tisal
socal
l
eddi
vi
nel
aw,l
aw of
reasons,uni
ver
sall
awandet
ernal
lawet
c.

4.Conventi
onalLaw:Conv ent
ionallaw meansanyl aw orr ul
esagr eedbytwoormor e
per
sont operfor
m cert
aindutiestowardseachothers.I
tisacontractbet
weenanumbers
ofpart
iesthateachpart
iesareboundedbyi t.E.
g.thelawofcricketandlawofanygame
orthel
awofcont ract
.

5.Cust
omaryLaw:Thel aw whichi
sdev el
opedfr
om cust
om i
scal
ledcust
omaryl
aw.I
t
meansanyrul
eofact i
onwhi chi
sf ol
l
owedv ol
unt
arygr
oupofpeopl
e.Cust
omar
ylaw
maybedif
ferf
rom soci
etytosoci
ety
.

6.Constit
uti
onalLaw:Consti
tut
ionall
awi sabodyofrul
esgoverni
ngtherel
ati
onbetween
soverei
gnandhissubject
s.Constit
utionall
awdefi
nestheconsti
tut
ionandspeci
fi
esthe
ri
ghts,dut
ies,
funct
ionandpoweroft hegovernmentandhi
sorgans.

7.I
nter
nati
onalLaw:International
lawisthebodyofl
awprinci
plesandrul
eswhichciv
il
ized
i
ndependentst
atesconsi derasbindi
nguponthem i
nthei
rmut ual
rel
ati
ons.I
nter
nati
onal
l
awregulat
ionstherelati
onshipbetweentwoormorecountr
ies.

8.Pr
acti
calandTechnicalLaw:Pr act
icalandTechni
callaw consi
stsofr
ulesforthe
at
tai
nmentofcert
ainends.Theserul
esgui deusast
owhatweoughtt odoi nor
derto
at
tai
nacert
ainend.E.
g.thel
awofheal th,
lawofmusi
cetc.

9.Ci
vi
lLaw:Civ
illawi
sthel
awofthestat
eorlawofthel
andandsoon.Ci
vi
llawr
efer
sto
t
hemunici
pallawofapar
ti
cul
arst
atehavi
ngthebi
ndi
ngfor
ce.

10.Admini
str
ati
veLaw:Admini
str
ati
velaw i
slaw r
elat
ingtoadminist
rat
ion.I
tdet
ermi
nes
theor
gani
sati
on,
powerandduti
esofadmini
str
ati
veauthor
it
ies.

4.
2Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionsofLaw
Lawcanbeclassi
fi
edandsubcl
assi
fi
edinvar
iousforms.Wit
hthepassesofti
me,di
ff
erentl
aw
hasbeenmadeforset
ti
ngnewprobl
ems.Thefoll
owingaret
heclassi
fi
cat
ionsofl
aw:

a.CivilandCr i
mi nalLaw
Civi
llaw isapar tofpri
vatel aw whi
chdef i
nesther i
ghts,duti
esandobl igati
onsofpeopl e.Its
ai
mi st oguar anteetheri
ght sanddutiesofindivi
dual
s.Violat
ionofcivi
llawsaf f
ectindi
vi
dual ’
s
ri
ghtsanddut ies.Thepersonwhov i
olatescivi
llawsubjecttociv
ill
i
abilit
ieslikecompensat ion
andfineet c.Ci vi
lcasesdeci dedinci
v i
lcourtoflaw.Ifsomeonev iol
atest her ight
sofot hers
peoplet hencour tsmakewr ongdoertocompensat et hevict
ims.Ci
v i
llawi ncludesfamilylaw,
l
aborl aw, t
ortlawandbusi nesslaw.

Cr
imi
nali
sthepar
tofpubl
i
clawwhi
chdeal
swi
thcr
ime,
off
encesanddet
ermi
nespuni
shment
.

19
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

It
sai mistopr eventcri
meandcr iminalacti
vi
tiesinthesociet
yandmai ntainl
awandor derin
thesociet
y.Incivil
izedsoci
ety
,crimei sconsideredaswrongt owholesocietythat’
swhyitis
call
edabr anchofpubl i
claw.Theper sonwhov i
olat
escri
minallawsubjecttopunishmentl
ike
sentenci
ngjail
,deathpenalt
yetc.Cri
mi nal
casesdecidedinthecrimi
nalcourtofl
aw.

b.Substanti
veandProceduralLaw
Substanti
velawisabodyofl awwhi chdealswit
hr i
ghts,dut
iesandobligati
onsofpeopl e.Soit
i
sal socall
edlawofri
ghts.I
tdealswi t
hmat t
ersoutsi
det hecourt
.Substanti
velawal r
eadyexist
i
nthest ateaft
ermaki
nganact ,rul
esandr egul
ati
ons.Substanti
velawdef i
nesrightsandduti
es
ofindiv
idual
sandital
sodefineswhatwi l
lbehappenwhensomeonev i
olat
edsubst anti
velaw.

Pr
ocedurall
awi sabodyofl awwhi chdealswiththeproceduretobefoll
owedifsubstanti
velaw
i
sv i
olat
ed.I
tdealswi thmatter
sinsideofcourt.Procedurall
awexistwhent hesubst
ant i
velaw
vi
olat
ed.Itdealswi t
hev i
denceandpr ocedureandact ionofthecour twhensubstantivelaw
vi
olat
ed.Itregul
atest heconductsandr el
ati
onsofcour tandl i
ti
gantsinrespectoflit
igat
ion.
Pr
ocedurall
awi salsoknownasl awofact i
on,adj
ectiv
elawet c.

c.Muni ci
palandInter
nationalLaw
Municipallaw isabodyofl aw appl
icablewithi
nast ate.Itmeansanyl aw whi
chi sappli
ed
i
nternall
ywi t
hinanation.Itregulat
est herel
ati
onsofindivi
dualtoindi
vi
dualsandindi
vidual
sto
stat
e.Itincludesconsti
tution,codes,statut
esandpr ecedent.I
tismadef ormaintai
ninggood
rel
ati
onandhar monybetweent heciti
z ensofcountr
y.

I
nter
nat
ionallaw canbedef i
nedasabodyofr ulesrecognisedbyt woormorenationsas
bi
ndi
ngupononeanot her
.Inter
nationallaw i
sal aw whichisbi ndi
ngoveral
lcount
ryoft he
worl
d.I
nternati
onall
aw andr ul
esar er ecogni
sedbymanycount rytobeboundwitht hem.
I
nter
nat
ionalconvent
ionandtr
eatiesaresomeexampl esofint
ernati
onall
aw.

d.Pri
vateandPublicLaw
Pri
vatelawisabodyofl awwhichregul
atessomeconductofindi
vi
dualswhicharenotdi
rectl
y
concernedwithstate.Thelaw whichdealswit
hindiv
idual
sandt hei
rrel
ationonl
yiscalled
pri
vatelaw.Itdealswithindi
vi
dualstoindi
vi
dualsonly
,nottothestate.Famil
ylaw,law of
tor
tureandConventi
onallawareexampl
esofpriv
atel
aw.

Thelawwhi chdeal
swiththestruct
ureandfunct
ionofgovernmentiscall
edpublicl
aw.Itdeal
s
therelati
onbet
weenindiv
idualstoindi
vi
dualsandindi
vi
dualstostate.Breachofpubl
iclaw i
s
consideredascri
me.Constit
uti
onallaw,admini
str
ati
velaw andCriminallaw ar
eexamplesof
publi
cl aw.

e.Nati
onalandForeignLaw
Thelawofaparti
cularnati
oniscal
l
ednationall
aw.I
tisal
socall
eddomest
icl
aw.I
tisbi
ndi
ngi
n
nat
ure.ThelawsofNepal ar
eexamplesofnati
onall
awforus.

20
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Thel
awofforei
gncount
ryi
scalledfor
eignl
aw.I
tishi
stor
ical
innat
ure.Thel
awsofI
ndi
a,Japan
andChi
naareexampl
esoffor
eignlawforNepal
.

Inconcl
usi
on,wecansayt hatonelawcannotregul
atesalltheact
ivi
ti
esofhumanandsoci
ety
that
'swhydif
fer
entkindsandclassif
icat
ionsofl
aw hasbeendev el
opedfrom t
ototi
me.Law
keepsondevel
opingaccor
dingtoti
meandnecessityofsociety
.

21
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t5:Rol
esofLawi
nSoci
ety

Law i sacol lectionofr ules,regulati

onsandbi ndi
ngr ulesofconductwhi chcontrol sand
regulateshumanbehav i
orswhilesoci etyisacol l
ecti
onofi ndivi
dualsunitedbycer t
ainr elat
ion
ormodeofbehav iors.Lawar eabodyofr ulesandr egul
at i
onsorsoci et
yisagr oupofpeopl e
whoar ei nt
errelatedwi t
heachot her.Law i smadef orhumanbei ngsandf orsociety.Law i s
madet omai ntainpeaceandsecur ityinsoci et
ybycont roll
inghumanbehav iorsandact i
on.If
therei snosoci etyt hent hereisnouseofmaki nglaw becausel aw i smadeonl yforhuman
beings, notforani mal s.Inthesameway ,societ
ycouldn'
tr unsmoot hlyintheabsenceofl awas
there may be i ncreasing unlawfulact i
vi
ties and cri
mes.Ther efore,law and soci ety are
i
nterrelatedwi t
heachot herandsoci et
ycoul dbel amei nt heabsenceofpr operl aw.The
functions,nat ure,impor tanceandr ilesofl aw insociet
yhav ebeendescr i
bedv er
ywi llinthis
chapt er.

1.Lawasani
nst
rumentofr
egul
ati
nghumanbehav
ior
s
Lawisabodyofrul
esmadebyt hestatef
orregul
ati
nghumanbehav
ior
s.I
t'
smeansthemain
ai
m ofmakingl
awistoregul
atethebehav
ior
sofpeoplel
ivi
ngi
nsociet
ybygiv
ingt
hem some
ri
ght
sandimposi
ngdut
iesonthem.

Law al
so pr
escr
ibes puni
shmentf orthose who do notfol
l
ow and obeyl
aw.I t
'sisthe
puni
shmentbywhosepeoplefeart
obreaklaw.It
'smeanslawpl
acel
imi
tanddescr
ibestheway
i
nwhichhowpeoplecanactandperfor
mt hei
rfunct
ions.

Stat
emakesdi f
ferentlawsf orr
egulat
inghumanbehav i
orsbecausesinglelaw cannotcontr
ol
al
ltheact i
vi
tiesandf unctionsofhumansaswel lassi
ngl
el aw cannotprotectallkindsof
i
nterestandr i
ghtsofci ti
zens.Theref
or e,st
atekeepsonmaki nglaw accordi
ngt otimeand
needsofsociety.Stat
emakesdi ff
erentlawsbywhichthehumanbehav i
orsregulat
ed.

Somejur
istshavebeenal sodescr
ibedt
hatl
aw i
smadef
orr
egul
ati
nghumanbehav
ior
s.
Someofthedefi
nit
ionsar
easbelow:-

Accordi
ngtoAusti
n,Law i
sar
ulemadebyani
ntel
l
igenthumanbei
ngf
ort
hegui
danceof
i
nferi
orhumanbei
ngs.

Accordi
ngt oHol
land,"
Law i
sagener
alr
uleofext
ernalhumanact
ionenf
orcedbysov
erei
gn
pol
it
icalaut
hor
it
y."

Accordingt
oSav
igny
,"Law i
sar
uleofhumanact
ionandconductsanct
ionedbynat
ional
usage."

Accor
dingtoOxf or
dDicti
onary
,"Law ar
ethewhol
esy
stemsofr
ulest
hatev
ery
onei
nthe
count
ryorsoci
etymustobey
."

Fr
om t
hisj
uri
stsdef
ini
ti
ons,i
tisal
socl
ear
edt
hatl
aw i
sabodyofr
ulesmadebyst
atet
o

22
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

r
egul
atehumanbehavi
orsorhumanconduct
s.That
'
swhywecansayl
awi
sani
nst
rumentof
r
egul
ati
nghumanbehavi
ors.

Law isaninst
rumentofr egul
ati
nghumanbehav i
orsbecausel
aw regul
atesal
mostevery
act
ionsandact
ivi
ti
esofhumanbehavi
ors.I
tismor
eclearwi
ththef
oll
owingsomeexampl
es:
-

 Civi
lLaw:Ci
vi
llawcreat
esr
ight
s,dut
iesandobl
i
gat
ionsofi
ndi
vi
dual
sandr
egul
atest
he
rel
ati
onsofi
ndi
v i
dual
s.

 Cri
minalLaw:Statebymakingcri
mi nallaw prohi
bit
sandr educescri
mi nalacti
vit
iesin
thesoci
ety.Cr
iminal
sandwr ongdoer sarealsohumanbei ngsandf earstodocr i
me
because ofbeing puni
shed.Therefore,criminallaws are also r
egul at
ing human
behavi
ors.

 FamilyLaw:Fami l
ylaw al
so regul
atesthebehavi
orsr el
ati
ng t
o marr
iage,divor
ce,
adopti
on,successi
onandparti
ti
onoff amil
ymember s.Famil
ylaw cr
eat
esr i
ghtsand
obl
igati
onsforfami
lymembersbywhichthebehav
ior
soff amil
ymembersregul
ated.

 Contr
actLaw:Cont ractl
aw isapar tofpri
vatel
aw whichr egul
atesther el
ati
onship
bet
weent woormor econt
ract
ingparti
es.Bycont
ract
,peoplecreat
est hei
rowndut ies
andfull
fi
lit
.Ifanyoneamongt hem donotactaspercontractthenothercandol egal
act
ionagainstot
her.

 Elect
ionLaw:El ect
ionlawi sabodyofl awwhi chregulatesallt
hemat t
ersandpr ocess
regardingconducti
ngel ecti
onsuccessf
ully
.Electi
onl aw descri
besthethingslikewho
canv ote,whocanf i
ghtelecti
on,how elect
ionwi l
lbeconduct edandwhatar et he
processofconductingel ect
ion,
whataretherightsanddut iesofpoli
ti
calpart
ies,pol
ing
offi
cer s,r
esi
dingof
ficerandpunishmentforcr
imer el
at edwithel
ecti
on.

 Tort
sLaw:Tortsl
aw i
sapartofci
vi
lwhi
chr
egul
atest
her el
ati
onshi
pbet
weenv i
cti
m
andwrongdoer
sofanyci
vi
lwr
ongorsi
mpl
ehar
msorunjur
icausedbynegl
i
gence.

 I
nt hi
sway s,stat
ehasmadedi ffer
entkindsoflawstoregul
atehumanbehav ior
sby
deter
mining t
he ri
ghts and duti
es accordi
ng t
o whi
ch a person has t
of unct
ions
other
wisehe/shewillbepunished.Theref
ore,wecansaythatl
aw isaninstr
umentof
regul
ati
nghumanbehav i
ors.

2.Lawi
sani
nst
rumentofsoci
alcont
rol
Law ist hemostpower fuli
nstrumentofsoci alcontr
olbecauseitcontrol
salltheactivi
tiesof
society.Ever
yonemustf oll
owr ul
esandr egulati
onscreatedbyauthori
tyandifanyonedi sobey
l
awst henhe/shewillbepunished.Lawcont rolsthehumanbehav iorsofsoci
etyandcr eatethe
senseofl ivi
nginsocietywit
hmut ualunderstanding.Lawset st
her ul
esforsociet
yandsoci al
i
nstituti
onstoactinaspeci f
iedway sandst ipulat
edfineandpunishmentincaseofv i
olationof
setrules.Noper soncanactagai nstlaw.Law hasdescr ibedri
ghtsanddutiesofpeopl eand
processofr emediesincaseofv iolat
ionofsuchr i
ghts.Therear
ev ari
ouslawhav ebeenmade

23
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

tocontr
olsociet
yandt hemainofmaki nglawi stocontrolhumanact ionsandmai ntainpeace
andorderinsociet
y.Statehasmadev ariousactsli
keci vi
lcode,criminalcode,ci vi
lpr ocedure
code,cr
iminalpr
ocedurecode,envi
ronmentactet ctocont r
olthecivilandcr i
mi nalactivi
ti
esof
humanbei ngsinsociety
,dealwit
ht he pr ocessoffil
ingcasesi ncaseofbr eachofci vilor
cri
minallaw bypeopl
e,punishmentf ort hosewhodi sturbenv i
ronment alpeaceandpol l
utes
envi
ronmentbydoingunnecessarythingsi nsociet
yandot hersmanyl awf orcont r
oll
ingot hers
acti
vi
ti
esofpeopleinsociet
y.Ther
efore, wecansayt hatlawisani nstrumentofsoci al control
.

3.Lawi
sandi
nst
rumentofsoci
alchange
Changeist helaw ofnatureandsoci et
ykeepsonchangi ngwi thchangingoft i
me.Law and
soci
etykeeponchangi ngaspert hetimeandsi t
uati
ons.Lawchangest hesoci et
yandsoci et
y
al
sochangest helaw.Thesocietycanbechangedonl ythrought hepower f
ulinstr
ument al
i
tyof
l
aw.I npasttherewer emanybadcust omsl i
kesatipaths,slaverysystem butnow l aw has
aboli
shedsuchsy stems.Manyl aw hasbeenmadet ochangesoci et
yaccor di
ngt otimeand
si
tuati
onsli
keGenderEqual i
tyAct,2064,MulukiAin2020et c.Therearevariouslawshav ebeen
madet ochangethesocietyandthereisalsoleadingcaseofsocialchangewhi charediscussed
bel
ow:

Rel
evantAct
s

LandRef
orm Act
,2021

LandAct
,2021

Soci
alPr
act
ices(
Ref
orm)Act
,2033

Mul
uki
Ain2020

Rel
evantCases

Meer
aDhunganaANDMeer
aPar
ajul
ivHMG,
Mini
str
yofLawandJust
ice(
2050B.
S.)

Thiswasapubl icinterestlit
igationf il
edbyt wof emal elawy ersinSupremeCour tofNepal .The
i
ssueofconst i
tutionalityofclause16oft hePar t
it
yofMul ukiAinchal l
engedf ortwor easons.
Ast herewer etwocondi ti
onsf ordaught ertogetpar t
iti
onpr opert
ystatedunderChapt er16of
MulukiAi n2020.Fi r
st l
y,sheshoul dr emainunmar red.Secondl y,sheshouldat tai
nanageof35
yearev enget ti
ngshar eofpr oper t
yi fsheget smar ri
aget hensheshoul dreturnthatproper t
y
whichwasi nconsi stentwithar t
icle11oft heConst ituti
onofKi ngdom ofNepal ,2047.Ar t
icle11
stat
edt hatnodi scriminatorytreat mentagai nstanyci ti
zeni nappli
cationofgener all
awson
grounds, i
nteraliaofsex.Nepal wasal soapar tytoCEDAW andAr ti
cle15oft heUNConv ent i
on
ont heEl i
minationofAl lformsofDi scri
mi nati
onagai nstWomenpr ov i
desthatwomenhav eall
propertyrightsonanequalf oot ingwi t
hmen.Ther fore,SupremeCour tofNepalt akenallthese
mat tersin consi deration and passed t hehi stori
calj udgementand decl ared clause16 of
Partiti
onunconst it
utionalandi ssueaor dert oGov ernmentofNepalt oamendcl ause16of
Partiti
onofMul ukiAi n2020.Af terthisjudgment ,the11t hAmendmenti nt heMul ukiAinhas

24
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

br
oughtsomeposi
ti
vechangesonpr
oper
tyr
ight
sofwomen.

4.Lawi
sani
nst
rumentofenv
ironment
alpr
otect
ion
Law al sohelpst oprotectenvi
ronmentofsoci et
y.Likeenv i
ronmentallaw isal aw r
elati
ngt o
env i
ronment.I tdealswi t
ht hemanagementofenv i
ronmentandst rat
egiesf ortackli
ngt he
problems af f
ect i
ng envir
onment.Law pr ohibi
ts unnecessaryand unwant ed act
ivi
ti
es that
affectsenvir
onmentandkeepenv i
ronmentsecure.Arti
cle30oft heconsti
tuti
onofNepalst ates
thatev er
yonehasr i
ghttoli
veincleanenvi
ronmentandanyact ivi
ti
eswhichhar msenv ir
onment
arepuni shable.AndNepalgov ernmenthasal somadeEnv i
ronmentPr otecti
onAct ,2076t o
protectandmai nt
ainenvir
onmental st
abi
l
ity.

Const
it
uti
onalPr
ovi
sions

Ar
ti
cle.30-Ri
ghtt
ocl
eanenv
ironment

Ar
ti
cle.51(
g)-Pol
i
ciesr
elat
ingt
opr
otect
ion,
promot
ionanduseofnat
ural
resour
ces

Rel
evantAct
s

Env
ironmentPr
otect
ionAct
,2075

Aquat
icAni
maPr
otect
ionAct
,2017

TheFor
estAct
,2076

Rel
evantCases

Sur
ayPr
asadShar
maDhungelv
.Godav
ariMar
bleI
ndust
ri
esandot
her
s,2049

TheCour theld:TheCour tconcludedthatt

hecleanandheal t
hyenvi
ronmentispartoftheri
ght
toli
feundert heAr ti
cle12( 1)oftheConstit
uti
onoft heKingdom ofNepal1990.Inthiscase
l
ocusst andiofNGOsori ndivi
dualsworki
ngf ortheprot
ectionoftheenv i
ronmenthasbeen
enunciat
edv eryclearly.TheSupr emeCour tdir
ecti
vesinthenameofr espondentstoenact
necessaryforprotecti
onofai r
,water,
soundandenv i
ronmentandtoacti
onf orpr
otecti
onofthe
envi
ronmentofGodawar i
area.

Pr
akashManiShar
mav
.Hi
sMaj
est
y’sGov
ernmentCabi
netSecr
etar
iatandOt
her
s

TheCour theld:Inthiscase,thecourtfoundthatahealthyenv ir
onmenti sapr erequisi
teforthe
protect
ionoft her i
ghttopersonalfreedomsundert heConst i
tuti
on;thati swhyt hestatehasa
pri
mar yobli
gat i
ont oprot
ecttherighttopersonalli
bert
ybyr educingenv i
ronment alpoll
utionas
muchaspossi ble.Rely
ingont heconceptofsust ai
nabl
edev elopment , t
hecour twentont osay
thatenvir
onmentanddev el
opmentshoul dproceedharmoni ouslyandenv ir
onment alprotecti
on
cannotbe i gnored fort he sake ofdev el
opment .Fi
nall
y,t aking into accountt he lackof
i
mpl ementationofi tspreviousjudgment s,t
hecour tissuedadi rect i
vetoenf or
ceessent ial
measur eswithinamaxi mum oft woy earsinordertoreducev ehi
cul arpollut
ioninKat mandu

25
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Val
l
ey.

5.Lawi
sani
nst
rumentofsoci
alwel
far
e
Socialwel f
areist
hemai nobject
iveofwel
farestateandev er
ystatestr
yingtopr ovi
demor e
socialwelfaret
oit
’sci
ti
zen.Lawprovi
desev
eryindiv
idual
swithanequalopportuni
tytoimprove
themsel v
es.Accor
dingtoBentham,themainaim oflawistoachievemaxi mum happinessof
maxi mum numberofpeopl e.Forexample,fr
ee educati
on,old pensi
ons and f r
ee heal
th
i
nsur anceetc.

Const
it
uti
onalPr
ovi
sions

Ar
ti
cle41.Ri
ght
sofseni
orci
ti
zens

Ar
ti
cle42.Ri
ghtt
osoci
alj
ust
ice

Ar
ti
cle43.Ri
ghtt
osoci
alsecur
it
y

Ar
ti
cle51(
h)-Pol
i
ciesr
elat
ingt
obasi
cneedsofci
ti
zens

Ar
ti
cle51(
j)-Pol
i
ciesr
elat
ingt
osoci
alj
ust
iceandi
ncl
usi
on

Rel
evantAct
s

Secur
it
ySecur
it
yAct
,2075

Ret
ir
ementFundAct
,2042

6.Lawi
sani
nst
rumentofj
ust
ice
Justicei sthemai naim ofmaki nglaw.Just i
cei stheendofl aw.Law i sonlythemeanst o
achiev ejust
ice.Arti
cle20oft heconsti
tuti
onpr ovidesright
sr elati
ngtoj usti
ce.Justi
cei st he
wayi nwhi chpeoplear et
reatedequall
yandf air
ly.Lawgi vesjusticetovicti
msandpuni shment
towr ongdoer s.Justi
cemustbef air
,rightandr easonable.Ther eisapopul arsayi
ngt hat
Justice delayed isjusti
ce denied.According to Salmond,l aw ist he body ofpr inciples
recogni zedandappliedbythest at
eintheenf orcementofj ustice.Thesi gni
fi
canceoflawcan
beensur edonlythr
oughjusti
ce.

Const
it
uti
onalPr
ovi
sion

Ar
ti
cle.20-Ri
ghtt
oJust
ice

Ar
ti
cle.42-Ri
ghtt
osoci
alj
ust
ice

Rel
evantAct
s

Supr
emeCour
tAct
,2074

Just
iceAdmi
nist
rat
ionAct
,2073

26
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

7.Lawi
sani
nst
rumentofsoci
alengi
neer
ing
Roscoe Pound sayslaw is soci
alengineeri
ng.Soci alengineeri
ng means balancing t
he
confl
i
cti
nginter
estsofsociet
yi .
e.indi
vi
dualsi nt
erest,soci
alinterestandnati
onalinter
est.
Whent her
ei sconfl
ictbet
weenv ari
ousi nt
erestst henbalancei smadebet weent hem by
mediati
onandconci
li
ati
onwhichiscall
edsocialengineeri
ng.

Rel
evantAct
s

Ar
bit
rat
ionAct
,2055

Medi
ati
onAct
,2068

8.Lawi
sani
nst
rumentofdev
elopment
Devel
opmentistheneedofcurrentsocietyandlawhelpsthesocietytobedev el
opedbymaking
pl
ansandpolici
esrelat
ingtodev elopment.Devel
opmenti spossibleonlywiththehel
poflaw
andwecan’ti
maginedev el
opmentwi thoutanyeff
ecti
velawandr egulat
ions.Solawisthemost
i
mportanti
nst
rumentwhi chpl
ayst hemosti mport
antrol
einsocialdevel
opment .

Const
it
uti
onalPr
ovi
sions

Ar
ti
cle.51(
f)-Pol
i
ciesr
elat
ingt
odev
elopment

Rel
evantAct
s

Local
Gov
ernmentOper
ati
onAct
,2073

27
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t6:Sour
cesofLaw

Themeaningofthewor
dsourceisori
gin.Sour
cesofl awmeansori
ginoflawfrom whichrul
es
ofhumanconductcomeint
oexist
ence.Thoset hi
ngswhichdi
rect
lyandindi
rectl
yplayrol
esin
thef
ormati
onanddevel
opmentoflawsar ecal
ledsourcesofl
aw.Therearevari
oussourcesof
l
awbuttherear
et womaj
orsour
cesoflaw.Theyar e;

Di
rectsour
cesofl
aw

a.Const
it
uti
on

b.Legi
slat
ion

c. Pr
ecedent

d.Cust
om

e. Conv
ent
ion

I
ndi
rectsour
cesofl
aw

f
. Pr
ofessi
onal
opi
nion

g.Jur
ist
icwr
it
ing

h.Reasons

i
. Rel
i
gion

j
. Equi
ty,
Just
iceandGoodconsci
ences

6.
1Di
rectSour
cesofLaw
Dir
ectsourcesofl
awisalsocall
edpri
marysourceoflaw.I
tisbi
ndi
nginnatur
e.Peopl
emust
fol
lowtheserul
esot
her
wisevi
olati
onsoft
heselawsissubj
ectedt
opuni
shment.

a.Const i
tution
Constituti
oni sthepr imarysour ceofl aw.I tisthemot herofal llawsoft hecount rybecause
otherlawsder i
vedtheirval i
dit
yandl egiti
macyf r
om theconst i
tuti
on.Accor dingt oArticl
e1( 1)
oftheconst i
tuti
onstatedt hatconstit
uti
oni sthef undamentallawoft helandandanyl awwhi ch
i
si nconsistentwiththepr ovisi
onoft heconst it
utionuptotheexi st
enceshal lbev oid.Itsmeans
nol awcansur viveagainstconst i
tuti
on.Ev erylawmustbeundert hepr ovi
sionofconst i
tuti
on.
Constituti
on det ermines and l imitst he r i
ghts,duties,funct i
ons and r esponsibil
it
ies of
gov er
nmentandi tsorgans.Ev erylawsmustbemadeaccor dingt oprocedur edeterminedi nthe
constit
utionot herwi
set hatlawwi llnotvali
d.That 'swhyconst i
tuti
onisal socal l
edfundament al
l
awofl and.

28
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

b.Legislat
ion
Thet erml egi
slat
ionisder i
vedfrom Lati
nterm“ l
egis”whichmeansl aw and,”latum”which
meanst omake,putorset .SoLegislat
ionmeansmaki ngorsettingofl aw.Legislat
ioni
sa
wri
ttenl aw passed byl egi
slat
ureandi mplemented bycourt
.Legi sl
ati
onist hemostand
power f
ulsourceofl aw whichhasthepowerofmaki ngl aw,amendingoldlaw andcancell
ing
outdatedlawetc.

Legi
slati
onist hel
ay i
ngdownofl egalrul
esbyasov erei
gnorsubor di
natelegislati
on.Itis
for
mal l
yandexpresslydeclared.Iti
sclearl
ydeclaredfrom whichdateitisapplied.Itisbeing
for
cedi nt
oef f
ectsincecer t
ai ndate.Legi
slat
ionisawr it
tenlaw passedbyl egislat
ureand
i
mpl ementedbycourts.E.
g.Dr ugsAct2035,GuthiCorporati
onAct2033et c.

Accor
dingt
oSal mond–“ Legi
slat
ioni
sthatsour
ceofl
awwhi
chconsi
stsi
ndecl
arat
ionofr
ules
byacompetentaut
hori
ty.“

Accor
dingt
oGr
ay-"
Legi
slat
ioni
sthef
ormal
utt
erancesoft
hel
egi
slat
iveor
ganoft
hesoci
ety
."

Accor
dingt
oBent
ham andAust
in-"
Legi
slat
ionasanyf
orm ofl
awmaki
ng.
"

Accor
dingt
oHolland-"Themaki
ngofgener
alor
der
sbyourj
udgesi
sast
ruel
egi
slat
ionasi
t
car
ri
edonbythecrown.
"

TypesofLegi
slat
ion
Legi
slat
ionisthepr ocessoflawmakingwhereacompet
entauthor
it
yi sgivent
het
askof
draf
ti
ngandenactingthelawi
nastate.Br
oadl
y,t
her
ear
etwotypesofl
egisl
ati
on;

1.SupremeLegisl
ati
on:Thet ypeoflegi
slat
ioninwhichl
aw maki
ngpr ocessi
scarr
iedout
thr
oughsupremebodyorsov erei
gnauthori
tyisknownsupr
emel egi
slat
ion.I
tismadeby
sover
eignbodycal
l
edlegi
slat
ureanditi
ssupremelaw.

2.Del egatedl egisl

ati
on:Thet y peoflegisl
ati
oninwhichsupr emebodygi v
esaut hori
tyto
subor dinat
ebodyf orlaw maki ngi sknownasdel egat
edl egi
slat
ion.Itmustbeundert he
provisionofthesupr emelegisl
ation.I
tsval
idi
tycanbecheckedbysupr emelegi
slat
ion.Fur
ther
,
delegat edl
egislat
ionisdi
videdintofivet
ypes.Theyar
easfoll
ows;

I
. ColonialLegi
slati
on:Thenati
onswhi charenotautonomous,andar eundert
hecontrol
ofot herstat
eandhav enosupr emecapacitytomakel aw suchcountri
esarecal
led
colonies.Thelaw madebycol oniesarecall
edcoloniall
egi
slat
ion.Thelawsmadeby
them aresubjectt
otheSupremel egi
slat
ionofthestat
eunderwhosecont r
olt
heyar
e.In
thepast ,
Engl
andhadmanycol onies.Butinpr
esent,
itdoesn'
texi
st.

I
I.Execut i
ve Legisl
ation:The law maki ng powergiven to dif
ferentdepart
ments of
execut i
veforthepr operadministrat
ionofdaytodayactivi
ti
esi sknownasExecut i
ve
Legislati
on.Legislati
on gives some powert o execut
ive bodies to make l
aw for
regulati
onsfort heirint
ernalbusiness.Exampl
e;Civi
lServantsAct ,2049issupr
eme

29
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

l
egi
slat
ionwhi
l
eCi
vi
lSer
vantRul
es2050i
sexecut
ivel
egi
slat
ion.

I
II
.Muni cipalLegi sl
ation:Thepowerofmaki ngl aw i
sgivent omuni ci
palauthorit
iesf or
thei
rterr
itor
ialjuri
sdicti
onundert hei
rcont
rolisknownasmuni ci
pall
egisl
ati
on.By e-
law
madebyamuni cipalbodywor ksinsi
deit
si ndiv
idualarea.LocalSelf
-GovernanceAct ,
2055gi veslocalbodyormuni cipalbodyt
omakesbyl aw dt hei
rproperdev el
opment .
LocalSelf-
Gov ernanceRule2056i sanexampleofmuni cipall
egisl
ati
on.

I
V.JudialLegi slat
ion:Thepoweroraut hor
itygiven tojudi
ciar
yf ormaking rulesand
regulat
ionf ortheregulati
onsoftheirownpr ocedureisknownasJudi cialLegislat
ion.
Thiswi l
lalsoensur ethatther
eisnoi nvol
vementofanyot herorganofthegov ernment
i
nt hegov ernanceofthejudici
alsyst
em ofthestate.E.
g.theSupremeCour tAct,2048i s
asupr emel egi
slat
ionandSupr emeCour thasmadeSupr emeCour tRules,2049i sa
j
udiciallegi
slati
on.

V.AutonomousLegi sl
ati
on:Thel aw making powerdelegated bythest at
et o pr
ivate
companies,inst
it
uti
ons and organi
zati
ons to make r ul
es and r
egulati
ons fort he
regul
ati
onsofthei
rfunct
ionsandacti
vit
iesarecal
ledautonomouslegisl
ati
on.Examples,
theTUAct ,
2049isasupremeandTURul es,
2050isanaut onomouslegi
slat
ion.

Reasonsf
ordel
egat
edl
egi
slat
ion
 Lackoft
ime

 Techni
cal
i
tyofsubj
ectmat
ter
s

 Fl
exi
bil
i
ty

 Lackofi
nfor
mat
ionaboutl
ocal
sit
uat
ion

 Pr
essur
eonpar
li
ament

Whylegislat
ionisimport
antasasourceofLaw?
I. Abr ogativePower:Itcanchangeorannulol
dlaw,whi
chcont
roli
sn’
tcont
rol
l
edby
dif
ferentsour
ces.

I
I.Eff
ectiv
eness:I
tsepar
atestheel ement
sofmaki
ngl
aw andov
erseei
ngi
tbet
weent
he
Legi
slatur
eandthel
egalexecut
ive.

I
II
.Decl
arat
ion:I
tgi
vest
hatpr
inci
plesofl
awwi
l
lbeknownbef
oret
heyar
eaut
hor
ised.

I
V.Provisi
on forfut
ure case:Legi
slat
ion i
sindependentand emerges outofas the
authorit
ati
vesourceoflaw.Itmakeslaw inadvanceforthosethi
ngswhi chhasnot
occurredinpr
esentti
me.

V.Wr
it
tenLaw:I
tispr
edomi
nanti
nst
ruct
ure,
bri
ef,
clearandi
nwr
it
tenf
orm.

VI
.Easyt
ounder
stand:I
tiseasyt
ounder
standbecausei
tisi
nwr
it
tenf
orm andany
one

30
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

canunder
standbyr
eadi
ngi
t.

VI
I.
Hel
pfulf
orCourt:Judgesofthecourtmakest
hei
rdeci
sionont
hebasi
sofl
egi
sl
ati
on
madebysover
eignbodycall
edlegi
slat
ure.

VI
II
. Cert
aint
y:Legalsystemsenj
oygreat
ercer
tai
ntywhenl aw i
si ncodif
iedand
wri
tt
enfor
m.Legisl
ati
onisinwri
tt
enandcodi
fi
edf
ormthatensur
escertai
ntyi
nlaw.

c.Precedent
Precedentisabodyofpr inci
plesdev el
opedbySupr emeCourtint hepr ocessofhear i
ngand
decidingacase.Itisalsocalledjudgemadel aw.Iftherei
snol awort hereisl
awbutnotcl ear
meani ngthenitcreat
esconf usionandpr obl
emsi ndecidi
ngcasesoi nt hi
ssituati
onSupreme
Courtcanmakeapr ecedentt osettl
esuchl egalorconstit
uti
onaldi sputes.Itisbindi
ngand
mustbef oll
owedbyl owercour t
s.Ar t
icl
e128( 4)oft heconsti
tutionpr ovi
dest hepowerof
maki ngpr
ecedentt osupremecour tandt hepri
ncipl
esconsti
tut
edt herebymustbef oll
owedby
l
owercour ts.

Thedoctrineofprecedenti
saspeci alf
eat
uresofEngli
shlaw andcommonl aw count
ri
es.In
Engl
and,judgesplayedimport
antrol
eindevel
opi
ngengli
shl
aw.Pr ecedenthadbeendev eloped
i
nBr i
tai
nsi nce13thcentur
ybeforetheest
abli
shmentofparl
iament.Thef oll
owingcasesar e
examplesofprecedenti
nnepal l
i
keMeeraDhunganav.PM,Annupurnav .GorakhSamsheret c.

Accordi
ngt oGray–“ Apr
ecedentcov
ersev
ery
thi
ngsai
dordonewhi
chf
urni
shesar
ulef
or
subsequentpr
acti
ce.“

Accor
dingt
oBent
ham -"
Precedenti
sjudgemadel
aw.
"

Accor
dingt
oKeet on,"
Ajudici
alpr
ecedenti
saj
udi
cialdeci
siont
owhi
chaut
hor
it
yhasbeen
somemeasurebeenatt
ached."

Accor
dingt
oAust
in,
"Pr
ecedenti
saj
udi
ciar
ylaw.
"

El
ementsofPrecedent
I
. Obit
erdicta:Obit
erdi
ctaisaLat interm whichmeanst
hingssai
doropi
niongivenby
j
udgeswhi lemakingdeci
sions.Theseopinionsar
enotbindi
ngonal
ltheothercour
ts
whil
etheyar eonl
yper
suasi
v einnatur
e.

I
I.Rati
odeci dendi
:Rat
iodeci
dendiist
akenfrom aLatinter
m whichmeansr
easonsf
or
deci
sion.Rati
odeci
dendii
sbindi
ngonall
thelowercourt
softhecount
ry.

Doctri
nesofstaredecisi
s
Staredecisi
sisalegaldoctr
inethatobli
gatescour
tstofol
lowhist
oricalcaseswhenmaki nga
rul
ingonasi mil
arcase.Staredecisi
sensur est
hatcaseswit
hsimilarscenari
osandf act
sare
approachedinthesameway .Simplyput,itbi
ndscourtstofoll
ow legalprecedent
ssetby
previ
ousdecisi
ons.I
tisnotbindi
ngi nnat
ures.

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i

Typesofpr
ecedent
Therear
evari
ousty
pesofpr
ecedentbutf
oll
owi
ngar
ethemaj
ort
ypesofpr
ecedent
.

Ont
hebasi
sofaut
hor
it
y

I
. Author
itat
ivePr
ecedent
:Theprecedentmadebysupr emecour twhi
chmustbef ol
lowed
byhigherorlowercour
tiscall
edaut hori
tati
veprecedent.I
tisbindi
ngi nnature.The
hi
gherorlowercour
tmustfol
l
owt heprinci
plesest
ablishedbythesuper
iorcour
t.

I
I.Persuasi
vePrecedent:Thepr
ecedentmadebyl owercour
twhichar enotbi
ndi
ngt othe
hi
gherorsuper i
orcourti
scall
edpersuasi
veprecedent
.Iti
snotbi ndi
nginnature.The
hi
ghercour tcanfoll
ow thepri
nci
plesestabl
i
shedi ntheprecedentorcant akeinto
consider
ati
on.

Ont
hebasi
sofcr
eat
ingr
ules

I
. OriginalPr
ecedent
:Anorigi
nalpr
ecedentar
iseswhenthecourthasnevertakena
decisioni
nacaseandithastouseit
sowndiscret
iont
oreachaconcl
usi
on.I
thelpst
o
createnewlaw.

I
I.Decl
aratoryPrecedent:Adecl
arator
ypr ecedentisappl
i
cati
onofexist
ingpr
ecedenti
na
par
ti
cularcase.Adecl arat
oryprecedentinvolvesdecl
ari
nganexisti
ngprecedentand
put
ti
ngi nt
opractice.

Ont
hebasi
sofcondi
ti
on

I
. AbsolutePr
ecedent:Absol
utepr
ecedentist
hattypeofpr
ecedentwhi
chisbindi
ngover
hi
gherandl owercourt
.Forexample,thedeci
sionmadebySupr emeCourtisbindi
ng
overall
thel
owercourt.

I
I.Condi t
ionalPrecedent:Condit
ionalPrecedentissucht y
peofpr ecedentwhi chisnot
bindingov eral
lcourt.Forexample,t
hedecsimadebyonehi ghcourtisnotbi ndi
ngt o
otherhi ghcourt
.Otherhighcourtcanconsi dersuchpr
incipl
ewhethertot akeitornot.
Similar
ly ,t
hedecisi
onmadebysi ngl
ebenchofSupr emeCour ti
scondi t
ionalprecedent
forfullbenchofSupremeCour t.

Whyprecedenti
simpor
tantasasourceofl
aw?
I. Samedeci si
oninsimil
arcase:Every
onedealingwithasi
mil
arcasei
str
eat
edi
na
simil
armannert
herei
sequal
it
yandf ai
rnessofj
ust
ice.

I
I.Hel
pfulf
orf
utur
ecases:I
tact
sasgui
del
i
nest
odeci
def
utur
ecases.

I
II
.I tsavesti
me,Labourandeconomyofthecour
t:Pr
ecedent
ssavest
imeandi
ncr
eases
conveni
enceasaquestiononcedeci
dedi
ssett
ledanditsavest
heti
meandl
abourof
j
udgesandl awy
ers.

32
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

I
V.Flexi
bil
it
y:Precedent
shelptoprepar
enew st
atut
oryl
awsandadj
ustaccor
dingt
othe
changingcondit
ionsoft
hesoci
ety.

V.Practi
cali
nnat ure:Caseswhi chmakest
hem morepract
ical
.Legi
slat
ionmakesl awin
advanceev en actualcasesmaybe seen ornotbutcour tmakespr ecedentaft
er
observi
ngtheactual cases.Soiti
sver
ypr
act
ical
innat
ure.

VI
.Stabil
it
y:Bindi
ngprecedentestabl
isharul
et hathelpstomaint
ainstabi
li
ty.Thel
ower
courtareobli
gedt
of ol
lowprecedentsot
hatitmaintainst
abi
l
ityi
nlegalsy
stem.

d.Cust om
Custom i stheprimarysourceoflaw andi ti stheol destform ofmaki nglaw.Law basedon
custom i sknownascust omarylaws.I npr i
mi ti
vesociety,t heliv
esofhumanbei ngsar e
regulatedbycustom.I tisunwri
tt
enl aw createdbyhumanbei ngs.Customaryl awsal soplay
i
mpor t
antroleandf i
ll
sgapswhi l
et hereisl ackingofl aw.Nepal eselaw hasaccept edsome
custom whichhav el
egalauthori
ty.E.g.mar riagei nkeenr elati
onispr ohi
bit
edi nNepalbut
Mulukiainpr ov
idesthatnooneshal lbepuni shedf oramar riageorsexualintercoursei nkeen
rel
ationandsuchmar r
iageshal
lbeconsi deredv ali
di naccordancewi ththei
rtradit
ionfollowed
bytheircaste.

Accor
dingt
oHol
land,
”cust
om i
sagener
all
yobser
vedhabi
tual
cour
seofconduct
.“

Accor
dingtoAusti
n,“cust
om i
sar ul
eofconductwhi
chthegov
ernedobser
vespont
aneousl
y
andnotinapur
suanceoflawsetbyapol
i
tical
super
ior
”.

Accordi
ngtoSal
mond,“custom i
stheembodimentoft
hosepri
nci
pleswhi
chhav ecommended
themsel
vestot
henat
ionalconsci
enceaspr
incipl
esofj
ust
iceandpubl
icut
il
it
y”.

Accor
dingt
oPuchht
a,"
cust
om i
sthepr
ecedentofl
egi
slat
ion.
"

Accor
dingt
oSav
igny
,"cust
om i
sthef
ormal
sour
ceofl
aw.
"

Accordi
ng to Car
ter
,"cust
om i
sthe uni
for
mit
y of conduct of al
lper
son under l
i
ke
ci
rcumstances.
"

Typesofcust
om
Therear
etwotypesofcust
om.

i
. Legal
cust
om

i
i
. Conv
ent
ional
cust
om

1.Legalcustom:The legalcustoms arethose whose legalauthor

it
yi s absol
ute and
uncondi
ti
onal
.Thesecust
omsoperateasabindingrul
eofl aw.Theyhavebeenrecognizedby
thecour
tsandhavebecomeapartofthel
awoftheland.Theyareenfor
cedbythecourts.Legal
customsareoft
wotypes:
-

33
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
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war
i

I
. Localcust
om:Alocalcust
om i
sthatwhi
chpr
evai
l
sinsomedef
inedl
ocal
i
ty,
thati
s,t
oa
di
stri
ct,
townoranarea.

I
I.Generalcust
om:Ageneralcustom i
sthatwhi
chprev
ail
sthr
oughoutt
hecount
ryand
const
itut
esoneoft
hesourcesofthel
awofthel
and.

2.Conv enti
onalcust om:A conv enti
onalcustom i
sal socall
ed“ usage”.Iti
sanest abli
shed
pract
icewhoseaut horit
yisconditi
onalonitsaccept
anceandi ncor porat
ionintheagreement
betweent hepartiesboundbyi t
.Insi mpl
ewor ds,aconv ent
ionalcustom iscondit
ionaland
condit
ionisthatitwil
l bebi
ndingont hepar
tiesonl
y,i
fithasbeenaccept edandincor
poratedby
them i
nt hei
ragreement .

Elementsofaval
idcustom
Eachandev er
ycust
om cannotbelegal
lyenfor
ced.Theymustbeprov
edbef
orethecour
tsli
ke
anyothert
hingbef
oretheycanhav
et heforceofl
aw.Thefol
lowi
ngsarei
mport
antel
ementsof
av al
i
dcustom:

i
. I
mmemor i
alAnti
quit
y:Thefi
rstel
ementofaval
idcustom i
sthati
tmustbei
mmemor
ial
.
I
tmustbeoldoranci
entandmustnotbeofrecentor
igin.

i
i
. Reasonable:Acustom mustbewithi
nboundsofr
easonfori
ttobeconsi
deredlegal
l
y
bi
nding.Therefor
e,cust
om wouldbeconsider
ednotval
i
di fi
topposespri
ncipl
esof
j
usti
ce,equali
tyandgoodconsci
ence.

i
i
i. Moral
ity
:Anotherel
ementofav al
idcustom i
sthatacustom,t
obev al
id,mustnotbe
i
mmor al
.Itisawell
-recogni
zedr
ulethatacustom shoul
dnotbeopposedtodecency
andmorali
ty.

i
v. Conti
nui
ty:Thefourt
helementforav
ali
dcust
om i
sthati
tmusthav
ebeencont
inuousl
y
obser
vedwithoutanyint
err
upt
ion.

v
. Peacef
ulenjoy
ment:Cust
om musthavebeenenj
oyedpeaceabl
y.I
facust
om hasbeen
i
ndisputef
oralongti
meinacourtofl
aw,i
tcan'
tbeconsi
deredasval
i
dcust
om.

v
i. Consi
stency:Theotherel
ementofavali
dcustom i
sthatitmustbei
nconf
ormi
tywi
th
thest
atut
elaw.Itshoul
dnotbecont
rar
ytothestat
utor
ylaw.

v
ii
. Cer
tai
nty
:Thecust
om hast
ocl
ear
lydef
ined,
itcannotbev
agueandconf
usi
ng.

v
ii
i. Conformitywit
hstat
utelaw:Acustom mustnotgoagainstpubli
cpol
icyandl
awoft
he
l
and.Ifthelawmakesitf
orbi
dden,i
twil
lnotbeconsi
deredav al
idcust
om.

Whycustom i
simpor tantasasourceoflaw?
I
npr i
mit
ivesociet
y,cust om wasasol esour
ceoflaw.Whenat hi
ngispracti
cedforalong
peri
odofti
mei tgivesr i
setoruleoflawknownascust
om.Custom i
stheoldestf
orm ofl
aw.
Therewasnowr i
tt
enl aw i
npr i
miti
vesoci
ety.Thel
i
vesofpeopl
ewereregulat
edbycustom,

34
LawSchol
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war
i

rel
igi
on,tradi
ti
onalnor ms,whichdevelopsspont aneousl
yaccordingtocircumstances.Holl
and
ri
ghtlycomment edthatcustom ori
ginatedfrom theconsciousofpeople.Custom isest
abli
shed
bysoci et
yandpopul arpracti
ce.Asoci et
yi schangedi ntoadvancementandt hepeoplear e
civ
ili
zeddaybyday .so,thecustomar yrulesarei ncor
poratedinthecour tsintheirdeci
sion.
Custom isthefoundationstoneofmoder ninter
nationall
aw.

Salmondviewedthatcust
om becomesl awwheneverinfactsati
sfi
esthecondit
ionprescr
ibed
bylaw f
oritsval
idi
ty.I
tproofthi
sisforthcoming,cour
tsmustaf fi
rmthev al
i
dityofcustom,
suchacustom i
scall
edlegalcust
om.Legalcustom t
hensuppli
esapr i
nci
pletowhicht
hewi l
lof
thest
ateisboundtogivel
egalfor
ce.I
tisther
eforer
ankedaslegalmateri
alsour
ceoflaw.

InNepalt herearev ar
iouslawshav ebeenmadeont hebasisofcustom andt hatlawscarri
es
thenor msandv alueofcustom andl egi
slaturecan'tmakel aw agai
nstt hosecustom.E.g.in
Nepal,thereislegall
yprohibi
tednottogetmar r
iageinclosebloodrel
ationsbutinManangand
Mustang,t helaw i sall
owingmar r
iageincl osebl oodr el
ati
ons.Anotherexampl es,Nepalis
secularstatethatmeansnoonecandi scriminateany oneont hebasisorr el
i
giousv i
ew poi
nt
buttheent r
anceofnon- HinduinPashupati
nat hTempl eisstr
ict
lypr
ohibit
ed.

Custom wasmusti mportantsourcebeforethecodi f

iedlaw comeintopr
acti
ce.Ther eisa
special
regar
dforcustom wheneverdr
aft
ingbi
llintheparli
amentorset
ti
nganyprecedentint
he
court
.Custom i
stheimportantpi
l
larofmoderninternat
ionall
aw.

Thest at
uteofICJpr ovidesthatcustom becomesl aw whenev erinfactsat
isfi
esasagener al
evidenceacceptedasl aw.Whenmor eandmor est at
eencl osesthispracti
ce,i
tacqui
resa
status ofuniversalcust om.Cust om are eit
herbei ng observed i
nto codes orhave been
i
ncor poratedi
ntol egalsy st
em byt hewayofj udi
cialrecogniti
on.Theref
ore,cust
om al
way s
remai nsaspower f
ul sourceoflaw.

e.Conv enti
on
Conv enti
onisapr i
marysourceofl
awbecausesecti
on9(1)ofthetreatyact2047st atesthat
thetreatylaw shal
lbeappli
edasstat
elaw andifstat
elaw i
nconsi
stentwithtreat
yl aw t
hen
treat
ylawmaypr ev
ail
.Ther
efor
eiti
scl
eart
hatconventi
onispr
imarysourceoflaw.

Conventi
on isan agreementbetween two ormor ethan two countr
ies.Convent
ion i
san
agr
eementbywhi chtwoormor ecountr
iestryt
oestabli
shrel
ati
onshipbetweenthem gov
erned
byint
ernati
onal
law.Nepalhasaccept
edv ar
iousconvent
ionli
keCRC,CEDAW et candsoon.

I
ndi
rectSour
cesofLaw
I
ndir
ectsourceofl
awisal
socal
l
edsecondar
ysour
cesofl
aw.I
tisnotbi
ndi
ngi
nnat
ure.Peopl
e
ar
efreetofoll
owornot
.

f.Professi
onalopi
nions
Thosepeopl ewhohasdept hknowledgeandexperi
enceint
hei
rownprofessionandfi
eldcan
developani deatorel
atedaut
hori
ty.Legalpr
ofessi
onal
scangi
vethei
rvaluableknowl
edgeto

35
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

sol
vetheprobl
emsseenint
hej
udi
cialadmi
nist
rat
ion.E.
g.opi
niongi
venbyl
aywer
,judges,
doct
orandengi
neeret
c.

g.Juri
sti
cwr i
ti
ng
Thoseper sonwhohasdept hknowl
edgeandexper i
enceinlaw canwr i
teordev el
opl egal
conceptsandanywr i
ti
ng.Thegenui
newr i
ti
ngsofthelaw exper
ts,schol
ars,jur
ist
,lawyer,
j
udgesandl awteacherareexampl
esofjur
ist
icwri
ti
ng.I
thasnobindingfor
ces.Juri
sti
cwriti
ng
areasfoll
ows;

 I
nter
nat
ional
law–HugoGr
oti
ous

 Count
ryJust
ice–Dal
ton

 TheConceptofLaw–H.
L.AHar
tet
c.

h.Reasons
Reasonsisal
sosecondar
ysourcesoflaw.Reasonsplayimpor
tantr
olei
nlawmaking.E.
g.i
tis
l
egall
yprohi
bit
edt
hatnottogetmarri
edinclosebloodrel
ati
onduetosci
ent
if
icr
eason.

i
.Religi
on
Reli
gionisal
sotakenasimportantsourcesoflaw.Becausewhentherewasnomanmadel aw
thenstat
eorkingusedrel
i
giousl awstoregul
atehumanbehavi
or.E.
g.Hinduhol
ybookGeet
ais
thepartofHi
ndulawinNepal.BiblewaspartChri
sti
ani
tylawi
nEngland.

j
.Equit
y,Justi
ceandGoodconsciences
Equi
ty,Justi
ceand Good consci
encesare closel
yrelat
ed wi
th soci
aland naturalj
ust
ice.
Basi
call
y,equit
y,Just
iceandGoodconsciencesdependentupont hediscr
eti
onarypowerof
j
udgeswhichtheycouldusei
nthedecisi
onofthecourt
.

36
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t7:Per
son

7.
1Meani
ngandDef
ini
ti
onofPer
son
Thet er
m‘ person’i
sderi
vedfrom Lati
nword‘per
sona’whichmeansamaskwor nbyactors
playi
ngdiff
erentrol
esinadrama.I
nmoder ndays,
ithasbeenusedi
nasenseofal i
vi
ngper
son
capableofhav ingri
ghtsandduties.Now i
thasbeenusedi ndi
ff
erentsensesindi
ff
erent
disci
pli
nes.

I
nt hephi losophi
calandmor alsense,thet er
m per sonhasbeenusedt omeant herati
onal
quali
tyofhumanbei ng.Inlaw,ithasawi demeani ng.Itmeansnotonlyhumanbeingsbutal so
associat
ionsaswel l
.Law per sonif
iessomer ealthingandt reat
sitasal egalperson.This
personif
icati
onbotht heoret
ical
lyandpracti
call
yclari
fiesthoughtandexpr
essi
on.

Therearehumanbei ngswhoar enotpersonsinlegalsensesuchasout l

awsandslavesi
nearly
ti
mes.Inthesamewayt herear
el egal
personswhoar enothumanbei ngssuchascorpor
ati
ons,
companies,trade uni
ons;insti
tuti
ons l
ike uni
versi
ti
es,hospit
als are exampl
es ofart
if
ici
al
personal
i
tyrecogni
zedbyl awinthemoder nage.

Hence, t
heper
sonisanimport
antcat
egor
yofconceptinlegalt
heory,par
ti
cul
arl
ybusi
nessand
corporat
elawshav
eextensi
vel
yusedtheconceptofper
sonf orpr
otecti
onaswellasi
mposing
theli
abil
it
y.

Accordi
ngtoSalmond-"
Aper
soni
sanybei
ngwhom t
hel
awr
egar
dsascapabl
eofr
ight
sand
boundbylegal
duti
es.
"

Sav
ignydef
inest
het
erm per
sonast
hesubj
ectorbear
erofar
ight
.

Accor
dingt
oGr
ay"
Aper
soni
sanent
it
ytowhi
chr
ight
sanddut
iesmaybeat
tri
but
ed.
"

Accordi
ngtoAusti
n,t
heter
m per
soni
ncl
udesphy
sicalornat
uralper
soni
ncl
udi
ngev
erybei
ng
whichcanbedeemedhuman.

7.
2Ki
ndsofPer
son
Ther
ear
etwoki
ndsofper
soni
nJur
ispr
udence.Theyar
easf
oll
ows:

1.Nat
ural
Per
son

2.Legal
Per
son

1.Naturalperson
A naturalpersonisahumanbei ngpossessi ngnaturalpersonali
ty.Accordi
ngt oHoll
and,a
natur
alper sonisahumanbei ngasi sregardedbyt helaw asanat uralpersoni sanactual
humanbei ng,whichisdiffer
entfr
om an“ ar
ti
fici
alperson,
”whi chisadistinct
ionunderthelaw
toestabli
shwhet herapersonisacti
ngorappearingashimsel f
,acti
ngorappear ingonbehalfof
abusinessorot herent
it
y.Thisisbecausealegalorarti
fi
cialpersonisnotaper sonatall
,butis

37
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

i
nsteadacoll
ect
iveofpeoplethatisbei
ngconsi
deredasonesingleenti
tyforthepur
posesofa
l
egalact
ion.Forexample,anaturalper
sonisdif
ferentf
rom alegalperson,whichmightbea
company,atr
ust,
apartnershi
p,orsomeothergr
oup.

Feat
uresofnat
uralper
son
 Bornali
ve

 Li
vi
nghumanbei
ng

 Capabl
eofhav
ingr
ight
sanddut
ies

2.Legalperson
Legalpersonsarerealorimaginar
ybei ngst owhom personali
tyi
sat tr
ibut
edbyl awbywayof
fi
cti
onwher eitdoesnotexi
stinfact.Juri
sticpersonsar
eal sodef
inedast hosethi
ngs,massof
proper
ty,groupofhumanbei ngsorani nsti
tut
ionuponwhom t hel aw hasconferr
edal egal
stat
usandwhoar eint
heey eoflawcapabl eofhav i
ngri
ghtsanddutiesasnat ur
alper
sons.

Lawat t
ri
butesbyl egalfi
cti
onaper sonal
ityofsomer ealt
hing.Af i
cti
tiousthingisthatwhich
doesnotexi sti
nf actbutwhichisdeemedt oexistintheey
eofl aw.Juristi
cper sonscomeinto
exi
stencewhent hereisi nexi
stenceat hing,amassofpr operty
,ani nsti
tut
ionoragr oupof
personsandt helawat tr
ibut
estot hem t
hechar acterofaperson.Thismaybedoneasar esul
t
ofanactoft hesov erei
gnorbyagener alruleprescri
bedbythegov er
nment .Exampl e:
Company
orcorporat
ion,i
dol etc.

Feat
uresofl
egalper
son
 Creat
edbynatur
alper
son

 Capabl
eofhav
ingl
i
mit
edr
ightanddut
ies

 Non-
li
vi
nghumanbei
ng

38
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

7.
3Di
ff
erencesbet
weennat
uralper
sonandl
egalper
son
Nat
uralPer
son LegalPer
son
1. A natur
al person is a human bei
ng 1.Legalpersonsarer
ealorimagi
nar
ybeings
possessi
ngnat
ural
personal
it
y. towhom per sonal
i
tyisatt
ri
butedbylaw by
wayoffict
ion.

2.Nat
ural
per
soni
sact
ual
ahumanbei
ng. 2.Legal
per
soni
sanar
ti
fi
cial
per
son.

3.Nat
ural
per
soncancr
eat
elegal
per
son. 3.Legal
per
soncannotcr
eat
enat
ural
per
son.

4.Natur
alper
sonmayhav
emor
ethanone 4.Legalper
sonhasonl
yoneper
sonal
i
tyi
nthe
per
sonal
it
y. eyeoflaw

5.Thel
i
feofnat
ural
per
soni
suncer
tai
n. 5.Thel
i
feofl
egal
per
soni
scer
tai
n.

6.Thel
i
feofnat
ural
per
soni
sli
mit
ed. 6.Thel
i
feofl
egal
per
soni
sunl
i
mit
ed.

7.Bi
rt
h,sexandr
epr
oduct
ioni
spossi
ble. 7.Bi
rt
h,sexandr
epr
oduct
ioni
snotpossi
ble.

8.Naturalper
soni
snotal
l
owedt
odoany
thi
ng 8.Legalpersonisonl
ytodot
het
hingswhi
ch
whichisnotpermi
tt
edbyl
aw. i
spermittedbylaw.

9.Nat
ural
per
sonbear
sunl
i
mit
edl
i
abi
l
ity
. 9.Thel
i
bil
i
tyofl
egal
per
soni
sli
mit
ed.

10.Nat
ural
per
soni
ssel
f-
cont
rol
l
ed. 10.Legalper
son i
s cont
rol
l
ed by nat
ural
per
son.

11.Nat
ural
per
sonr
epr
esenthi
m/her
sel
f. 11.Legalper
son i
srepr
esent
ed bynat
ural
per
sononly
.

39
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

7.
4LegalSt
atusofUnbor
nChi
l
d,DeadManandAni
mal
s

1.LegalSt
atusofDeadPer
son

Adeadper sonisnomor ealegalentit

y .Assoonasaper sondi es,hebecomes
i
ncapableofenjoyingrightsorperfor
minghi sduti
es.Sot helegalpersonali
tyofa
personendswi t
ht heirdeath.Howev er,thelaw doest akei nto accountthe
wishesanddesiresoft hedeceasedper son.Andital
soensur esthatthereisno
fal
sehar mtot her eputati
onoft hedeceased.Aspert heNepal esel aw,ever
y
personhasthelegal r
ighttoadecentbur i
alaspert
heirreli
giousfait
h( Sect
ion37
ofMul ukiCi
vi
lCode) .Anyactt hatamount stothei ndignit
yoft hecor pseis
punishabl
ebylaw.

Thewi shesofadeadper sonregar

dinghispropert
ymustal sobef ul
fi
ll
ed.Thi
sis
donef orthebenef
itoft heliv
ingwhoar ebenefit
ti
ngbysuchwi shesorwill
.The
defamationofadeadper sonispunishabl
ebysect ion306( 2)
(b)oftheMul uki
Cri
minalCode.Thi sincludesany t
hingthatharmst hereputati
onoft heperson
wit
ht heintent
iont
ohur tfamilymember sandcloserelat
ives.

2.Legalst
atusofUnbor
nChi
ld

Achildthatisstil
linthewombofi t
smot heri
sstil
lnottechni
call
yaper son.But
bylegalfict
ion,anunbor nchil
disconsi
deredalr
eadybor n.i
.e.heisgr ant
eda
cer
tainlegalpersonali
ty.I
fthechi
ldisbornali
vehewi l
lthenenjoylegalstatus.
Letuslookatcer tainprovi
sionsmadefortheunbornchildundertheNepal ese
l
aw,

Secti
on206(2)ofMulukiCivi
lCodest atesthatanunbornchi
ldtobegi venbirt
h
bypregnantwomanshal lbesubjecttogetequall
yparti
ti
onasothersmember s.
Butifthechil
dborndeadt hensuchpar t
it
ionshar
eshallbeequallydistr
ibut
ed
amongot her
scoparcener.AsperMi taksharaLaw,anunbornchil
dwi l
lhav ean
i
nteresti
ncoparcenarypropert
y.Cr i
minalCodest at
esthatifafemalei nmate
sent
encedt odeat
hisf oundtobepr egnant,t
heexecut
ionispostponedt i
llt
he
chi
ldhasachancetobebor n.

3.Legalst
atusofani
mal
s

I
nmodernlaw,ani
mal
sarenotconsi
der
edlegalpersons.Theyar
eobject
ssince
t
heydonotenj
oyri
ght
sorhavetoper
for
m anyduties.I
nmoder nl
aw,
wehol dthe

40
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

mast err
esponsibl
ef ortheactsofhispetsandbeasts.Sohewi ll
bel i
ableforany
damagedonebyt heseani malsunderhiscarewher ehewasnegl i
genti ntheir
careandcont rol
.Also,t heharm donetoanani malwi l
lbeconsideredashar m
donet oit
sownerort hesociet
yatlarge.Modernlawdoesr ecognizetheneedt o
protectani
malsofal lki
nds.SoNepal eselaw hasmadepr ovisi
onsf orthewel l
beingandmai ntenanceofani mals.Accordi
ngt osect
ion290ofMul ukiCriminal
Code, cr
uelt
ytowardsani malsisanoffenseandpunishable.

7.
5Meani
ngofCor
por
atePer
sonal
it
y
Corporatepersonali
tyisaf i
cti
onofl aw.I tisanarti
fi
cialpersonal
itygivent ocor porati
on
wherebycer t
ainri
ghtsanddut i
esareattri
butedtoit
.Thedoct r
ineofcorporatepersonali
tywas
approved forthef i
rstt i
mei n aleading caseSolomanv sSoloman & Co.Lt d.(1897) .A
corporati
on hasaper sonal
ityofitsown whi ch i
sdifferentfrom theper sonali
ti
esoft he
i
ndividual
s.Acor porat
ioncansueandcanbesued.ACor porati
oncanent erint
ocont racts.A
Corporati
oncanhav epr oper
tyandri
ghtsanddut i
es.Unli
kenat ur
alper
son,Cor porati
oncanact
onlythroughitsagents.Itdoesnotdi eint hewaynaturalpersonsdie.Law prov i
desspeci al
procedureforthewindi
ngofacor porati
on.

7.
6Ki
ndsofCor
por
atePer
sonal
it
y
Acor
porat
ionorcompanyi
sanarti
fi
cialorfi
ctit
iousper
soncreatedbythepersoni
ficat
ionofa
gr
ouporaseriesofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.Theindivi
dualsformi
ngthecorpusofthecorporat
ioniscall
ed
i
tsmembers.Ther
earet
wokindsofcorporat
ionoracompany.

1.Cor
por
ateSol
e

2.Cor
por
ateAggr
egat
e

1)Corporati
onAggr egate
ACor por
ati
onaggr egateisanincorpor
atedgr ouporbodyofcoexi st
ingpersonsuni
tedforthe
purposeofachievingcer t
ainpoi
ntsofinter
ests.Ithasapersonali
tyofit
sownwhi chisdif
fer
ent
fr
om itssharehol
der s.Thepropert
yofthecompanyi snotthepropert
yoftheshareholder
s.The
assetsandli
abili
ti
esoft hecompanyar ediff
erentfrom t
hoseofitsmember s.

2)Corporati
onSole
Corporat
ionSol ei
sanincor poratedser
iesofsuccessivepersons.I
tisacor por ation,whichhas
onememberatat ime.I tisabodyofpol i
ti
chavingaperpetualsuccession.I tisconst i
tutedi
n
asinglepersonwho,inrightofsomeof f i
ceorfuncti
on,hasthecapaci t
ytot ake, purchase,hol
d
anddemi sel andandher editaments.A corporati
onsoleisper petualbutt heremaybeand
mostlyareper i
odsinthedur ationofcor por
ati
onssole,occurri
ngirregular
ly,inwhi cht herei
s
vacancyornoonei nexistenceinwhom t heCorporati
onresi
desandi sv i
sibl
yr epresented.

Exampl
es

41
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Off
icesofthePostmast
erGeneral
,theminist
erofagr
icult
ure,t
hemi ni
sterofheal
th,publ
i
c
t
rustee,
Comptr
oll
erandAudi
torGener
alofNepal,
ThePr
esidentofNepalet
c.

7.
7Theor
iesofPer
sonal
it
y
Per
sonsareoftwoki ndsnamel y
,Nat uralPer
sonsandLegalPersons.Therear et
hreeki
ndsof
l
egalper
sonsi.
e.corporat
ions,i
nstit
utionsandfundorest
ate.Corporatepersonal
i
tyisafi
cti
on
ofl
aw.Itisanarti
fi
cialpersonal
itygivent ocor
por
ati
onwher ebycertai
nrightsandduti
esare
at
tri
but
edtoit
.

Theor
iesofCor
por
atePer
sonal
it
y

There ar
e manyt heori
es ofcorpor
ate per
sonali
ty.Dif
fer
entJur
ist
s propounded di
ff
erent
theor
iesto expl
ainthenatureofcorporatepersonal
it
y,butthebest-
known theori
esofa
Corporat
ePersonali
tyar
easfoll
ows

1)FictionTheor y
TheFi cti
ont heor
ywaspr opoundedbySav i
gny.AccordingtoSav igny"apersonali
tyi
sat t
ached
tocorpor ations,i
nstit
uti
onsandf undsbyapurelegalfict
ion’
’.Theper sonal
i
tyofcorporati
onis
diff
erentf rom thepersonal
it
yofi t
smember st
hatmeanst hereisadoubl efi
ctionint
hecaseof
corporati
on.Sal mondandHol landarethesupportersoft histheory.AccordingtoSalmond,
corporati
oni snothingmorethant heout
comeofmet aphorandf ict
ion.Themai ndefectofthi
s
theoryist hatitexist
sintheeyesoflawonly
.

2)Reali
stTheor y
Reali
stTheor ywaspr opoundedbyt hegreatGermanJur i
stGierke.Itwasf ol
l
owedbySi r
Fredr
ickPollock,Geldar
t,andMaitl
andetc. Accordi
ngt oGierke,Corpor
ati
onisar ealbut
my st
eri
ousent i
ty,ev
erygrouphasarealmi
nd,arealwil
landrealpowerofacti
on.Accordi
ngto
thi
stheory,everygroupcomest ohavepersonal
i
tyofitsownwhet hert
hatgroupissoci
alor
poli
ti
calone.

3)ConcessionTheory
Salmond,SavignyandDiceyar ethemainsuppor t
ersoft
histheory.Accor
dingt ot
histheory
,the
onlyreali
ti
esar esov er
eign and indi
vi
dual.Theot hergroupscannotcl ai
m recognit
ion as
persons.Theyar etr
eatedasper sonsmerelybyaconcessi onandt hepar tofthesoverei
gn.
Legalpersonali
tyisconferredonlybylaw.Cor porat
epersonali
tyisnothi
ngbutaconcessi on
gi
vent ogrouporbodyofi ndiv
idualsbyl
awt oactasabody .

4)PurposeTheory
Accordi
ngt othi
stheor
y,personal
it
yisonlyenjoyedbyhumanbeing.Germanj uri
stBr
inzand
Bekkerarethemainsuppor
terofthi
st heor
y.Sal
mondcri
ti
cisedt
histheor
y,Accordi
ngtohim,i
t
i
snotappl i
cabl
etoacorpor
at i
onsole.

5)Br
acketTheor
y
I
heri
ngisthechiefexponentofBr
ackett
heor
y.Br
ackett
heor
yisal
soknownassy
mbol
i
se

42
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

theory.Accordi
ngt othi stheor y
, t
hemember sofacor por
ati
onarethebearersoftheri
ghtsand
dutieswhi ch are given tot he corporati
on forthe sake ofconv eni
ence.Iti snotalways
practi
cableorconv enientt or ef
ertoal lt
heinnumer ablemembersofacor porati
on.Abracketi
s
placedaroundt hem towhi chanamei sgiv
en.Thatbr acketi
sthecorporat
ion.Theweaknessof
thistheoryli
esint hef actt hatitisnotabletoi ndi
catewhent hebracketmayber emovedand
themaskl ift
edf orthepurposeoft akingnoteoft hemember sconst
ituti
ngthecorporat
ion.

43
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t8:Ri
ght
sandDut
ies

8.
1Meani
nganddef
ini
ti
onofRi
ght
Theconceptofl egalri
ghtisaf undamentalsi
gnif
icanceofmoder nlegaltheorybecausewe
cannotl i
vewithoutit
.Everylegalri
ghthasacor r
espondingdut yandtheinterestwhi cht hel
aw
protectsbyi mposingcor r
espondingdut i
esonot hers.Legalr i
ghtmeans," Thest andardof
permi t
tedactionbylaw."InSi mplewords,ri
ghtisani nt
erestrecogni
zedandpr otectedbyt he
stateiscall
edlegalri
ghts.Arightisdef
inedasapowerorcl ai
m possessedbyani ndivi
dual.I
tis
apr ivi
l
egewhi chamanenj oysundert heprot
ecti
onoft hestate.Rightisjustifi
edcl aim on
others.

Accor
dingt
oHol
land-"
Righti
sacapaci
tyr
esi
dingi
naper
sont
ocont
rol
theact
ionofot
her
s."

Accor
dingt
oPol
lock-"
Righti
sfr
eedom al
l
owedandpowerconf
err
edbyl
aw.
"

Accor
dingt
oHol mes,"
Legalri
ghti
sthatpowerwhichamanhastomakeapersonorpersons
doref
rainf
rom doi
ngacer tai
nactorcertai
nacts,sofarast
hepowerar
isesfrom societ
y
i
mposingalegal
dutyuponapersonorper
sons."

8.
2Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofr
ight
s

1.Primaryandsecondar yr
ight
Apr i
mar yri
ghtisar ightwhichisv est
edinaper sonbyt helawprot
ect
sbycontractorinany
otherlegalmanner.Primaryri
ghtsmeansi ndependentri
ghtandal
readyvest
edr
ightsinperson.
E.
g.aper son'
srighttoliber
ty,saf
etyandreputat
ionetchi
ng.

Asecondar yri
ghtisasanctionsr
ight
s.Asancti
onsrightsmeansthatar
isesi
fthepri
mar y
r
ight
sar ightsarevi
olat
ed.Ifsomeonevi
olat
esother
'srightt
oreput
ati
onbydefamingother
t
hen,secondaryri
ght
sari
ses.Iti
sal
socall
edremedi
alr
ights.

2.LegalandEqui
tabl
eri
ghts
Legalri
ghtsar
ethoseri
ghtsgi
venbycommonl
awcour
tsofEngl
and.Commonl
awwasbased
onstatut
ebywayofcustom,usage.

Equit
abl
er i
ght
saretheri
ghtwhi
chist heoutcomeofl aw ofequi
tygivenbyt hecourtof
chancel
l
or,orequi
tycour
tbased on pri
nci
ple ofnat
uralj
usti
ce and consci
ence ofLord
Chancel
lor
.

3.Posit
iveandNegati
veri
ghts
Apositi
ver i
ghti
sar i
ghtwhichenabl
esitshol
dert
ocompelanotherpersoninwhom t
hedut
y
wascastt oabi
debytheter
mswhi chheagreedtoabi
de.Forexampl
e,theri
ghtofacr
edit
ort
o
recei
vemoneyf r
om hi
sdebtori
sapositi
veri
ght.

Negati
veri
ght
scorrespondi
ngtoanegat
ivedut
y.Thepersonagai
nstwhom i
tisavai
labl
ehas
t
of or
bearf
rom doi
ngsuchact,i
fanyactdinet
henthatpersoni
sli
abl
etopunishmentorci
vi
l

44
LawSchol
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i

l
i
abi
l
ity
.Forexampl
e,r
ightt
oreput
ati
on,
rightt
oli
feet
c.

4.Righti
nrem andRighti
npersonam
Rightinr
em istheenti
rer
ightofapersonav
ail
abl
eagai
nstt
heent
ir
ewor
ld.Forexampl
e,r
ight
toproper
ty.

Rightinper
sonam i
sar i
ghtavai
l
abl
eagainstadefi
nit
eoraspeci f
iedper
son.Forexampl
e,a
debtisari
ghti
npersonam.I
tcanbeavai
l
ableagai
nstonlydebt
ors.

5.Propriet
aryandPersonalri
ghts
Propri
etaryri
ghtsmeansper son'
sindivi
dualpr
opertyri
ght
swhichconsist
softhi
ngs,asset
sin
possessionorowner shi
p ofaper son.Thisrightcan betr
ansferr
ed.Whent heownerof
Propri
etaryri
ghtsisdeadthenpropertyri
ghtofthatper
sontr
ansfer
redint
ohisheir
s.Example,
i
nherit
ancer i
ght.

Personalr
ight
smeansright
srelat
ingtohispersonalbody.Forexample,af
fect
inghi
schar
act
er,
l
ibert
yandstatusi
nthesoci
ety
.Per sonal
right
sarenottransfer
able.I
tdoeswit
hitsowner
.

6.VestedandConti
ngentr i
ghts
Vestedri
ghtsareal
readycompl et
eri
ght
swhereot herf
act
sarenotnecessar
y.Avest
edri
ghtis
notdependentuponthef ul
fil
mentofanycondit
ionandit'
screat
edani mmediat
epropr
iet
ary
ri
ghts,
eventhoughenjoy
mentmaybepost poned.

Conti
ngentr
ight
sarecondit
ionalandincomplet
er i
ght
s.Cont
ingentr
ight
sisdependentupon
happeni
ngornon-
happeni
ngofcertai
neventswhichmayormaynothappen.

7.Pri
ncipleandAccessoryRi
ghts
Aprincipl
er i
ghti
sapr i
maryri
ghtofapersonvestedinhim byt
heconst
it
uti
on.Pr
incipl
eri
ghts
meansgr ant
edright
ssuchasf undamentalr
ights,becausetheyar
ealreadygivenbyt he
consti
tuti
on.

Accessoryrighti
sar ightwhichi
sconnect
edwi t
har i
sesoutoft hepri
ncipl
eri
ghts.I
tisal
so
cal
led remedialri
ghts because ofsomeone br
eaches pr
inci
ples r
ight
st hen t
he need of
accessoryr
ightsar
ises.

8.PerfectandImperf
ectri
ghts
Aper f
ectr i
ghtisonewhichcorr
espondstoaper
fectdut
y.Aper
fectdut
yisonewhichisnot
merelyrecognisedbylaw butal
soenforcedbyl
aw.Fundament
alri
ghtsaretheexampleof
perf
ectright
s.

Thoseright
swhi char
er ecogni
sedbyt hel
aw butarenotenf
orcedbyt hecour
tiscall
ed
i
mperfectri
ghts.Thedi
recti
vepri
nci
plesofst
atepol
i
cyofourconsti
tut
ionist
heexampleof
i
mperfectri
ght
s.

45
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9.Right
sinre-propr
iaandRi
ghti
nre-Al
iena
Rightinre-
Propriaisari
ghti
nrespectofone'
sownpr
oper
ty.Ri
ghti
nre-
Propr
iar
elat
eswi
th
absolut
eowner shi
p.

Rightinre-
Ali
enaistherighti
nrespectofanotherperson'
sproper
ty.I
tisnotr
elat
edwi
th
absolut
eownershi
pbutr
elatedwi
thpossessi
on.Exampl
e,ri
ghtoft
enantst
orent
edr
oom.

8.
3El
ement
sofTheor
yofLegalRi
ght
s
Accor
dingt
oSal
mond,
Legal
right
sinv
olv
edf
iveessent
ial
element
s.Theyar
easf
oll
ows:

a.Subject:Ri
ghti
sv est
edinapersonwhoi stheowneroflegalr
ight
.Theowneroflegal
ri
ghtiscall
edsubj
ectofri
ght.E.
g.I
fAnishbuysaCycl
ethenAnishistheownerofCycl
e.
Therefore,
Ani
shisthesubj
ectofri
ght
.

b.Object
:Alegalri
ghtoperat
esagai
nstsomepersonuponwhom li
esthecorr
elat
iveduty
.
Suchaper soniscal l
edpersonofinci
dencesorsubj
ectofdutyforObjectofright
.
Example,
Otherspersonhavenori
ghttodri
veAni
sh'
sCycl
ewithouthi
spermissi
on.

c. Content:I
tmaybeanactwhi
cht
hesubj
ectofi
nci
dencesi
sboundt
oforori
tmaybe
for
bearanceofhi
spar
t.

d.Acts:Theactoromissi
onrel
atest
osomet
hingwhi
chmaybet
ermedast
heobj
ector
subjectmat
teroft
heri
ght.

e. Tit
le:Everylegalr
ighthasat
it
le,thati
stosay,cert
ainf
actsorev entsbyreasonsof
whicht heri
ghthasbecomev estedinitsowner.E.
g.purchase,gi
ft,i
nher
itanceand
assignmentsetc.

8.
4Theor
yofRi
ght
s
Ther
earevar
ioust
heori
esofri
ghtsgivenbyvari
ousjur
ist
s.ButWillt
heor
yandI
nter
estt
heor
y
aret
hemostpopul
art
heori
esoflegal
right
s.Theyar
ediscussedbel
ow:

1.Wi l
lTheory
Thistheorywasgi venbyH. L.
AHart(1907-92)
,ABri
ti
shlegal
scholars.Accor
dingtothi
stheory
,
subjectmatter
sofev eryri
ghtsder
ivedfr
om theexerci
seofhumanwi l
l.Thi
stheor
yisinspi
red
bynat ur
alri
ghts.Thistheoryi
sbasedont hedoct
ri
neofnatural
right
s.

Whenwest udywilltheor
y,t
hewi l
ltheor
yisst
udiedbydiv
idi
ngint
ot wov iewpoi
nt.I
nthefir
st
part
,Austin,Holl
andandPol l
ockcomesandi nthesecondpart
,Hegal,KantandHolmescome
under.Thesetwogr oupofjur
ist
sgi vet
hei
rowndi f
fer
entopti
onstot heoryofr
ight
sbutthey
al
sosuppor teachothers.

Accordi
ngt ofi
rstgroup,wi
lli
sanat uralr
ight,whi
chisprot
ect
edbylaw.Accordingtosecond
group,wil
lshouldbecer t
ainwit
hint heli
mi t
soft hewil
lofother
s.Other
wise,ifsomeoneis
superi
orthanot her
scandoany t
hinghel i
keagainstt
hewi l
lofother
s.Sot herewil
lbeno

46
LawSchol
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i

meani
ngofhav
ingr
ightofot
her
s.Sowi
l
lmustbecer
tai
nwi
thi
nthel
i
mitofot
her
s.

Duguitcr
it
ici
sedthewi l
ltheorybecausewi l
lofAmaybesuper iort
owi l
lofBthatmaycr
eate
i
mbalancesofsocialsoli
dari
ty.Ri
ghtisgiventomaint
ainsocialsol
idar
it
yandlawismadefor
peaceandsecuri
tyofsocietybutifwil
ltheorycr
eat
esimbalancesthenther
eisnouseofsuch
theor
y.

2.Int
erestTheor
y
Itwasgi venbyJer
emyBent ham (
1748-
1832)
.Hedi dn'tbel
i
eveintheideaofmor alr
ight
,
concededt hatt
heri
ghtscouldbeusefuli
nlegalsystems.Heal sosaysthatr
ightisfor
maximum numberofhappi
nessoft
hemaximum numberofpeople.

Accordingt othi
stheory,alegalr
ightislegal
lypr otectedinterest
.Legalr
ighti
sinter
estnotwi l
l.
Mainobj ectoflawist heprotect
ionofhumani nterests.Int
erestisprot
ectedbylawasr i
ghts,
whereinwi l
lisnotnecessarytopr esent
.e.grightsofl unati
cornewbor nbaby.Theseinterest
s
ar
enotcr eatedbythest at
e,buttheyexi sti
nt hesoci etyandst atechoosesoutoft hem such
i
nter
estasi twi l
lpr
otect.

8.
5Meani
ngandDef
ini
ti
onofDut
y
"Dutyi
sanobl
i
gati
ontodooromi
ttodosomet hi
ng"
.Int
helegalsense,dut
ymeans"Alegal
obli
gati
ont
odoornott
odosomet
hing.Exampl
e:Asonisunderadutytofeedhi
sdependent
parent
s

Accordi
ngt
oSalmond"Adut yi
sanobli
gat
oryact,t
hati
stosay
,iti
sanopposi
teofwhi
ch
wouldbewr
ong.Dut
iesandwr
ongsar
ecor
rel
ati
ves.

Hibbertdef
inesl
egaldut
yas" t
hepr edi
camentora person whoseact
sar
eli
abl
eto be
contr
oll
edbyanot
herwi
ththeassentandassi
stanceoft
hestat
e."

Accor di
ngtoProf.Dicey,"adut
yi saspeci esofobli
gat
ion.Peopleobeyi tduetoindolence,
deference,sympathy
,f earand reason.And also due to psychol
ogi
cal,socialand mor al
pressures.The majori
ty ofduti
es ar e suppor
ted by State.The breach oft he dutyis
i
mpr isonmentorf
ine.
"

8.
6Ki
ndsofDut
ies
Ther
ear
evar
iouski
ndsofdut
ies.Dut
iesmaybecl
assi
fi
edasf
oll
ows:

1.LegalDuti
esandMor alDuti
es
Alegaldutyi
sanactt heopposit
eofwhichisal egalwrong.I
tisanactrecogni
zedasadut yby
l
awandt r
eat
edassuchf ort
headminist
rat
ionofj usti
ce.I
fsomeonedisobeyedlegaldut
ythen
hemaybesubj ectt
odi neorpunishment.E.g.pay mentoftax,wear
inghelmetswhi l
eridi
ng
motorcycl
eetc.

Amoralornaturaldutyi
sanacttheopposi
teofwhichisamor alornatur
alwrong.Adutymay
bemoralbutnotlegal
orlegal
butnotmoral
.Ifsomeonevi
olat
esmor aldut
ythennolegal
acti
on

47
LawSchol
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canbet
akenagai
nstt
hatper
son.Exampl
e,gr
eet
ingt
opar
ent
set
c.

2.Posi
ti
veorNegativ
eDuti
es
Whenthelaw obl
igesustodoanact
,thedutyi
scall
edpositi
vedut
y.Art
icl
e48stat
essome
duti
estobefol
lowedbypeopl
eoft
hecountr
y.Thedut
iesdescr
ibedi
ntheArt
icl
e48isposi
ti
ve
duty
.

Whenthelawobli
gesust
oforbearf
rom doi
nganact,thedut
yisnegati
vedut y.Lawprohibi
ts
t
hatno-oneshoul
ddef
amesomeoneisexampleofnegati
vedut
y.Example,
righttoli
ve,
rightto
l
iber
tyetc.

3.Pri
maryandSecondaryDuti
es
Pri
maryduti
esarethosewhichexistperseandindependent
lyofanyot
herdut
y.AnExampl
eof
apri
marydutyi
stoforbearf
rom causingper
sonalinj
urytoanot
her.

A secondar y dutyist hatwhich has no i

ndependentexi
stence butexi
sts onl
yfort
he
enforcementofot herduti
es.Anexampleofsecondarydut
yisthedutytopayamandamages
fortheinj
uryisalr
eadydonet ot
heperson.

4.Uni
versalandPart
icul
arDuties
Accor
dingtoJenksuni v
ersalduti
esarethose,whicharebindi
ngonal lnor
malcit
izensoft he
community.Gener
alduti
esarethose,
whicharebindingonspeci
ficcl
assesofnor
mal persons.

Part
icul
arduti
esar
ethose,whi
ch ar
ebi
ndi
ng bet
ween t
heper
sonswho hav
evol
unt
ari
l
y
undert
akent
hem.

5.Rel
ati
veandAbsol
uteDuti
es
Accor
dingt
oAusti
n,Rel
ati
vedutyi
sonef
orwhi
cht
her
ewi
l
lbecor
respondi
ngdut
y.

Absol
utedut
yisone,
whi
chhasnocor
respondi
ngr
ight
.

8.
7Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenRi
ght
sandDut
ies
Right
sanddut i
esar eclosel
yr el
atedandcannotbeseparatedfr
om oneanot her
.Bothgosi de
byside.Thesearethetwosi desofthesamecoin.I
fthestategivestherightt
oli
fetoaciti
zen,
i
talsoimposesanobl igati
ononhi mt onott
oexposehisl i
fetodangers,aswellastorespect
theli
feofother
s.IfIhavear i
ghttoworkandearn,i
tisal
somydut yt
or ecogni
zethesameright
ofothers.

Rightscanbeenjoyedonlyint heworl
dofdut i
es.Forever
yri
ghtthereiscor
respondingduty
.
Whent hepeoplef
ailt
odischargethei
rduti
esproper
ly,
theri
ght
sallbecomemeaningless.“
Ican
enjoymyr i
ghtsonl
yiftheothersall
owmet odothesame.Ihave”theri
ghttoli
feandi ti
sthe
dutyofother
storespectmylif
eandnott ocauseanyharmtome.”

Right
sarenott
hemonopol
yofasingl
eindi
vi
dual
.Ever
ybodyget
stheseequal
ly.Thi
smeans
that“
other
sal
sohav
ethesameri
ghtswhichIhav
e,anditismydutytoseethatother
sal
so

48
LawSchol
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enjoytheirr
ight
s.”Laskihasr
ight
lysaidthatoneman’
srighti
salsohisduty.I
tismydut
yto
respecttheri
ghtsofother
saswellasthedutytousemyri
ghtsi
ntheint
erestofsoci
ety
.

Rightsoriginateinsoci
ety
.Theref
ore,whi
l
eenjoy
ingr
ights,wemustal
waystr
ytopromote
socialint
erest.I
tist
hedutyofev
eryoneofust
ouseourrightsf
orpr
omot
ingt
hewel
far
eofthe
societyasawhol e.

Sincestat
eprotectsandenf or
cesr ight
s,italsobecomest hedutyofal
lciti
zenstobeloyalt
o
thestat
e.Iti
stheirdutytoobeyt helawsoft hestat
eandt opaytaxeshonestl
y.Ci
ti
zensshoul
d
alwaysbereadytodef endthestate.Thusaci ti
zenhasbothRight
sandDut i
es.Heenjoysr
ight
s
andperfor
mshi sduties.Ri
ghtsandDut iesarethetwosidesofthesamecoin.

49
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Uni
t9:Const
it
uti
onalHi
stor
yofNepal

9.
1Meani
ngandDef
ini
ti
onofConst
it
uti
on
Thewor dconst i
tuti
oni sderiv
edf rom Lat i
nwor d'Const i
tuter'whichmeanst oest abli
sh.I
tis
thelegalor deroft hest at
eandpr ovidespowert ot hegov ernmentaswel lascont roli
t.I
tis
knownasf undament allaw ofthel andandal sot hesupr emel aw asallthelawsar eguided
thr
oughi t
.Iti sadocumentt hatrecor dsf undament alpri
ncipleaccor di
ngtowhi chacount r
yis
guided.I
tdet erminest hepoli
ti
calorgani zati
onoft hestateandsaf eguardt
herightofthepeople
andr emindspeopl ef orthei
rduties.I tdet erminest her elationbetweenindividualandstart
.
Constit
uti
oni smai nlyaPubl i
claw.I ti
snecessar yforfreshst artli
keUSA,Nepal, Fr
anceetc.As
i
tisamot herofalllawsasal ll
awsgetv ali
dityfrom const i
tution.

Art
icl
e1oft heconsti
tuti
onofNepalst atesthat,thi
sconsti
tut
ionisthefundamentall
aw of
Nepal.Anylawsinconsistentwi t
ht hisconsti
tuti
on shal
lbev oid.Ei
therwr i
tt
enornot,it
descri
besformsofgov ernment ,system ofgov er
nment.Itisapol i
ti
callegaldocument
.It
di
videspowerbet
weenstate( r
uler)andsubject
s(rul
ed).

Consti
tut
ionisthedocumentofthepeopl
e'
sfai
thandaspi
rati
ons.Vali
dit
yoftheconsti
tut
ioni
s
thepol
iti
calquest
ionbecausei
tsval
idi
tyi
sbasedonthepoli
ti
calreal
i
tyofthecountr
y.Therei
s
aspecialpr
ocedureforamendmentofi
t.

Accor
dingt
oAr
ist
otl
e-Const
it
uti
oni
sthewayofl
i
fe,
thest
atehaschosenf
ori
tsel
f.

Accordi
ngtoLor
dBr
yce-Const
it
uti
oni
stheaggr
egat
eofl
awsandcust
om underwhi
cht
hel
i
fe
ofstat
egoeson.

Accordi
ngtoA. V.Dicey-Al
lrul
eswhi
chdir
ectl
yorindi
rect
lyaf
fectt
hedi
str
ibut
ionoft
he
sover
eignpowerint
hestat
emakeupt
heconst
it
uti
onofst
ate.

Toconcl
ude,i
nbr oadersense,Const
it
uti
onisthecoll
ect
ionofalll
egalandnon-l
egalrul
es(
acts,
rul
es,cour
tdeci si
ons,customs,usages,pr act
ices,under
standi
ng).Buti n narr
ow sense,
documentofconsti
tuti
onhav i
ngpart
,art
icl
esandschedulesi
sregardedasconstit
uti
on.

9.
2Whyconst
it
uti
oni
scal
ledt
hef
undament
all
awoft
hel
and?
Consti
tuti
onisthepr imar
ysour ceoflaw.Itiscall
edf undamentall
aw ofthel andbecauseall
l
aw mustbeconst it
uentwithitother
wisedeclaredv oid.Other
slaw der
ivedt hei
rvali
dit
yand
l
egiti
macyf r
om t heconsti
tuti
on.Consti
tuti
onisalsocal ledmotherofal
ll aw becausealll
aw
musthav ebeenmadeaccor di
ngtoconst i
tut
ionandi ftheyarenotmadeasperpr ovi
sionsset
i
nt heconstit
uti
ont henthoselawsarenotr ecognisedasl aw.Theref
oret hoselawsmustbe
undertheprovi
sionofconstit
uti
on.

Constit
uti
onofNepalhasdeclaredconsti
tuti
onasf undamentallaw oft
heland.Accordi
ngto
Arti
cle1(1)thi
sConsti
tut
ioni
st hefundamentallawofthelandandanyl aw i
nconsi
stentwi
th
theconstit
uti
onshal
l,
totheextentofsuchinconsist
ency,
bev oi
d.Itmeansofanylawi smade

50
LawSchol
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butnotmeett
heconsti
tut
ionalnor
msandv aluesthenthatl
aw maybedecl
aredv
oid.Sol
aw
mustbemadeaccor
dingtotheconsti
tut
ionalprov
isi
ons.

Constit
uti
onguarant
eethefundamentalri
ghtsofpeopl
esoitisal
socal
ledf
undament
all
awof
theland.Fundament
alri
ght
sar ebasi
cr i
ghtsanditi
snecessar
ycondi
ti
onsfort
hewel
far
eand
properdevel
opmentofhumanbeings.

Fundamentalrightsli
mitst hegov er
nmentpowert owardsit
sci
tizens.Sociti
zensar esafefrom
governmentalunnecessar yi nter
fer
encesandt hei
rsfundamentalright
slikerighttofreedom,
j
usticeanddignityisprotect edbytheconsti
tut
ionfr
om beingvi
olatedbythegov ernmentandi f
governmentv i
olat
es t hen peopl e can go Supreme Courtf orr emedies.Thi s prevent
s
governmentfrom viol
atingf undamentalr
ight
s.

Legislati
oni sthesupr emel awmaki ngbodyandnoot hersauthori
ti
escanquestionaboutlaws
madebyl egisl
ature.Ithasf ul
lpoweroflaw makingandi tcancanceloldlaw,modi fycur
rent
l
aw andmakenew l aw.Butl egi
slat
urealsocannotmakel aw beyondthepr ovi
sionoft he
constitut
ionandi flegislaturemakesl awbutnotmeetst heproceduresofl
awmaki ngdescri
bed
bytheconst it
uti
ont hent hatlaw doesnotgetv ali
dit
yandcour tcandeclar
et hatlaw void
thr
oughj udicialreview.Ther efor
e,legi
slat
urebeing t
hesupr emepoweroft henat i
onbut
l
egislaturemustal sof ollowt heprocessandprov
isi
onofconst it
uti
ontomakeal aw.

Simi l
arl
y,SupremeCour thaspowerofj udicialrev
iewandt hepowerofjudicialr
evi
ewhasbeen
gi
v ent otheSupremeCour tbyt heconsti
tution.Thepower, duti
esandfuncti
onsofgov er
nment
anddi r
ecti
vepr inci
plesofst at earedef i
nedbyconst it
ution.Thestructureofgov er
nment
system isalsodet er
mi nedbyt heconstit
ution.Consti
tut
iondet er
minesthepower ,
functi
onand
dutiesofgov ernment.Sot hatconsti
tut
ionist hefundamental l
awoftheland.

9.
3Const
it
uti
onalHi
stor
yofNepal

TheGov er
nmentofNepalAct2004B. C(1948)
During,theconst i
tut
ionaldev
elopmentofNepal ,thegov ernmentofNepalAct2004B. Sisthe
fi
rstandhistori
caldocumentofNepal .Thisconstit
uti
onhad68ar ti
clesand6schedul es.Dueto
thev ar
iousfactorsthisconsti
tut
ionnev erisenf
orceorcamei nt
oexi stenceast hel
awoft he
stat
e.Though, oneshoul dnotforgetthatthi
sisthefirstwritt
enandhi stori
caldocumentofthe
stat
e.Thegov ernmentofNepalAct2004B. Swasdecl aredbyt heShr eeIIIPadmaShamsher
JBR.ThePadmaShamsherJBRhi mselfwastheincit
erorpr omoterofthisconstit
uti
on.

TheNepalInteri
m Gov ernmentAct2007
TheInt
eri
m Gov ernmentofNepalAct2007waspr omulgatedaftertheRevol
uti
onof2007att
he
end oftheRanaper iod.Thisconsti
tuti
on waspromulgat ed on Chai
tr
a30,2007 byKing
Tri
bhuwan.Itconsist
edof7par t
s,73arti
clesand3schedules.

TheConst
it
uti
onoft
heKingdom ofNepal,2015
I
n 2015,par
li
ament
aryelect
ionswere conducted byki
ng Mahendr
a Bi
rBi
kram Shah.He

51
LawSchol
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establi
shedanotherconsti
tut
ionjustbeforet
heelect
ions.Thi
sconstit
uti
onhad10parts77
art
iclesand3schedul es.Thi
sconst i
tut
ionwaspromulgatedonFalgun1st2015BS.Inthi
s
const i
tut
ion,
ther
ewaspr ovi
sionoffundament
alr
ight
sandemer gencypowerwasvest
edi
nthe
ki
ngbyt heconst
it
uti
oninarti
cle55.

Constit
uti
onofNepal2019B. S
The consti
tut
ion ofNepal2019 B. Si st he fourth consti
tut
ion dur
ing the consti
tuti
onal
devel
opmenti nNepal .Thisconstitut
iondeclar
edandenact edbyt hethenKi ngMahendr aon
Poush1st2019B. S.Duet othevar
iouspoli
ti
caldiff
erenceswi t
hinanamongt hepolit
icalpart
ies
aswel lastheadv er
secondi t
ioni
nt hestatetheKi ngMahendr atookov erthesystem ort he
l
eadershipofthegov ernmenti nhi
sownhandi nPoush1st2017B. S.andconst i
tut
edacabi net
forhissupport.TheKi ngal soestabli
shedthePar tylessPanchay atSyst
em i nwhichnoany
part
yar egi
ventoparticipate.

Consti
tut
ionofKi ngdom ofNepal2047BS
Thisconsti
tuti
onwaspr omul gatedon23thKart
ik2047BSbyKi ngBir
endraBirBikram Shah.
TheConstituti
onoft heKingdom ofNepal,1990lif
tedthebanonpoli
ti
calparti
es,descri
beda
democrati
cr epresent
ati
vesy stem wheret
heauthori
tyoftheki
ngwascurtai
led,andenshrined
fundamentalri
ghts.Thisconst i
tuti
onwaspromul
gatedon9November1990byKi ngBirendra.

Int
eri
m Consti
tut
ionofNepal2063BS
Withthepromulgati
onofinter
im const
itut
ion2063,webecamesecul arandr epubli
cst ate.
Againfol
l
owingthe2063democracymov ementinNepal
,Int
eri
m Consti
tut
ionwaspr omulgated
i
n2063.Thisconstit
uti
onwaspromulgatedon11Baishakh2063.Itconsi
stedof25par ts,167
art
icl
esand4schedules.

Constit
utionofNepal2072BS
Constit
uti
onofNepal2072i sthepresentgover
ningConsti
tuti
onofNepal .Nepalisgov er ned
accordi
ngt otheConstit
utionwhichcamei ntoeff
ectonAshoj32072BS,r epl
aci
ngt heInt eri
m
Constit
uti
onof2063.Theconst it
uti
onofNepali sdivi
dedi nt
o35par t
s,308Ar t
iclesand9
Schedules.Thisconst
it
utionisfir
stconsti
tut
ionofNepali
ssuedbyConst it
uentAssembly .Af t
er
promulgation ofConstit
ution ofNepal ,Const
it
uti
on Assembl y conv
erted i
nto Legislature
Parl
iament .

Feat
uresofConst
it
uti
onofNepal2072

 I
test abl
i
shes Nepalas secul
arand f
eder
aldemocr
ati
crepubl
i
c wi
th bi
camer
al
par
li
ament.

 Sov
erei
gnt
ypowerv
est
edi
ntoNepal
eseci
ti
zens

 Secul
arst
ate

 13Const
it
uti
onal
Bodi
es

52
LawSchol
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 3levelofgov
ernmenti
.e.f
eder
algov
ernment
,st
ate gov
ernmentand l
ocall
evel
gov
ernment

 Judi
cial
Commi
tt
eei
nLocal
Lev
elGov
ernment

 Count
ryhasbeenspl
i
tinsev
enf
eder
alpr
ovi
nces.

 Execut
iver
ight
sar
evest
edi
nCounci
lofMi
nist
ersheadedbyPr
imeMi
nist
er.

 ThePr
esi
denti
scer
emoni
alhead.

 I
test
abl
i
shesi
ndependentj
udi
ciar
yandpr
essf
reedom.

 I
test
abl
i
shescompet
it
ivemul
ti
-par
tydemocr
ati
csy
stem wi
thper
iodi
cel
ect
ions.

9.
4Ki
ndsofConst
it
uti
on

1.Unitar
yandFeder alConstituti
on
Unit
aryConst it
uti
on:Gener al
ly,in unit
arystate allsov er
eign poweri svested on central
governmentandi nf ederalgovernmentsov erei
gnpoweri sdi vi
dedamongdi f
fer
entlevelsof
government.Souni taryconst i
tut
ionv eststhesov erei
gnpowert ocentralgovernment.This
consti
tuti
onletcent
ralgov er
nmentt oexer ci
seallpower .Uni
taryconst
it
utionpromotesuniform
poli
cyalloverthenat ionandl awsar esamei nev erynookandcor neroft hestate.Unitary
consti
tuti
onmakesast rongcent r
algovernmentandi tissuit
ableforsmallandunderdeveloped
countri
es.

FederalConst it
uti
on:Thi s constit
uti
on v ests sover
eign poweri nt he hands ofdifferent
governmentlikecentral
,provinci
alandl ocal.Thereisthedivisi
onofpoweramongt hedi
fferent
governments.Thisconstit
utionletdif
ferentt ypesofpoli
ciesinasamecount rybywhichlawsi n
asamecount rymaybedi f
ferent.Federalconst it
uti
onpromot estheeffi
ciencyinadmini
strati
on.
Asf ederalconsti
tut
iondiv i
dest hepower s,whent hepower sar econtradi
cteditmayr esul
t
mutual conf
li
ct.Theremaybenegat i
vecompet i
ti
onamongdi f f
erentst
ates.

2.Par l
iamentaryandPr esidenti
alConstituti
on
Parl
iament aryconst i
tution:Parli
amentaryconstit
uti
ondisti
nguishesbetweenheadofstateand
headofgov er
nment .Headoft hegov ernmentisPM andheadoft hest at
ei spresident.
Ministersaret hememberoft hepar li
amentand maj or
it
yhol derofpar l
iamentcan f or
m
government .Thisconst i
tutiondoesn'
tpr operl
yfoll
owt hepri
ncipl
eofseparati
onofpower .Itlet
l
egislatur
et odismi ssgov ernmentbyv ot eofnoconf i
dence.General
lystat
uesarepreparedby
governmentbecausegov ernmentfor
mi ngpar t
yholdsmaj ori
tyinparl
iament.Thi
sconstituti
on
mayr esulttopolit
icalinstabil
it
y.

Presi
dent
ialconst
itut
ion:Thisconst i
tut
ionstat
esheadofthestat
eandheadofthegover
nment
assamei .
e.presi
dent.Presidentisn'
telect
edbyparli
amentbutitisdi
rect
lyel
ect
edbypeople.
Presi
dent
ialconst
it
utionallowst hemember sofparl
iamenttoprepar
ebill
sthemsel
ves.This

53
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consti
tuti
onstri
ckingf ol
low t
hepr incipl
eofseper at
ionofpower.Voteofnoconf i
dencemay
di
ssolvethegovernment .Generall
ymi nist
ersaren'
tthemember sofparl
iamentbywhichexpert
become t he ministers.This const i
tuti
on helps forpoli
ti
calstabil
i
ty.A presi
dentf orm
governmentaccordingt ohis\
herwi sh.Presi
dentneedn'tt
ober esponsi
bletowar
dsparli
ament
butitshouldbetowar dsgeneralpeople.

3.Wr it
tenandUnwr itt
enConst it
uti
on
Wr it
ten Constit
uti
on:A wr i
tt
enconst it
utionissingle,f or
maldocumentt hatdescr i
besthe
arrangementofgov ernancei nacount ry.Iti
sf r
amedi nasy st
emat i
cmanner ,usual l
ybya
representati
vebodycal ledt heconsti
tuentassembl yaftermanydel i
berati
onsanddi scussi
ons
andt hereforeisal
soknownascodi f
iedConst i
tuti
onorenact edConstituti
on.Italsospecifi
es
thedat eofi tsenactment .A writ
tenconst it
uti
oni sgener al
lyrigidinnat ure,i.
e.,adef i
ned
procedurewhi chisdifferentfrom t
hepr ocedureofmaki nganor dinar
yl egi
slati
oni slai
ddown
toamendi t,
examplesar e–USConst itut
ionandNepal Constit
uti
on

Unwr itt
enConst i
tuti
on:Anunwr it
tenConst i
tutionisnotwr i
tteni nasi ngledocument.Itis
deri
vedf rom anumberofsour cest hatar
epar twr i
tt
enandpar tunwr it
ten,i
ncludi
ngconv
entions,
tr
aditions,cust oms,ActsofPar l
i
amentandt hecommonl aw,andhencei sal
socalleda
cumul ati
veConst i
tut
ion.I
tevolvesov eraper i
odoft i
meandt hereforeisalsoknownasan
evolvedConst itut
ion.Anunwrit
tenconst i
tut
ioni susuall
yflexibl
ei nnat ur
east heamendment
procedur eissi mpleandusuallythereisnodi fferencebetweent hepr ocedureofmakingan
ordi
nar yl egi
slati
on and the procedure ofamendi ng t
he Const i
tuti
on,example – Br i
ti
sh
Const i
tuti
on.

4.FlexibleandRi gidConstituti
on
Flexibl
eConst i
tuti
on:Af l
exibl
eorel asticconst i
tuti
oncanbeeasi l
yamended.Fort histype,
const i
tutionallaw canbeamendedi nt hesamewayasor dinarylaw.I
thasabi l
itytochange
quicklyinaccor dancewi thchangesi nt hesoci alandpoli
ticalenvir
onmentoft hesociet
yandt he
state.Itishel pfuli
nmeet i
ngemer genciessi nceitcanbeeasi l
yamended.Iti sdynamic;hence
thereisl essoppor tuni
tyforr evolt
.Thisi salsobecauseofi tsabili
tytokeeppacewi thchanging
ti
mes.I tkeepsondev elopingwi thti
me; hence, i
tisuptodat eandpopul ar
.Ithasdisadv ant
age
also.Iti sasour ceofi nstabil
i
t y
.Thisi sbecauset hegov ernmenti npowercanusei tforit
s
benef i
t.Itisunsui t
ableforaf ederati
on.Thi si sbecauseitcanl eadtoundesiredchangesbyt he
federal governmentorgov ernment soff ederatingunit
s.

Rigidconst i
tuti
on:Thi si
st hekindofconsti
tutiont hatcannotbeeasi lyamended.Itisamended
byapar t
icularprocedurerequiri
ngthepassingoft heamendmentpr oposalbyabigmaj ori
tyof
votesfollowedbyr ati
fi
cationbythepeopleinar ef
erendum.Ther ear evari
ousadvantagesofa
ri
gidconst ituti
onasi tisasour ceofst abil
ityi nadmi nistr
ati
on.I tmaintai
nscont i
nuityin
admi ni
strati
on.Itcannotbecomeat oolinthehandsoft hepar tyexercisi
ngthestate'
spowerat
apar ti
culartime.Itpreventstheautocrat
icexer ciseofpower sbyt hegov er
nment.Itisi
dealfor
af ederati
on.Ast herearev ari
ousdisadvantagesofar igidconstituti
onwher eitdoesn'tkeep
pacewi t
ht hefast -
changingsocialenvir
onment .Ithinderst heprocessofsoci aldevel
opment

54
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becauseofitsinabi
l
ityt
ochangeeasi
l
y.Itisasour
ceofhindranceduri
ngemer
genci
es.I
ts
i
nabil
it
yt ochangeeasil
ycanleadt
orevolt
sagai
nstthegover
nment.Itcanbeasourceof
conserv
ati
veness.

5.Republ i
canandMonar chicalConsti
tution
Republ i
canConst it
ution:Thoseconst i
tutionwhomakesapr ov i
sionf orthepresi
denttobea
headoft hest at
eareknownasRepubl icanConst ituti
on.Presidenti snomi nat
edheadandi s
el
ectedbyt hepeople.Ther eisclearpr ovisi
ont odel i
gatethepowerandaut hori
tytot he
presidentint heconstit
ution.Republi
canConst i
tut
ionisasy stem ofl aw andgov ernmentthat
embr acet hebasicfeaturesofr epubl
icant heor
y.Republicanlegalsy stem arewhichsystem of
l
aw andj usticethatser vet hecommongoodoft hepeoplebest .Theconst it
uti
onofUSA,
Pakistan,IndiaandGer manyet caretheexampl eofr epubli
canconst i
tution.

MonarchicalConst i
tuti
on:Monar chicalConsti
tution isaf or
m ofgov er
nmenti n whi
ch a
monarchact sasheadoft hest atewi thint
heguidelinesofaconst it
uti
on,whet
herit'
sawr i
tten
orunwr i
tten.Thisf or
m ofgov ernmenti sdi f
ferentf rom absolutemonarchy.An absolute
monarchser vesasthesour ceofpoweri nthestateandi snotlegall
yboundbytheconstit
ution
andanyl aw.Const it
uti
onalmonar chy '
spoweri slimi t
edbyt heconstit
uti
onandki ngisnot
abovethel awandt hekingmustal soactunderl aw.Theconst i
tuti
onofBhutan,Japan,Saudi
Arabi
a,Nor t
hernIr
elandetc.aretheexampl eofconst ituti
onal
monar chy.

55
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Uni
t10:Fundament
alRi
ght
s

10.
1Meani
ngofFundament
alRi
ght
s
Fundament alRightsareagr oupofrightsthathavebeenr ecognizedbythesupr emecourtas
requir
ingahighdegr eeofprotect
ionfrom gover
nmentencr oachment.Theser
ightsarespecial
l
y
guaranteed underconstit
ution ofthe country.Anyf undament alri
ghtsare notsubjectof
suspensioninanycasebutsomef undament alri
ghtsaresubj ectofsuspensionincaseof
seri
ousemer gencysit
uati
on.TheConst i
tut
ionofNepalhasguar anteed31fundamentalright
s
forthepeopleofNepal underPart3oft heconsti
tut
ion.

10.
2Di
ff
erencesBet
weenFundament
alRi
ght
sandLegalRi
ght
s
Fundamentalr
ightsarebasichumanri
ghtsguarant
eedunderconsti
tut
ionwhichi
sessent
ialf
or
physi
cal,mentalandpsy chol
ogi
caldevel
opmentandl i
vef r
eel
yi nsociet
y.LegalRi
ght
sar e
thoser
ightswhicharedescri
bedinact
s/st
atut
esmadebyt heparl
iament.

Thedif
fer
encesbet
weenf
undament
alr
ight
sandl
egalr
ight
sar
eshownwi
tht
hehel
poff
oll
ow
tabl
e:

Fundament
alRi
ght
s LegalRi
ght
s

1.Fundament
alRight
sarebasi
chumanr
ight
s 1.LegalRi
ghtsar
et hoser
ightsdescr
ibedby
guarant
eedbytheconst
it
uti
on. the Acts and Statues enact
ed by t he
parl
i
ament.

2.Aper soncangoSupremeCourti
ncaseof 2.Aper
soncannotgodi
rectl
ySupremeCour
t
vi
olat
ionofhis/
herf
undament
alr
ight
s. i
ncaseofv
iol
ati
onofl
egalri
ghts.

3.Fundament
alRi
ght
sar
ebasi
chumanr
ight
s. 3.LegalRi
ght
smayormaynotbehuman
ri
ght
s.

4.Fundament alRight
s ar
e notsubj
ectt
o 4.LegalRi
ghtsaresubj
ectt
osuspendev
eni
n
suspendexceptst
ateofemergency
. normalsi
tuat
ion.

5.FundamentalRight
sareonlythoser
ight
s 5.LegalRight
sareallthoseright
swhi
chare
which ar
e descri
bed as f
undament
alr
ight
s descr
ibed in the consti
tut
ion or i
n the
underconst
it
uti
on. Acts/
stat
ues.

6.Fundament alRi ghts ar

e prot
ected and 6.Thel
egalri
ghtsar
epr ot
ectedbyanordi
nar
y
Guaranteed by t he Constit
uti
on and they l
aw,buttheycanbeal t
eredortakenawaybe
cannotbe t aken away by an ordinar
yl aw thel
egi
slat
urebychangi
ngt hatl
aw.
enactedbythel egi
slatur
e.

7. Fundamental Right
s do not hav
e 7.LegalRi
ghtsmayhavecor
respondi
ngdut
ies
cor
respondi
ngdut
iesf
orcit
izens. forci
ti
zenstowar
dsother
s.

56
LawSchol
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8.Apersonhasnott
oful
l
fil
anydut
iest
oenj
oy 8.Apersonhast
oful
fi
llsomedut
iest
oenj
oy
fundament
alri
ght
s. l
egal
rights.

9.FundamentalRight
s ar
ev ested ri
ghtsin 9.LegalRi
ghtsmaybecont i
ngenti
nnat ur
e
natur
ewher eapersonhasnott ofulf
il
lany where a person may have ful
fi
ll some
condi
tiont
oenjoyf
undamental
rights. condi
ti
ontoenj
oysuchr
ight
s.

10.Exampl
e;Ri
ght t
o Fr
eedom,Ri
ght t
o 10.Exampl
e;Ri
ghtt
ocast
evot
e,
Just
ice

12.
3Fundament
alRi
ght
sunderConst
it
uti
on

Par
t3:Fundament
alRi
ght
sandDut
ies

16.Ri
ghtt
oli
vewi
thdi
gni
ty:
(1)Ev
eryper
sonshal
lhav
ether
ightt
oli
vewi
thdi
gni
ty.

(
2)Nol
awshal
lbemadepr
ovi
dingf
ort
hedeat
hpenal
tyt
oanyone.

17.Ri
ghttofr
eedom:(1)Noper
sonshal
lbedepr
ivedofhi
sorherper
sonall
i
ber
tyexcepti
n
accor
dancewi
thlaw.

(
2)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ethef
oll
owi
ngf
reedoms:

(
a)f
reedom ofopi
nionandexpr
essi
on,

(
b)f
reedom t
oassembl
epeaceabl
yandwi
thoutar
ms,

(
c)f
reedom t
ofor
m pol
i
tical
par
ti
es,

(
d)f
reedom t
ofor
m uni
onsandassoci
ati
ons,

(
e)f
reedom t
omov
eandr
esi
dei
nanypar
tofNepal
,

(
f)fr
eedom topract
iceanyprof
essi
on,car
ryonanyoccupat
ion,andest
abl
i
shandoper
ateany
i
ndustr
y,t
radeandbusinessi
nanypartofNepal
.

Pr
ovi
dedt
hat
:

(1)Not hi
nginsub- cl
ause(a)shallbedeemedt opreventthemaki ngofanActt oimpose
reasonablerest
ri
cti
onsonanyactwhi chmayunder mi
net hesov er
eignt
y,terr
it
ori
alintegri
ty,
nati
onalit
yandindependenceofNepalortheharmoni
ousrel
ationsbetweentheFederalUnitsor
thepeopleofv ar
iouscastes,t
ri
bes,r
eli
gionsorcommuniti
esorr el
ati
onsbetweent heFederal
Unitsoranyactwhi chmaybecont rar
yt opubli
cheal
th,decencyormor ali
tyofthegener al
publi
cort oconferont heStat
etheexclusi
veri
ghttoundert
akeanyspeci f
icindust
ry,tr
adeor

57
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

serv
ice,orto pr
escr
ibe anycondit
ion orqual
i
ficat
ion f
orcar
ryi
ng on anyi
ndust
ry,t
rade,
occupati
on,
employmentorbusi
ness.

18.Ri
ghttoequal
it
y :(
1)Al
lci
ti
zensshal
lbeequalbef
orel
aw.Noper
sonshal
lbedeni
edt
he
equal
prot
ect
ionoflaw.

(2)Nodiscri
minationshallbemadei ntheappl
icat
ionofgenerallawsongr oundsofor i
gin,
rel
igi
on,
race,caste,t
ri
be,sex,
physi
calcondi
ti
on,
conditi
onofhealt
h, mari
talst
atus,
pregnancy,
economiccondit
ion,l
anguageorr
egion,i
deol
ogyoronsimil
arot
hergr ounds.

(3)TheStat
eshallnotdiscr
imi
nateci
ti
zensongroundsofori
gin,
rel
igi
on,r
ace,
cast
e,t
ri
be,
sex,
economiccondi
ti
on,language,
regi
on,
ideol
ogyoronsimil
arot
hergrounds.

Provi
dedt hatnothingshal lbedeemedt opr eventt hemaki ngofspeci alprovi
sionsbyl aw for
theprotecti
on,empower mentordev el
opmentoft heci ti
zensincl udi
ngt hesociall
yorcul tur
ally
backwardwomen,Dal i
t,indigenouspeopl
e,i ndigenousnat ionaliti
es,Madhesi ,Thar u,Musl i
m,
oppressedclass,Pichhadacl ass,mi
nori
ti
es,themar ginal
ized,farmer s,labours,youths,chil
dren,
seni
orci t
izens,genderandsexualmi nori
ti
es,per sonswi t
hdi sabili
ties,personsi npregnancy ,
i
ncapacitatedorhelpless,backwardregi
onandi ndigentKhasAr ya.

Explanat
ion:Fort
hepur posesofthisPartandPart4,"i
ndigent"meansaper sonwhoear
ns
i
ncomel essthanthatspecif
iedbytheFederall
aw.(
4)Nodi scri
minati
onshal
lbemadeonthe
groundofgenderwithr
egardt or
emunerat
ionandsoci
alsecuri
tyforthesamewor k.

(5)All
off
spri
ngshal
lhav
etheequal
rightt
otheancest
ral
proper
tywi
thoutdi
scr
imi
nat
ionont
he
groundofgender
.

19.Rightt
ocommunicati
on:(1)Nopubli
cati
onandbr oadcast
ingordisseminati
onorpr i
nti
ngof
anynewsi t
em,
edit
ori
al,f
eaturear
ti
cleorotherr
eading,audi
oandaudi o-
visualmater
ialthr
ough
anymeanswhat soeverincl
udingelect
roni
cpublicati
on,broadcast
ingandpr i
nti
ngshal lbe
censored.

Providedthatnothingshal lbedeemedt opr eventt

hemaki ngofAct stoimposer easonable
restr
icti
onsonanyactwhi chmayunder minet hesovereignt
y,t
err
it
ori
alint
egri
ty,nati
onali
tyof
Nepalort heharmoni ousr elat
ionsbet weent heFeder alUnit
sort heharmoni ousrelat
ions
betweenv ariouscastes,tri
bes,reli
gionsorcommuni t
ies,oronanyactoft r
eason,defamation
orcont emptofcourtori ncit
ementt oanof fence,oronanyactwhichmaybecont rar
ytopubl i
c
decencyormor al
it
y,onanyactofhat r
edt olabourandonanyactofi nci
tementtocaste-based
untouchabili
tyaswellasgenderdi scriminati
on.

(2)Nor adio,t
elevi
sion,on-
li
neorot herform ofdigit
alorel ect
roni
cequipment ,pressorot her
meansofcommuni cati
onpubli
shing,broadcasti
ngorpr inti
nganynewsi tem,feat ur
e,editor
ial
,
art
icl
e,informati
onorot hermateri
alshallbeclosedorsei zednorshal
lregistr
ationthereofbe
cancel
lednorshal lsuchmat er
ialbesei zedbyt her easonofpubl i
cation,broadcastingor
pri
nti
ngofsuchmat eri
althr
oughanyaudi o,audio-
visualelect
roni
cequipment .Pr ovi
dedt hat

58
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

nothi
ngcontainedinthiscl
auseshal
lbedeemedtoprev
entthemakingofanActtoregul
ate
radi
o,tel
evi
sion,onli
neoranyot herfor
m ofdi
git
alorelect
roni
cequi
pment
,pressorother
meansofcommuni cation.

(3)Nomeansofcommuni cat
ionincl
udi
ngthepress,el
ect
roni
cbr
oadcast
ingandt
elephone
shal
lbei
nter
rupt
edexcepti
naccor
dancewit
hlaw.

20.Right
srelat
ingtojust
ice:(
1)Nopersonshal
lbedet
ainedi
ncust
odywi
thouti
nfor
minghi
m
orherofthegroundforhi
sorherar
rest
.

(2)Anypersonwhoisarr
est
edshallhavetheri
ghtt
oconsultalegalpr
actit
ionerofhisorher
choi
cef r
om theti
meofsuch ar restand t
o bedefended bysuch legalpracti
ti
oner.Any
consul
tat
ionmadebysuchpersonwit
h,andadvi
cegi
venby,hi
sorherlegalpracti
ti
onershal
lbe
confi
dent
ial
.

Pr
ovi
dedt
hiscl
auseshal
lnotappl
ytoaci
ti
zenofanenemyst
ate.

Explanat
ion:Fort
hepurposeoft hi
scl ause,"
legalpract
it
ioner
"meansanyper
sonwhoi
s
authori
zedbylawt
orepr
esentanypersoninanycourt.

(3)Anyper sonwhoi sarrestedshallbepr oducedbef oretheadjudi

cati
ngauthori
tywit
hina
periodoftwenty-
fourhoursofsuchar rest
,excludi
ngt heti
menecessaryforthej
ourneyf
rom the
placeofar r
esttosuchaut horit
y;andanysuchper sonshallnotbedetai
nedincustodyexcept
ont heorderofsuchauthorit
y.

Prov
idedt
hatt
hiscl
auseshal
lnotappl
ytoaper
sonhel
dinpr
event
ivedet
ent
ionandt
oaci
ti
zen
ofanenemyst
ate.

(
4)Noper sonshallbel
i
abl
eforpunishmentf
oranactwhichwasnotpuni shablebythel
awin
f
orcewhent heactwascommitt
ednorshallanyper
sonbesubjectedtoapuni shmentgr
eat
er
t
hanthatprescr
ibedbyt
hel
awinforceattheti
meofthecommissionoftheoffence.

(5)Ev er
ypersonchargedwi
thanoffenceshal
lbepr
esumedinnocentunti
lpr
ovedgui
l
tyofthe
offence.(6)Nopersonshal
lbetr
iedandpunishedf
orthesameof fencei
nacourtmorethan
once.

(
7)Noper
sonchar
gedwi
thanof
fenceshal
lbecompel
l
edt
otest
if
yagai
nsthi
msel
forher
sel
f.

(
8)Ev
eryper
sonshal
lhav
ether
ightt
obei
nfor
medofanypr
oceedi
ngst
akenagai
nsthi
m orher
.

(9)Everypersonshal
lhav
ether
ightt
oaf
airt
ri
albyani
ndependent
,impar
ti
alandcompet
ent
courtorjudi
cial
body.

(
10)Anyi
ndi
gentpar
tyshal
lhav
ether
ightt
ofr
eel
egal
aidi
naccor
dancewi
thl
aw.

21.Ri
ghtofvict
im ofcri
me:(1)Avict
im ofcr
imeshal
lhav
etheri
ghtt
ogeti
nfor
mat
ionabout
thei
nvest
igat
ionandproceedi
ngsofacaseinwhi
chheorshei
sthevi
cti
m.

59
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

(2)A vict
im ofcrime shal
lhavethe r
ightt
ojust
ice i
ncl
udi
ng soci
alr
ehabi
l
itat
ion and
compensati
oninaccor
dancewit
hlaw.

22.Rightagai
nsttor
tur
e:(
1)Nopersonwhoisarrest
edordetai
nedshal
lbesubj
ect
edt
o
physi
calormental
tor
tur
eort
ocr
uel
,i
nhumanordegr
adingt
reat
ment.

(2)Anyactmenti
onedincl
ause(
1)shal
lbepuni
shabl
ebylaw,
andanypersonwhoist
hev
ict
im
ofsuchtr
eatmentshal
lhav
etheri
ghtt
oobtai
ncompensat
ioni
naccor
dancewit
hlaw.

23.Rightagainstpr
eventivedetent
ion:(1)Noper sonshal
lbehel
dunderprevent
ivedet
ention
unl
esst hereisasuffi
cientgroundoft heexist
enceofanimmediatet
hreatt
ot hesover
eignty
,
ter
ri
tori
alint
egri
tyorpubli
cpeaceandor derofNepal.

(
2)I
nfor
mationaboutt
hesit
uat
ionofapersonwhoishel
dunderpr
event
ivedet
enti
onpur
suant
t
ocl
ause(1)mustbegiveni
mmediat
elyt
ohisorherf
amil
ymembersorrel
ati
ves.

Pr
ovi
dedt
hatt
hiscl
auseshal
lnotappl
ytoaci
ti
zenofanenemyst
ate.

(3)Iftheauthor
it
ymakingpreventi
vedetent
ionholdsanypersonunderprevent
ivedet
ention
contr
arytolaworinbadfai
th,t
hepersonheldunderpr
event
ivedet
enti
onshallhav
et her
ightto
obtai
ncompensationi
naccordancewit
hlaw.

24.Rightagainstuntouchabi
li
tyanddi scri
minati
on:(1)Nopersonshal lbesubj
ect
edtoany
for
m ofunt ouchabil
it
yordiscri
minationi nanyprivat
eandpubli
cpl acesongroundsofhi
sor
ori
gin,cast
e,tr
ibe,community,
profession,occupati
onorphysi
calcondit
ion.

(2)Inproduci
ngordi st
ri
buti
nganygoods,ser vicesorfacil
it
ies,nopersonbelongingtoany
parti
cul
arcast
eort r
ibeshal
lbeprevent
edfrom purchasi
ngoracqui r
ingsuchgoods,ser
vicesor
faci
li
ti
esnorshallsuchgoods,serv
icesorfacil
it
iesbesold,di
stri
butedorprovi
dedonlyt othe
personsbel
ongingtoanypart
icul
arcasteortr
ibe.

(3)Noactpur por t
ingtodemonstrateanyper sonorcommuni t
yassuper i
ororinfer
ioron
groundsoforigi
n, cast
e,tr
ibeorphy
sicalconditi
onorj ustif
yingsocialdi
scri
minati
onongrounds
ofcaste,tri
beorunt ouchabi
li
tyorpropagatingi deologybasedonunt ouchabi
li
tyandcaste
based superior
it
y orhat red orencouraging cast e-based discri
minati
on in any manner
whatsoevershallbeallowed.

(4)Nodi scr
iminati
oninanyf orm shallbeall
owedatawor kpl
acewithorwi t
houtmaking
untouchabi
li
tyont hegroundofcaste.(
5)Anyactofunt ouchabil
it
yanddiscri
minat
ioninany
for
m commi ttedincontrav
enti
onofthisArti
cleshallbepuni
shablebylaw asaseveresocial
off
ence,andt hevi
ctim ofsuchactshal
lhavetherighttoobtaincompensat
ioninaccor
dance
withlaw.

25.Ri
ghtrel
ati
ngtopropert
y:(
1)Ev er
ycit
izenshall
,subj
ecttol
aw,havether
ightt
oacqui
re,
own,sel
l
,dispose,
acquir
ebusinessprof
it
sf r
om, andother
wisedealwit
h,pr
opert
y.

60
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Provi
dedthatt
heStat
emayl ev
ytaxonpropert
yofaperson,
andt
axoni
ncomeofaper
soni
n
accor
dancewitht
heconceptofprogr
essi
vetaxat
ion.

Expl
anati
on:Fort
hepur
posesofthisAr
ti
cle,
"pr
opert
y"meansanyf
orm ofpr
oper
tyi
ncl
udi
ng
movableandimmovabl
eproper
ty,andi
ncl
udesanintel
l
ect
ualpr
oper
tyri
ght.

(2)TheStat
eshal
lnot,exceptforpubl
i
cint
erest
,requisi
ti
on,acqui
re,
orot her
wisecreat
eany
encumbranceon,
propertyofaperson.
Prov
idedthatthiscl
auseshallnotapplytoanyproper
ty
acquir
edbyanypersonil
li
cit
ly.

(3)Thebasi
sofcompensati
ontobepr
ovi
dedandprocedur
est obef ol
l
owedi
nther
equisi
ti
on
bytheStat
eofproper
tyofanyper
sonf
orpubl
i
cint
erestinaccordancewit
hcl
ause(
3)shal
lbe
asprovi
dedfori
ntheAct.

(4)Theprov
isi
onsofcl auses(2)and(3)shal
lnotpreventtheStat
efrom makingl
andr
eforms,
managementand r egulat
ioninaccordancewi thlaw forthepurposesofenhancementof
productand productiv
ity oflands,modernizat
ion and commer ci
ali
zat
ion ofagr
icul
tur
e,
envir
onmentpr
otectionandplannedhousi
ngandur bandevelopment.

(
5)Nothing shal
lpreventtheStatefr
om using t
heproper
tyofanyper
son,whi
ch i
thas
r
equi
sit
ionedforpubli
ci nt
eresti
naccordancewi
thcl
ause(3),f
oranyot
herpubl
i
cint
erest
i
nst
eadofsuchpubli
cinterest.

26.Righttofreedom ofrel
i
gion:(1)Ev erypersonwhohasf ai
thi
nrel
igi
onshallhavethe
fr
eedom topr
ofess,pr
act
iceandprotecthisorherrel
i
gionaccor
dingt
ohi
sorherconvi
cti
on.

(2)Ever
yr el
igi
ousdenomi nationshallhavetheri
ghttooperateandpr ot
ectit
sr eli
gioussites
andreli
giousGuthi(tr
usts).
Provi
dedt hatnot
hingshal
lbedeemedt opr ev
entther egulat
ion,by
making law,oft he operati
on and pr ot
ecti
on ofreli
gious si
tes and r
eli
gious trust
s and
managementoft rustpropert
iesandlands.

(3)Noper sonshall
,intheexerci
seoftheri
ghtconferr
edbythi
sArt
icl
e,do,orcausetobedone,
anyactwhi chmaybecont r
arytopubli
chealt
h,decencyandmoral
i
tyorbreachpubli
cpeace,or
convertanotherpersonfrom onerel
igi
ontoanotheroranyactorconductthatmayjeopar
dize
other
'srel
igion.

27.Ri
ghtt
oinformati
on:Everyci
ti
zenshallhavetheri
ghtt
odemandandr
ecei
vei
nfor
mat
ionon
anymatt
erofhisorherint
erestorofpubl
i
ci nt
erest
.

Prov
ided thatno oneshallbecompelled t
o prov
ideinf
ormat
ion on anymat
terofwhi
ch
conf
ident
iali
tymustbemaintai
nedi
naccordancewit
hlaw.

28.Righttopri
vacy
:Thepri
vacyofanyperson,hi
sorherresi
dence,pr
oper
ty,document
,data,
corr
espondenceandmatt
ersrel
ati
ngtohi
sorherchar
actershal
l,
excepti
naccordancewi
thlaw,
beinvi
olabl
e.

61
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

29.Ri
ghtagai
nstexpl
oit
ati
on:
(1)Ev
eryper
sonshal
lhav
ether
ightagai
nstexpl
oit
ati
on.

(2)Nopersonshallbeexploi
tedinanymanneront
hegr
oundsofr
eli
gion,cust
om,t
radi
ti
on,
usage,
pract
iceoronanyothergrounds.

(
3)Nooneshal
lbesubj
ect
edt
otr
aff
icki
ngnorshal
lonebehel
dinsl
aver
yorser
vit
ude.

(4)Nooneshallbefor
cedt owor
kagai
nsthisorherwil
l
.Prov
idedthatnothi
ngshal
lbedeemed
topreventthemaki
ngofl awempower
ingtheStatetorequi
recit
izenstoperf
orm compul
sor
y
serv
iceforpubl
i
cpurposes.

(
5)Actcontr
aryt
oclauses(3)and(4)shal
lbepuni
shabl
ebyl awandthevi
cti
m shal
lhav
ethe
r
ightt
oobtai
ncompensati
onfrom t
heperpet
rat
ori
naccordancewi
thlaw.

30.Rightt
ocleanenv
ironment
:(1)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ether
ightt
oli
vei
nacl
eanandheal
thy
envi
ronment.

(2)Thev
ict
im shal
lhavet
herighttoobt
aincompensati
on,
inaccor
dancewi
thl
aw,
foranyi
njur
y
causedf
rom envi
ronment
alpoll
uti
onordegradat
ion.

(3)ThisArt
icl
eshal
lnotbedeemedtopr ev
entt
hemaki ngofnecessar
ylegalprovi
sionsf
ora
properbal
ancebet
weentheenvi
ronmentanddev
elopment,i
ndevel
opmentwor ksofthenat
ion.

31.Ri
ghtr
elat
ingt
oeducat
ion:
(1)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ether
ightofaccesst
obasi
ceducat
ion.

(2)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
etherightt
ogetcompulsor
yandfreeeducat
ionupt
othebasi
clev
el
andfr
eeeducat
ionuptot
hesecondaryl
evel
from t
heStat
e.

(3)Theci
ti
zenswithdisabi
l
iti
esandtheeconomical
l
yindi
gentci
ti
zensshal
lhav
ether
ightt
o
getfr
eehi
ghereducat
ioninaccor
dancewi
thlaw.

(4)Thevi
sual
lyimpairedci
ti
zensshal
lhavet
her
ightt
ogetfreeeducat
ionthr
oughbrai
lscr
ipt
andt heci
ti
zenswi t
hhearingorspeakingi
mpair
ment,t
o getfreeeducati
onthr
oughsign
l
anguage,i
naccordancewit
hlaw.

(5)Ever
yNepalesecommunityresi
dinginNepalshallhavetheri
ghttogeteducati
oninits
mothertongueand,f
ort
hatpur
pose,toopenandoperateschool
sandeducat
ionali
nst
it
utes,
in
accor
dancewithlaw.

32.Righttolanguageandcul
tur
e:(
1)Ev
eryper
sonandcommuni
tyshal
lhav
ether
ightt
ouse
thei
rlanguages.

(2)Ev
erypersonandcommuni
tyshal
lhav
ether
ightt
opar
ti
cipat
eint
hecul
tur
all
i
feoft
hei
r
communit
ies.

(
3)EveryNepal
esecommunityresi
dingi
nNepalshal
lhav
ether
ightt
opr
eser
veandpr
omot
eit
s
l
anguage,
scri
pt,
cul
tur
e,cul
turalci
vi
li
zat
ionandher
it
age.

62
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

33.Ri
ghttoemployment
:(1)Everyci
ti
zenshallhav
et heri
ghttoemployment
.Thetermsand
condi
ti
onsofemploy
ment,andunemploymentbenef
itshal
lbeasprov
idedfori
ntheFeder
all
aw.

(
2)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ether
ightt
ochooseempl
oyment
.

34.Ri
ghtt
olabour
:(1)Ev
eryl
abour
ershal
lhav
ether
ightt
opr
act
iceappr
opr
iat
elabour
.

Explanati
on:Forthepurposesoft hi
sAr t
icl
e,"l
abour er"meansal abourerorwor kerwhodoes
physicalormentalworkf oranempl oy
eri nconsi derati
onforremuneration.
(2)Everyl
abourer
shallhavether i
ghttoappr opr
iat
eremuner at
ion,f aci
li
ti
esandcont r
ibutorysoci
alsecurit
y.(
3)
Everylabourershal
lhavet herightt
of orm andj oint r
adeunionsandt oengagei ncol
lecti
ve
bargaini
ng,i
naccordancewi thl
aw.

35.Ri
ghtr
elati
ngtoheal
th:(
1)Ever
ycit
izenshal
lhavet heri
ghttofreebasi
cheal
thser
vices
fr
om t
heState,
andnooneshall
bedepr
ivedofemergencyheal
thserv
ices.

(
2)Ev
eryper
sonshal
lhav
ether
ightt
ogeti
nfor
mat
ionabouthi
sorhermedi
cal
treat
ment
.

(
3)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
eequal
accesst
oheal
thser
vices.

(
4)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ether
ightofaccesst
ocl
eandr
inki
ngwat
erandsani
tat
ion.

36.Ri
ghtr
elat
ingt
ofood:
(1)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ether
ightr
elat
ingt
ofood.

(2)Everyci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ether
ightt
obesaf
efr
om t
hest
ateofbei
ngi
ndangerofl
i
fef
rom t
he
scarci
tyoffood.

(
3)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ether
ightt
ofoodsov
erei
gnt
yinaccor
dancewi
thl
aw.

37.Ri
ghtt
ohousi
ng:
(1)Ev
eryci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ether
ightt
oanappr
opr
iat
ehousi
ng.

(
2)Nociti
zenshallbeevict
edf r
om theresi
denceownedbyhi
m orhernorshal
lhi
sorher
r
esi
dencebei
nfr
ingedexceptinaccor
dancewit
hlaw.

38.Ri
ghtsofwomen:(
1)Ev
erywomanshal
lhav
eequall
i
neager
ightwi
thoutgenderbased
di
scri
minat
ion.

(
2)Ev
erywomanshal
lhav
ether
ightt
osaf
emot
her
hoodandr
epr
oduct
iveheal
th.

(3)Nowomanshal lbesubject
edt ophy si
cal
,ment al,sexual,psychol
ogicalorotherfor
m of
viol
enceorexpl
oit
ationongroundsofr el
i
gion,soci
al,cult
uraltradi
ti
on,practi
ceoronanyot her
grounds.Suchactshallbepuni shabl
ebyl aw,andt hev icti
m shallhav etheri
ghtt oobtain
compensationi
naccordancewithlaw.

(4)Womenshallhavetheri
ghtt
opar
ti
cipat
einal
lbodi
esoft
heSt
ateont
hebasi
soft
he
pri
nci
pleofpr
opor
ti
onal
incl
usi
on.

(
5)Womenshal
lhav
ether
ightt
oobt
ainspeci
aloppor
tuni
tyi
neducat
ion,heal
th,empl
oyment

63
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

andsoci
alsecuri
ty,onthebasisofposi
ti
vedi
scr
imi
nat
ion.
(6)Thespouseshal
lhav
etheequal
ri
ghtt
opropert
yandf amil
yaffai
rs.

39.Ri
ghtsofthechild:(1)Ev
erychi
l
dshal
lhav
ether
ightt
onameandbi
rt
hregi
str
ati
onal
ong
wit
hhisorherident
it
y .

(2)Everychi
ldshal
lhavetherighttoeducati
on,heal
th,mai
ntenance,pr
opercar
e,spor
ts,
enter
tai
nmentandover
all
per
sonali
tydev
elopmentf
rom t
hefami
li
esandt heStat
e.

(
3)Ev
erychi
l
dshal
lhav
ether
ightt
oel
ement
arychi
l
ddev
elopmentandchi
l
dpar
ti
cipat
ion.

(4)No chi
l
dshallbeempl
oyedt
o wor
kinanyf
act
ory
,mi
neorengagedi
nsi
mil
arot
her
hazar
douswor
k.

(
5)Nochi
ldshal
lbesubj
ect
edt
ochi
l
dmar
ri
age,t
ranspor
tedi
l
legal
l
y,abduct
ed/
kidnappedor
t
akeni
nhost
age.

(6)Nochi l
dshal lberecrui
tedorusedinarmy
,poli
ceoranyar
medgr oup,orbesubject
ed,i
nt he
nameofcul tur
alorreligi
oustradi
ti
ons,t
oabuse,excl
usi
onorphysi
cal,mental
,sexualorother
form ofexploit
ationorimproperusebyanymeansorinanymanner.

(7)Nochil
dshallbesubj
ect
edtophysi
cal
,ment
aloranyot
herf
orm oft
ort
urei
nhome,school
orotherpl
aceandsit
uati
onwhat
soev
er.

(
8)Ev
erychi
l
dshal
lhav
ether
ightt
ojuv
eni
l
efr
iendl
yjust
ice.

(9)Thechi
l
dwhoi shel
pless,or
phan,withdisabi
lit
ies,confl
ictvi
cti
m,di
spl
acedorv
ulner
abl
e
shal
lhav
ether
ightt
ospecialpr
otect
ionandfacil
it
iesfrom theStat
e.

(
10)Anyactcontraryt
oinclauses(4),(
5),(
6)and(7)shal
lbepuni
shabl
ebylaw,andachil
d
whoist
hev i
cti
m ofsuchactshallhav
et her
ightt
oobtai
ncompensati
onfr
om theper
pet
rat
or,
i
naccor
dancewithlaw.

40.Right
sofDal i
t:(1)TheDal i
tshal lhav ether ighttopartici
pateinal lbodiesoft heSt ateont he
basisofthepr inci
pl eofpr opor tionalinclusion.Speci alprovisi
onshal lbemadebyl aw f orthe
empower ment,r epresentationandpar ti
cipationoft heDalitcommuni t
yi npubl i
cser v
icesas
wellasot hersect orsofempl oy ment.(2)Pr ovisionoff reeeducat ionwi t
hschol arship,from
pri
mar ytohighereducat ion, shal lbemadebyl awf ortheDalitstudent s.Specialprov i
sionshal l
bemadebyl awf ort heDaliti nt echnicalandv ocat i
onaleducation.
(3)Speci alprovisionshal lbe
madebyl awi nor dert oprov ideheal thandsoci alsecurit
ytot heDal itcommuni ty.
(4)TheDal it
communi tyshal lhav ethe r ightt o use,pr otectand dev elop theirt radit
ionaloccupat ion,
knowledge,skillandt echnol ogy .TheSt ateshal laccordpr i
ori
tyt ot heDal itcommuni t
yi n
moder nbusinessr elat
edwi tht hei
rt raditi
onaloccupat i
onandpr ovideski l
lsandr esources
requi
redtherefor.

(
5)TheSt
ateshal
loncepr
ovi
del
andt
othel
andl
essDal
i
tinaccor
dancewi
thl
aw.
(6)TheSt
ate

64
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

shall
,i
naccordancewithlaw,ar
rangesett
lementfortheDal
itwhodonothavehousing.(7)The
faci
li
ti
esconf
erredbythisArt
icl
etotheDalitcommunitymustbedi
str
ibut
edinajustmannerso
thatt
heDali
twomen, menandDal iti
nall
communi ti
escanobtai
nsuchfaci
li
ti
esproport
ionatel
y.

41.Ri
ghtsofseniorci
ti
zens:Theseni
orci
ti
zensshal
lhav
ether
ightt
ospeci
alpr
otect
ionand
soci
alsecur
it
yfr
om theState.

42.Rightt o soci
alj ust
ice:(1)The social
ly backward women,Dal i
t,indigenous people,
i
ndigenousnat i
onal
it
ies,Madhesi ,Tharu,minori
ti
es,personswi t
h disabil
it
ies,mar gi
nal
ized
communi t
ies,Musli
ms,backwar d cl
asses,genderand sexualmi nori
ti
es,y ouths,far
mer s,
l
abourers,
oppressedorcitizensofbackwardr
egionsandindigentKhasAr yashallhavetheri
ght
topart
ici
pateintheStatebodiesonthebasisofincl
usi
vepr i
nci
ple.

(
2)Theindi
gentci
ti
zensandci ti
zensofthecommuniti
esonthev er
geofext i
nctionshal
lhave
t
heri
ghttogetspecialopport
uniti
esandbenef i
tsi
neducat
ion,heal
th,housing,employment
,
f
oodandsocial
secur
ityfort
heirprot
ect
ion,upl
i
ftment
,empowermentanddev elopment.

(
3)Thecit
izenswit
hdisabi
li
ti
esshallhavetherightt
oli
vewi t
hdigni
tyandhonour
,wi
tht
he
i
dent
it
yofthei
rdi
ver
sit
y,andhaveequalaccesst
opubli
cserv
icesandfaci
l
iti
es.

(4)Everyf ar
mershallhavet
her i
ghttohaveaccesst
olandsf
oragr oacti
vi
ti
es,sel
ectand
prot
ectl ocalseedsand agr
o speci
eswhichhavebeenused and pur
sued t
radi
ti
onal
ly
,in
accordancewi t
hlaw.

(5)Thef amili
esoft hemar tyr
swhohav esacrif
icedt heirli
fe,personswhower ef orcedto
disappear,andt hosewho becamedi sabl
ed andi nj
ured inal lpopularmov ement s,armed
confli
ctsandr evoluti
onst hathavebeencar ri
edoutf orprogressi
v edemocraticchangesi n
Nepal,democr acyf i
ghters,confli
ctvict
imsanddi splacedones,per sonswi t
hdi sabil
it
ies,t
he
i
njuredandv i
cti
msshal lhav etherighttogetapr i
ori
tizedoppor t
unity,wi
thjusticeanddue
respect,
ineducation,health,employment,housi
ngandsoci al
securit
y,inaccor
dancewi t
hlaw.

43.Righttosoci alsecuri
ty:Theindigentcit
izens,i
ncapaci
tat
edandhelplessci
tizens,helpl
ess
si
nglewomen, citi
zenswithdisabil
i
ties,chi
ldren,ci
ti
zenswhocannottakecarethemselvesand
ci
ti
zensbel ongingtot hetr
ibesont hev er
geofext i
ncti
onshallhav
etherightt
osoci alsecuri
ty,
i
naccor dancewi thlaw.

44.Right
soft
heconsumer
:(1)Ev
eryconsumershal
lhav
ether
ightt
oobt
ainqual
i
tygoodsand
ser
vices.

(
2)Apersonwhohassuf fer
edinjur
yf r
om anysubst
andar
dgoodsorser
vicesshal
lhav
ethe
r
ightt
oobt
aincompensat
ioninaccordancewi
thl
aw.

45.Ri
ghtagai
nstexi
l
e:Noci
ti
zenshal
lbeexi
l
ed.

46.Ri
ghtt
oconst
it
uti
onalr
emedi
es:Ther
eshal
lbear
ightt
oobt
ainconst
it
uti
onalr
emedi
esi
n

65
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

themannersetf
ort
hinAr
ti
cle133or144f
ort
heenf
orcementoft
her
ight
sconf
err
edbyt
his
Part
.

47.I
mplementat
ionoff undamentalri
ght
s:TheSt at
eshal
l,asrequi
red,makelegalprovi
sions
forthe i
mplementati
on oft he ri
ghts conf
err
ed by t
his Par
t,withi
nt hr
ee years oft he
commencementoft hi
sConstit
uti
on.

48.Dut
iesofci
ti
zens:
Ever
yci
ti
zenshal
lhav
ethef
oll
owi
ngdut
ies:

(
a)t
osaf
eguar
dthenat
ional
i
ty,
sov
erei
gnt
yandi
ntegr
it
yofNepal
,whi
l
ebei
ngl
oyal
tot
henat
ion,

(
b)t
oabi
debyt
heConst
it
uti
onandl
aw,

(
c)t
orendercompul
sor
yser
viceasandwhent
heSt
atesor
equi
res,

(
d)t
opr
otectandpr
eser
vepubl
i
cpr
oper
ty.

66
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t10:Pr
oper
ty

9.
1Meani
ngofPr
oper
ty

Thet er
m pr oper
tyisderiv
edf rom t
heLatinword' pr
operi
etat
e'andt heFr enchequivalent
'
propri
us'whichmeansat hingowned.Theconceptofproper
tyandowner shipar ev
erycl
osel y
rel
atedtoeachot her
.Theconceptofpr oper
tyoccupiesani mportantplacei nhumanl i
fe
becauseitispracti
cal
lyi
mpossiblet
oliv
ewithoutt
heuseofmat er
ialobj
ectwhi chconst
it
ut es
thesubjectmat t
erofpropert
y.Therecanbenopr opert
ywithoutownershipandowner ship
wit
houtproperty.

Thet er
m Proper tyisnotaTer m ofAr t.I
thasbeenusedi nav ar i
etyofsenses.Initswidest
sense,Proper t
yincl
udesal lthelegalr
ightsofaPer sonofwhat ev erdescr
ipti
on.Thepropertyof
amani sallt hatishisinlaw.I nthenarrowersense, t
hepr oper
tyi ncl
udesthepropri
etaryri
ghts
ofaper sonandnothi sper sonalri
ghts.Propri
etar
yr i
ghtsconst i
tutehisestat
eorpr opert
yand
personalri
ght sconst i
tut
ehi sStatusorper sonalandcondi t
ion.I nanothersense,thet er
m
propert
yincludesonlythoser i
ghtswhicharebothpr opri
etaryandr eal.

InModernTi
mesintel
l
ectualorint
angibl
eproper
tyhasbecomev
eryi
mpor
tant
.Exampl
esof
suchpr
oper
tyandcopy
right
,pat
ent,t
rademar
ketc.

Def
ini
ti
onofProper
ty
Someimpor
tantDef
ini
ti
onsofPr
oper
tyar
easf
oll
ows-

AccordingtoLocke,
"Everymanhasapropert
yinhi
sownper
son.
"ev
eryi
ndi
vi
dualhast
her
ight
t
opr eserv
ehisproper
tythati
shi
sli
fe,
li
bert
yandestat
e."

AccordingtoBent ham " propertyisnot hingmoret hant hebasi

sofscer tainexpectat
ionof
deri
vingthereaft
ercertai
nadv antagesbyat hi
ngt hereasonofther el
ati
oni nwhichwest and
towardsi t
.Ther eisno i mage,no v isibleli
neamentwhi ch can propert
yt her el
ati
on t
hat
constit
utespropert
y.Itbelongsnott ophy sics,
butt ometaphysi
cs.I
tisaltogetheraconcepti
on
ofMind.Toi t,
alloranyoft hesephy si
calci r
cumstancesfail
edtoassisti
nconv eyi
ngtheideaof
propert
y."

AccordingtoAusti
n,thet er
m propertyi
ssomet i
mesusedtodenot et hegreatestri
ghtof
enjoymentknownast olaw excl
udingserv
itudes.Someti
mes,l
if
einterestsaredescribedas
propert
y.Evenservi
tudesaredescribedaspropertyi
nthesensethatthereisal egalti
tl
eto
them.Sometimespropert
ymeanst hewholeoft heasset
sofamani ncludingbothther i
ghti
n
rem andri
ghti
npersonam.

Const
it
uti
onofNepal
,2072(Arti
cle25)
:“proper
ty”meansanyform ofpr
oper
tyi
ncl
udi
ng
movabl
eandi
mmovabl
eproper
ty,
andincl
udesanint
ell
ect
ual
proper
tyr
ight
.

Nat
ionalCi
vi
lCode(
Sect
ion251):Anycash,
goodsorwor
kshal
lbedeemedt
obeapr
oper
tyi
f

67
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

suchcash,goodsoracti
oncanbeusedortransact
edinortheti
tl
et her
etocanbet
ransf
err
ed
bywayofpurchase,
saleorot
her
wiseoranybenefi
tcanbederi
vedtheref
rom.

9.
2Theor
iesofPr
oper
ty
Therear
esever
altheori
esabouttheori
ginoftheProper
ty.Butnoneofthem i
sper f
ect.Each
theor
yhasit
sownmer itsanddemeri
ts.Therearediff
erentopi
nionsanddiff
erenttheori
es
amongthej
uri
stsaboutthedef
ini
ti
onofproper
tywhi
chdiffer
sfrom t
heor
ytotheory

Juri
stshavedi
ff
eredinthei
rviewsregar
dingtheor
igi
nofthepr oper
ty.Manyt
heori
eshavebeen
putforwar
dtoexplai
ntheoriginofpr
opertyandgi
vejust
if
icat
ion.Thef ol
l
owingar
etheori
esof
proper
ty

(1)NaturalLawTheor y
Groti
us,Puf endor
f,LockeandBlackst
onearesupporter
soft hi
sTheory
. Accordi
ngtothe
natur
allawt heory
,proper
tyi
sbasedont hepr
inci
pleofnatur
alr
easonder
ivedf
rom t
henat
ure
ofthi
ngs.

Accordi
ngtoGrot
ius,
allt
hingsor
igi
nall
ywer
ewi
thoutanownerandwhosoev
ercapt
uredt
hem
oroccupi
edthem,
becamet hei
rowners.

Lockesays:"Ev
erymanhasapr oper
tyi
nhi
sownper
son,hehasr
ightt
opr
eser
vehi
spr
oper
ty,
thati
s,hi
sli
fe,l
iber
tyandest
ate.
"

Accor
dingt
oPuf
endor
f,or
igi
nal
l
y,al
lthi
ngsbel
ongedt
othepeopl
easawhol
e.

Cr
it
ici
sm

Thenat ur
allaw theoryofpr oper
tyhasbeencr i
ti
cized bySirHenr
yMai neand Bentham.
Accordi
ngt othem possessi
ondoesnotgi veri
setot it
lenorthepr
opert
yisori
ginatedbythe
fi
rstoccupati
onofonowner l
essthingbutiti
sacr eati
onoflaw.Hedoesnotbel i
eveinthe
exist
enceofpropert
ywithoutt
heexistenceoft
helaw.

2)TheLaborTheor y/Positi
veTheor y
Thel abort heor
yofpr opertyisal sosomet imescal l
edast heposit
ivetheory
.Spencerwas
propounderoft heposi ti
vetheory.Accor dingt othistheory,athing(
res)isthepr opert
yofa
personwhopr oducesitorbri
ngsi tintoexi stence.Howev er,
thelabort
heoryhasbeencr i
ti
cized
byPr ofessorLaskikeyont hegr oundt hatl abordoesnotpr oducetheproperty,itisonlya
meanst oearnproperty.Thi
stheor yhasl ostsi gnif
icanceinmoder nti
mesbecausei thasbeen
shownt hattheremaybemanysi tuationswhenpr opertycanbeacqui r
edwi thoutlabor,for
exampl e,pr
opertyobtai
nedbyi nheritanceorunderawi l
l.

3)TheMetaphysi
calTheor
y
Themetaphysi
caltheor
ywaspr
opoundedbyKantandHegel
.Accor
dingt
oKant
,"At
hingi
s

68
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

r
ight
ful
l
ymi newhenIam soconnect
edwi
thi
tthatany
onewhousesi
twi
thoutmyconsentdoes
meaninjur
y."

Accor
dingt
oHegel
,"pr
oper
tyistheobjecti
vemani
fest
ati
onofthepersonal
it
yofani
ndi
vi
dual
.
I
notherwor
dspr
oper
tyinanobjectonwhichper
sonhasli
ber
tyt
odirecthiswi
ll
.

Kantobser
vedthatlawofproper
tydoesnotmer el
yseektopr
otectpossessi
onwherether
eis
anactualphy
sicalrel
ati
onbetweent hepossessorandtheobject
,butitgoesbeyondand
consi
derst
hepersonalwi
lloft
heindi
vi
dualmoreimport
anti
ntheconceptofthepr
opert
y.

Thistheor
yhasbeencri
ti
cizedont hegr
oundt
hati
tisal
i
ttl
econcer
nedwi
thr
eal
i
tiesandi
s
basedontheor
eti
cal
assumpt i
ons.

4)TheHi storicalTheory
HenryMai newast hemai nsuppor t
erofthehi
stori
calt
heoryoftheor i
ginofproper t
y .According
tothehistoricaltheory,pr
ivateproper
tyhadasl owandst eadygrowth.Ithasgr ownoutoft he
col
lect
ivegr ouporj ointproperty
.Thereweremanyst agesinthegr owthofindividualpr operty.
Thefir
stst agewast hatofnat ur
alpossessi
onwhi chexi
stedindependentl
yoft hel aworst ate.
Thesecondst agewasj urist
icpossessionandt helaststageofdev el
opmentwast hatof
ownership.

5)ThePsy chologicalTheory
The propounderoft histheoryisBent ham.Accor di
ng t othistheor
y,pr oper
tycame i nto
exi
stenceonaccountofacqui si
tivetendencyofhumanbei ngs.Everyi
ndivi
dualdesir
est oown
thi
ngsandt hatbringsint
oexistancepr operty
.Bentham point
edoutthatpropertyi
saltogethera
concepti
onofmi nd.Thereisnoi mage,nov i
sibl
eli
neamentwhi chcanpor t
raytherelat
ionthat
consti
tut
espr operty.I
tbel
ongsnott oPhy sicsbuttomet aphysi
cs.

6)TheSoci ologicalTheory
The soci ologicalt heorywas propounded by Duiguit
,Laski,KarlMarx.Accor
ding t
ot he
SociologicalTheor y,proper
tyshoul
dnotbeconsi deredintermsofpri
vat
eright
sbutshoul
dbe
consideredi nt ermsofsocialfunct
ions.Pr
opert
yisani nst
itut
ionwhi
chsecuresamaximum of
i
nterestandsat i
sfi
esthemaximum ofwant s.

AccordingtoLaski,"
propert
yisasocialf
actl
ikeanyotherandi
tist
hecharact
erofsoci
alf
act
s
toal
ter.Ithasassumedt hemostvar
iedaspectsandi
tiscapabl
eofyetf
urt
herchanges.

Accor
dingtoJenks,"Theunr
est
ri
ctedr
ighttouse,negl
ectormisusehi
spr
oper
tycanno
l
ongerbegrantedt
oanyindi
vi
dualandt
her i
ghtofpr
oper
tyshoul
dbemadecomfort
abl
eto
rul
esofequi
tyandr
eason.
"

8)Thetheoryt
hatpr oper t
yisthecreat
ionofthestate
Accordi
ngtothistheory;theorigi
nofpr oper
tyistobet racedbacktotheori
ginofl
awandthe
stat
e.Thesupporteroft hist
heoryobservedthatpropertyandlawborntoget
herandwoul
ddie
toget
her.Inotherwor ds,thepropert
ycamei ntoexistencewhent hel
awswer efr
amedbythe

69
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st
ate.Rousseaui
sthemai
nsuppor
teroft
hist
heor
y.Heasser
tedt
hatpr
oper
tywast
hecr
eat
ion
oft
hest at
e.

9.
3Ki
ndsofPr
oper
ty
Proper
tyisessential
lyoftwoki
ndsCorpor
ealProper
tyandIncorporealProper
ty.Corporeal
Proper
tycanbef urtherdi
vi
dedi
ntoMovabl
eandI mmovablePropert
yandr ealandper sonal
proper
ty.Incor
porealproper
tyi
s oftwo kinds-
inre pr
opri
a and r i
ghtsinr e al
iena or
encumbrances.

1.Cor porealProper
ty:-Cor porealpr
opertyist he r
ightofowner shi
pin mat
eri
althi
ngs.
Corporealpropert
yisalwaysv i
sibl
eandt angi
ble.Corporealproper
tycanbepercei
vedby
senses.Itcanbeseenortouched.Examples-AHouse, Land,Car
,Bikeetc

Cor
por
ealpr
oper
tymaybedi
vi
dedi
ntot
wocl
asses-

a.Mov
abl
ePr
oper
ty

b.I
mmov
abl
ePr
oper
ty

a.Mov abl
ePr opert
y:Thepr opertywhichcanbet ransferr
edfrom onepl
acetoanotheri
s
mov ablepropert
y.Mov abl
epropertycanbeeasil
ymov edf r
om onepl
acetoanot
herpl
acewit
h
changingitsshape.Forexample;pen,copy
,bus,
cycl
eet c.

Thepr ov
isi
onrel
ati
ngwit
hmov
abl
epr
oper
tyi
sment
ionedundersect
ion254oft
heNat
ional
Civi
l(Code)Act
,2074.

Sect
ion254.Pr
opert
ydeemedt
obemovabl
e:Thef
oll
owi
ngpr
oper
tyshal
lbedeemedt
obea
movabl
eproper
ty:

(
a)Cashorgoodst
hatcanbet
ransact
edascashorf
orei
gncur
rency
,

(
b)Gol
d,si
l
ver
,jewel
ry,
rat
na,
gol
dorsi
l
veror
namentorpr
eci
ousst
one,

(c)Ot
hergoodt
hatcanbemov
edf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
her
,exceptt
hoser
efer
redi
ncl
ause(
a)
or(b)
,

(
d)A bond,secur
it
y,promissorynote,bi
l
lofexchange,l
ett
erofcr
edi
torot
hernegot
iabl
e
i
nst
rumentorabenef
itder
ivedther
efr
om,

(
e)I
ntel
l
ect
ual
proper
ty,

(
f)Ar
ighti
nsecur
it
y,

(
g)At
radegood-
wil
lorf
ranchi
se,

(
h)Apr
oper
tyot
hert
hant
hei
mmov
abl
epr
oper
ty.

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LawSchol
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b.ImmovablePr opert
y:Thepr opert
ywhichcannotbetransf
erredf
rom oneplacetoanother
pl
aceort hepropertywhi chisf i
xedintooneplaceiscall
edimmovableproper
ty.Immovable
Proper
tycannotbeeasi lymov edf r
om oneplacetoanot
herplacewit
houtchangingit
sshape.
Forexample;
land,buil
ding,pond,riv
er,t
reeet
c.

Thepr ov
isi
onrel
ati
ngwit
himmov
abl
epr
oper
tyi
sment
ionedundersect
ion253oft
heNat
ional
Civi
l(Code)Act,
2074.

Sect
ion253.Proper
tydeemedt
obei
mmovabl
e:(
1)t
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
oper
tyshal
lbedeemedt
o
beanimmov abl
eproper
ty:

(
a)Abui
l
dingorl
andorst
ruct
uref
ixedt
her
eto,

(
b)Anygoodsat
tachedt
oabui
l
dingorl
andper
manent
ly,

(
c)Ami
ne,
stoneormi
ner
alembeddedi
nland,

(
d)Nat
ural
wat
er,
sur
facewat
erandunder
groundwat
er,

(
e)Abui
l
dingorot
herst
ruct
uresomadeper
manent
lyt
hati
tcanf
loatov
erar
iver
,lakeorpond,

(f
)Astandi
ngt
ree,pl
antorf
rui
ttr
eeorf
rui
torf
lowergr
owi
ngonsuchat
ree,pl
antorf
rui
ttr
ee
orcr
opsint
hel
and,

(
g)Amov
abl
epr
oper
tyat
tachedt
oani
mmov
abl
epr
oper
ty.

(2)Notwithst
andinganythi
ngcontainedi
nsub-secti
on(1),i
fanyst
ructur
e,goodsoranypar
t
ther
eof,fi
xedorat t
achedtoanyi mmovablepropert
ygetsorisdetachedorunfi
xedinany
manner,thestructur
e,goodsorpartsodetachedorunfi
xedshal
lbedeemedt obeamov abl
e
proper
ty.

2.IncorporealProperty
:Incorpor
ealpr
opert
yisal egalri
ghtinpropert
yhavingnophy si
cal
exi
stence.Forexampl e,patentri
ght
s,l
easeormor t
gage.Theyhavev al
uebutlacksphysi
cal
substance.Incor
poreali
stheopposit
eofcor
poreal
,whichi
sproper
tythatcanbepercei
ved.

I
ncor
por
ealpr
oper
tyi
str
adi
ti
onal
lybr
okendowni
ntot
wocl
asses:

a.Jur
ainreali
ena:I
tisalsocal
l
edencumbrances.I
tincl
udespropert
y,theowner
shipofwhi
ch
i
sinthehandofonepersonanditi
susedbyotherper
son.Iti
scategori
zedint
ofol
lowing:

i
.Lease

Al easeisani mpl
iedorwr i
ttenagr
eementspeci
fyi
ngthecondi
ti
onsunderwhi chal essor
acceptstoletoutapropert
ytobeusedbyalessee.Theagr
eementpromi
sesthelesseeuseof
thepropert
yf oranagreedlengthoft
imewhil
etheownerisassur
edconsist
entpaymentov er
theagreedperiod.

71
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i
i.Ser
vit
ude

Aser v
itudeisalimi
tedrealr
ightt
hatonepersonhastotheuseofanot herper
son'
spropert
y.
Forexampl e,i
fyouneedtodriv
eoveraporti
onofyourneighbour
'sproper
tyi
nordert
oaccess
yourhome, youwouldty
pical
l
yhavebeengrantedaser
vit
udeofr i
ghtofwaybythenei
ghbourin
ordertoaccessyourhome.

i
ii
.Secur
it
ies

Asecur
it
yinter
estisalegalri
ghtgrantedbyadebtortoacredi
torov
erthedebt
or'
spropert
y
whi
chenablesthecredi
tortohaver ecour
setotheproper
tyi
fthedebtordef
aul
tsinmaking
pay
mentorotherwi
seperfor
mingthesecuredobl
i
gati
ons.

i
v.Tr
ust
s

At r
ustisafi
duciaryrel
ati
onshi
pinwhichonepar t
y,knownasat rust
or,givesanot
herpar
ty,
the
tr
ustee,ther
ightt
ohol dti
tl
etoproper
tyorassetsforthebenef
itofathi
rdpar t
y,t
hebenef
ici
ary
.
Trustsareestabl
ishedtoprovi
delegalprot
ecti
onf orthetr
ustor
’sassets,tomakesurethose
assetsaredi
stri
butedaccordi
ngtothewishesofthetrust
or.

b.JurainrePr
opri
a:Ri
ghtinr
epropr
iai
smai nl
yoverimmater
ialthi
ngs.Jurainrepr opr
iai
s
suchkindofpr
oper
tywhichaper
sonatt
ainsduetohisski
l
landl abour
.Itiscategor
izedint
o
fol
lowi
ng:

i
.Pat
ent

Apatentisanexcl
usi
veri
ghtgr
antedf
oraninv
ent
ionwhichisaproductt
hati
saresul
tofa
per
son’sabi
li
tyt
oofdoi
ngsomethi
ngorof
fer
sanewtechnol
ogi
cal
soluti
ontoapr
obl
em.

ThePat
ent
,Desi
gnandTr
ademar
kAct
,2022

Sect
ion2( a):
-“patent”meansanyusefuli
nvent
ionrel
ati
ngtoanew methodofprocessor
manufact
ur e,operat
ionortr
ansmissi
onofanymater
ialoracombi
nat
ionofmater
ial
s,ort
hat
madeont hebasi sofanewtheor
yorformul
a.

Sect
ion8(2):
-Theti
tl
eofthepatent
eet
othepat
entshal
lbev
ali
donl
yforaper
iodofsev
en
year
sfrom t
hedat
eofregi
str
ati
on.

Sect
ion23B(
3):
-Apat
entmayber
enewednotmor
ethant
wicef
oraper
iodofSev
eny
ear
s.

i
i.Desi
gn

Anindust
ri
aldesignconst
it
utestheornamentaloraest
het
icaspectofanar
ti
cle.Adesignmay
consi
stofthree-
dimensi
onalfeatur
es,suchast heshapeorsurfaceofanarti
cle,oroft
wo-
di
mensionalf
eatures,
suchaspatter
ns,l
inesorcolor
.

ThePat
ent
,Desi
gnandTr
ademar
kAct
,2022

72
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Sect
ion2(
b):
-“Desi
gn”meanst
hef
orm orshapeofanymat
eri
almanuf
act
uredi
nanymanner
.

Sect
ion14A:-Thetit
leofthepersoninwhosenameadesignhasbeen r egi
ster
edunder
Sect
ion14shal
lremai
nvali
dforaperi
odoff
iveyear
sfr
om t
hedat
eofr
egist
rat
ion

Sect
ion23B(
3):
-Adesi
gnnotmodet
hant
wicef
oraper
iodoff
ivey
ear
satat
ime.

i
ii
.Tr
ademar
k

Trademarki sasi gncapableofdist

ingui
shinggoodsandser vi
cesofoneenterpr
isefrom
another.Thesear ebasi
cal
lyameanst oprotecttheuni queident
it
yofrenownedbrands.It
enablesacust omertorecogni
zet
hebr andort hepr oductinst
antl
ywit
houtbei
ngmi sl
ed.An
exampleofat rademarkwouldbethelogosorsl ogansusedbybr andst
omaket hei
rproduct
s
uniquel
yidenti
fiabl
e.

ThePat
ent
,Desi
gnandTr
ademar
kAct
,2022

Secti
on2( c)
:-“
Trade-
mark”meansword,
symbol
,orpi
ctur
eoracombi
nat
iont
her
eoftobeused
byanyf ir
m,companyori ndi
vi
duali
nitspr
oduct
sorser v
icest
odi
sti
ngui
shthem wi
ththe
productorserv
icesofot
hers.

Sect
ion18D:
-Theti
tleofthepersoni
nwhosenameat r
ade-markhasbeenr
egi
ster
edshal
l
remai
nval
idf
oraper
iodofseveny
earsf
rom t
hedat
eofr
egist
rat
ion.

Sect
ion23B(
3):
-At
rade-
mar
kanynumberoft
imesf
oraper
iodofsev
eny
ear
satat
ime.

i
v.Copy
right

Copy r
ightis av
ail
abletothe creat
ors oflit
erary,dramati
c,musical,art
ist
ic,producerof
ci
nemat ogr
aphact sorsoundrecording.Itdeter
mi neswhetherandinwhatcondi ti
onsthe
ori
ginalworkmaybeusedbyper sonsot hert
hantheowneroft heuniqueintel
l
ectualproper
ty.
TheCopy ri
ghtAct,2059hasnotdefi
nedt heterm copyri
ghtbutprot
ectedthecopy r
ightofit
s
owner.

TheCopy
rightAct
,2059

Secti
on14(1)
:-Theeconomicandmor alri
ght
savai
l
abl
etotheauthorunderthi
sActshal
lbe
prot
ectedt
hroughouttheli
feoftheauthorandi
nthecaseofhis/herdeat
hunt i
lfi
ft
yyear
s
computedf
rom theyearofhi
sdeath.

v
.Commer
cialGoodwi
ll

Commer cialgoodwi l
lisaprominentfor
m ofincor
porealr
ight
.Thegoodwil
lofacommer cial
busi nessisav al
uableri
ghtacqui
redbytheownerbyhi sl
abourandskil
l
.Theownerhast he
exclusiver ightofuseandpr ofi
tfr
om thebusi
nessandanyonewhoseekstomakeuseofi tby
falselyrepr esenti
ngtothepubli
cthatheishi
mselfcar
ryi
ngonthebusi
nessinquest
ionshal
lbe
violati
ngt hisright.

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Uni
t11:Possessi
on

11.
1Meani
ngandDef
ini
ti
onofPossessi
on
Possessi oni sthemostbasi crel
ationbet weenmanandat hing.Possessioni sapr ima-faci
e
evidenceofowner shi
p."Possession"liter
arymeansphy si
calcont roloverathingoranobj ect.It
expressest hecl osestrelati
onoff actthatcanex i
stbet weenat hi
ngandt heper son,who
possessi t.Inlaw,possessi onincludesnotonl yphy sicalcont rolov erat hingbutal soan
i
ntentiont oexer cisethatphy si
calcontrol
.Example:Ahasanobj ectinhi shand.Inotherwor ds,
thatthingisi nhispossessi on.Theper sonwhohaskeptt hatthingsi nhispossessioniscalleda
'
Possessor '
.Inhumanl i
fe,consumpt i
onofmat erialthingsisv eryessentialanditwoul dbe
Impossi blewi t
houtt heposi t
ionofthemat eri
alt
hings.Ther eforet heconceptofpossessi onis
ofutmostpr acti
cal i
mpor t
ancei nhumanl i
fe.

Defi
nit
ionofPossessi
on:
I
tisverydi
ff
icul
ttodef
inet
het
erm Possessi
on.SomeJur
ist
shav
egi
vendi
ff
erentdef
ini
ti
ons.

Salmonddefi
nesPossessi
onas,"
possessi
oni
sthecont
inui
ngexer
ciseofacl
aimt
othe
excl
usi
veuseofanobj
ect.
"

Savi
gnydefi
nesPossessi
onas,"
int
ent
ioncoupl
edwi
thphy
sicalpowert
oexcl
udeot
her
sfr
om
theuseofmater
ial
obj
ect.

Salmondcr
it
ici
zedSavi
ngy
'sdef
ini
ti
onandgroundt
hatSav
ingycommi
tt
edaner
rorby
i
ncl
udi
ngtheel
ementofphysi
cal
poweri
nhisdef
ini
ti
on.

O.W.Hol mesdefinesPossessi
onas,"
Togainpossessi
onamanmustst andinacer
tai
n
phy
sical
relat
iont
ot heobj
ectandtot
her
estoft
heworl
d,andmusthav
ecer
tai
nint
ent
."

HenneryMainedefi
nest
hepossessi
onas,
"phy
sical
det
ent
ioncoupl
edwi
tht
hei
ntent
iont
ohol
d
t
hethingsdetai
nedasone'
sown.

SirFr
ederickPol
lockdefi
nesPossessi
onas,
"Incommonspeechamani ssai
dtopossesst
obe
i
npossessi onofanythi
ngofwhichhehastheapparentcont
rolf
rom t
heuseofwhichhehas
apparentpowerforexcl
udi
ngother
s."

Accordi
ngt oIher
ing,"whenev
eraper
sonlookedl
i
keanowneri
nrel
ati
ontoat hi
ng,hehad
possessi
onofi tunlessPossessi
onwasdeniedt
ohi
m byrul
esoflaw basedonpract
ical
conveni
ence.
"

11.
2El
ement
sofPossessi
on
Fr
om t
heabov
edef
ini
ti
onwecoul
dseei
nthatpossessi
onhast
woessent
ial
s:

1)Act
ual
powerov
ert
heobj
ectpossessed.I
.e.cor
puspossessi
oni
sand

2)I
ntent
ionoft
hepossessort
oexcl
udeanyi
nter
fer
encef
rom ot
her
s.I
.e.ani
muspossi
dendi
.

74
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Accordi
ngtoJohnSalmond, bot
hcorpusandanimusmustbepr esentt
oconstit
utepossessi
on.
Ownershi
pisalegalconceptwhereasPossessi
onisfactualaswellaslegalconcept
.Theterm
corpusandt
heterm ani
mus, bot
hthetermsborrowedfrom theRomanl aw.

11.
3Ki
ndsofPossessi
on
Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethei
mpor
tantki
ndsofpossessi
on.

a.CorporealandI ncorporealPossession
Corporealpossessionmeanspossessi onofthoset hi
ngswhicharehavingphysicalormater
ial
exi
stence,wher eindi r
ectrelat
ionshipwi t
ht hethingar epossibl
e. Forexampl e,househas
physi
calexistencewhi chcanbeper cei
vedbyoursenses.Thepossessi onofthehousei san
example ofcor porealpossessi on.Therefore,corporealpossessi
on isthe possession of
materi
althings,mov ableaswell asimmov ablesuchast hecar,
book,pen,wri
stwatch,et
c.

Incorporealpossession meanspossession ofint

ell
ect
ualori ncorpor
ealthings.Itmeans
Possessionofimmat eri
alori
ntangi
blethi
ngs.Thesearet
hethings,whichdonothav ephysical
exist
enceandt heref
orecannotbeperceiv
edbyoursenses.Therefor
epossessioninrespectof
thisthingisknownasi ncorpor
ealpossessi
on.Forexample-copy ri
ght,t
rademark,patent,
goodwi l
letc.

Accor
dingtoSal
mond,corpor
ealpossessi
oni
sPossessi
onofanobj
ectwher
eas
i
ncor
por
eal
possessi
oni
sthepossessi
onofari
ght.

b.MediateandImmediatePossessi
on
Mediatepossessionisthepossessi
onofat hi
ngthroughanot
her
,eit
herthroughhisf
ri
end,
serv
antforagent.Asthethi
ngremains,i
npossessi
onwi t
hanot
her
,thepossessorhasl
esser
degreeofphysi
calcont
rolov
ersuchthi
ng.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:

a)'
X'hasacar,whichheleaveswit
hhi
sdriver
.Thepossessi
onoft
hedr
iverwi
l
lbei
mmedi
ate
wher
easthePossessionof'
X'wil
lbemedi
ate.

b)'
A'pur
chasedahousethr
oughhisagentandt
heagentgott
hepossessi
on.A'
spossessi
oni
s
sai
dtobethemedi
atepossessi
on.

Immedi atepossessionisalsocal l
edasdi r
ectpossessi
on.Directorprimarypossessi
onbya
personov erapar ti
cul
arobj ect
,whi chacquir
esorget sdirectl
yorper sonal
l
y.Inimmediate
possession,asthet hi
ngisi npossessi onofthepossessordirectl
y,hehashigherdegreeof
control
ov ersuchthi
ng.Itmeanst hattherei
snootherpersonholdingthethi
ng.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:

a)'
X'hasacarandhekeepsi
tinhi
sgar
age,
thi
sconst
it
utesi
mmedi
atepossessi
on.

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b)'A'pur
chasedahouseandt
akespossessi
onoft
hepr
oper
ty,i
tiscal
l
eddi
rector
i
mmediat
epossessi
on.

c.Constructi
veandadv ersaryPossessi
on
Constructi
vepossessionisnotactualpossessi
on.Iti
sapossessi
oninlawandnotpossessi
on
i
nf act
.AccordingtoPollockandWr i
ght,i
tisapossessi
onwhichari
sesonl
ybytheconstr
ucti
on
oflaw.Exampl e:Thedeliver
yofthekeysofabuildi
ng.

Adver
sarypossessi
onmeanshol dingthelandonhi sownbehal fofsomeotherper
son.If
adver
sepossessi
oncont
inuespeacefulandundist
urbedforthatnumberofy
ear
s,hecancl
aim
ownershi
pandthetr
ueowner'
sright(owner
ship)getsext
ingui
shed.

d.De-factoandDe- j
urePossession
De-factopossessionexistswher ethethi
ngi sint heimmediateoccupancyofapart
y.The
personinde- f
actopossessi
onhast hephy
sicalcontrolofthet
hingtotheexcl
usi
onofother
s
andhasani musandcor pusov erthemater
ialobj
ect.De-fact
opossessi
onmaybedescr
ibedas
act
ual possession.

De-jur
epossessioncanbedescr ibedaspossessi oninl aw.De- j
urepossessionexist
swhen
personclai
msat hi
ngashi sowni nnat ur
alnormallegalmannerbyoccupy ingathingwithout
anydisputeastohislegal
righttopossessandenjoyt hething.Legalpossessionmayexistwith
orwi t
houtproper
tyinpossession.Incaseofde- j
urepossessi on,i
tisjustpossibl
ethataman
hasceasedt oli
veinahousebutwi thoutint
endi
ngandt oabandoni tforgoodast heownerof
thehouse.

11.
4ModesofAcqui
ri
ngPossessi
on
Ther
ear
etwomodesofacqui
ri
ngpossessi
oni
)Del
i
ver
yandi
i
)Possessi
on.

I)Deli
very:Del
iver
ycompl et
esv ol
untaryactfrom onepersontoanother
.Thet r
ansfer
orgi
ves
actualposit
iontothetransfer
ee.Itisusuall
yal awfulmodeofpossessi on.Del
iv
erymaybe
actualofconst
ructi
ve.I
nactualdel
iverythet
hingisphysi
call
ydel
iv
ered.

II
)Taking:Taki ngimpliesanactexclusiv
elyonthepar tofthepersonwhophy sical
l
ytakest he
possession.Itisacquisit
ionofthepossessionwithoutt heconsentofpreviouspossessor .I
tis
thepossessi onwi t
houttheconsentofthepossessor .Somet i
mesi ti
ssaidt obeuni l
ateralact
.
Transfereeacqui r
esthepossessionwithouttheknowl edgeorconsentoft heformerpossessor
ofthet hing.Itisusuall
ypossessio-
civi
li
s.Itmayormaynotbel awful
.Ifitislawfulthenitis
l
egal possession.I.
e.possessi
o-j
uri.

ForExampl e:
At hi
efstealsalapt
opfrom ashopthenitiscal
l
edpossessi
on-
civ
il
isandwhenpol
i
cear
rest
thatt
hiefandtakebackl
aptopi
nthei
rpossessi
ontheni
tiscal
l
edpossessi
on-
jur
i.

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11.
5Possessor
yRemedi
es
Possessoryremediesar ethosewhichexi stsfort heprotecti
onofpossessi onevenagainst
ownershi
p.Propri
etaryr emediesar
et hosewhi char eavai
lablefortheprotectionofownership.
I
nmanyl egalsystems, possessi
onispr ovi
sionalortempor aryt
itl
eevenagai nstthetr
ueowner .
Evenawr ongfulpossessorwhoi sdepr iv
edofhi spossession,canrecoveritf r
om anyperson
whatsoeveronthegr oundofhi spossession.Ev ent het
rueowner ,whor etakeshisown,must
fi
rstrest
orepossessiont othewrongdoerandt henproceedt osecureapossessi onont he
groundofhisownership.

Conclusion:Possessi oni sthemostbasi crelati

onbet weenmanandat hing.Possessi
onis
pri
ma- f
aci e evidenceofowner shi
p.Therei sno f i
xed orprecisedefi
nit
ion ofpossessi
on
becausei tislegalaswel lf
actualconcept
.Thef ouressent
ial
sofpossessi
onar esubj
ectmatt
er
ofpossessi on,phy sicalcontrol
,int
enti
onandknowl edge.Possessioni
sninepointsi
nl awand
l
awpr ovidesr emedi estoper sonhavingpossession.

11.
6Di
ff
erencesbet
weenOwner
shi
pandPossessi
on

Possessi
on Owner
shi
p
1.Possessi onisthephysi
calcontroloverathi
ngs 1.Owner shipi
sthebothphy si
calandlegalcont
rol
oranobj ect. overathi
ngsanobject
.
2.Thepossessorhasbet
tert
it
leagai
nstthewhol
eword, 2
l .Thelegalownerhasabsolut
etit
leagainstwhol
e
exceptt
hetrueowner
. world.
3.Theconceptofpossessioni scamef ir
st. 3.Theconceptofownershi
pcamel at
er.
4.Possessi s pr
on i ima f
aci
e aprooforan ev
idenceof 4.Itconsist
sbundleofr i
ghtsandallt
heri
ght
sarer
ightin
ownershi
p. rem.
5.Possessi
onisthemostbasi
crel
ati
onbet
weenmananda 5.Owner shi
pist herel
ationofthepersonwit
hanobject
thi
ng. for
mingt hesubj
ectmatteronownershi
p.

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Uni
t12:Just
ice

12.
1Meani
ngandDef
ini
ti
onofJust
ice
Justi
ceisacompl exconceptandt ouchesalmostev
eryaspectofhumanl i
fe.Thewor dJusti
ce
hasbeender iv
edf rom theLati
nwor dJungeremeani
ngtobindortot i
et ogether
.Thewor d'Jus'
alsomeans' Ti
e'or'Bond".InthiswayJusti
cecanbedefinedasasy stem inwhichmenar eti
ed
orjoi
nedi nacl oser el
ati
onship.Justi
ceseekstoharmonisedif
ferentv al
uesandt oor gani
se
uponitallhumanr el
ati
ons.Assuch,Just i
cemeansbondi ngorjoiningoror gani
singpeople
toget
herintoar i
ghtorf ai
rorderofrel
ati
onshi
ps.

Justi
ceisthemosti mport
antandmostdi scussedobject
iveoftheState,andSoci et
y.Iti
sthe
basisoforderl
yhumanl i
vi
ng.Justi
cedemandst heregul
ati
onofsel f
ishactionsofpeopl efor
securi
ngaf ai
rdist
ri
but
ion,
equaltr
eatmentofequals,andproport
ionat
eandj ustrewardsforall
.
Itst
andsforharmonybetweenindi
vidual
inter
estsandtheinter
estsofsociet
y.

Justi
cestandsforrul
eofl aw,absenceofar bit
rar i
nessandasy st
em ofequalri
ght
s,f r
eedoms
andopportuni
ti
esforallinsociety
.Infact,Just icestandsr ecogni
zedasthefir
stvi
rtueorideal
orobject
ivetobesecur ed.InitsPreambl e,theConst it
uti
onofI ndi
agivesfi
rstpr
iorit
ytot he
securi
ngofsoci al
,economi candpol it
icalj usticef orallitspeopl
e.Incontempor ar
yt i
mes
Justi
cestandsconceptual
izedbasical
lyasSoci alJustice.

Accor
dingt
oSal
mond,
"Just
icemeanst
odi
str
ibut
ethedueshar
etoev
ery
body
."

Accordi
ngt
oDr
.Raphael
,"Just
icepr
otect
sther
ight
soft
hei
ndi
vi
dualaswel
last
heor
derof
soci
ety.
"

Inconcl
usion,Justi
cemeanssecur ingandprotect
ingofrightsofallinafai
rway.Itst
andsfor
harmonyamongal lt
hepeople,orderl
yliv
ingandsecuri
ngofr ight
sofallinajustandfai
rway.
Aim ofJusti
ceistopr ovi
deequalright
s,opport
uniti
esandf aci
li
ti
estoalli
naf ai
rway.Just
ice
i
st hepri
ncipl
eofbal anci
ngorreconcil
inghumanr el
ati
onsinsoci et
yinsuchawayasenabl es
eachonetogethi sduer i
ght
s,t
owar dsandpunishments.

12.
2Pr
inci
plesofNat
uralJust
ice

1.NemoJudexi nCausaSua:
Thefi
rstpri
ncipl
eofimparti
ali
tyr
oughlytr
anslatedintoEngl
ishmeansnobodyshallbeajudge
i
nhisowncauseori nacausei nwhichhei sint
erested.Thi
spri
ncipl
eismorepopular
lyknown
astheDoct r
ineofBias.Thatistheauthori
tysitt
inginjudgmentshouldbeimparti
alandact
wit
houtbias.Toinst
il
lconfi
denceinthesystem,justi
ceshouldnotmerel
ybedonebutseent o
bedone.

2.Audial
ter
em par
tam:
Thesecondpri
nci
pleofnat
uralj
ust
icel
i
ter
all
ymeanst
oheart
heot
hersi
de.Thel
i
ter
almeani
ng

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ofAudiAlter
am Partem isto" heartheotherside"
.I not herwords,itdenotesthateveryparty
shallgetanopportuni
tyofhear ingandnooneshal lgounhear di nacase.Themaxi m Audi
Alter
am Part
em isder i
vedf r
om t heLati
nphr ase" audiaturetalter
apar s"whichmeanst hat
everypart
yshallbehear d.Thismaxi misoneoft hef undament alr
ulesofadmi nist
rati
velaw
thatensur
esjusti
cetobot hpar t
ies.Asperthismaxi m,ev er
ypartyshallgetanoppor t
unit
yt o
pleadandassertevi
dencetosuppor thi
scase.

12.
3Ty
pesofJust
ice.
Ther
ear
evar
ioust
ypesofJust
icebutt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
ypesofJust
icei
snecessar
yfort
hecour
se.

1.Distri
but i
veJustice:
Dist
ributiveJusti
cei sat y
peofj usticewhi chisassociatedwi t
hthefai
rdistr
ibuti
onoft he
avai
lablemeansandr esourcesamongt heindivi
dual.I
tcanbedef i
nedasthesocialj
usti
cef or
theallocationofther esources.Di
stri
butionofav ai
labl
eresourcescanbedoneint hegrounds
ofequal it
y,equi
ty,needsbasedappr oachet c.Forexample,di
stri
buti
onofmadheshi,females,
economi cincapablesinpubl i
cserv
ices,federalparl
iamentsandinBALLBEntr
anceExami nat
ion
etcaret heexampleofdi str
ibuti
vejusti
ce.

2.Cor r
ecti
v eJusti
ce:
Thedi sti
nctionbetweendi str
ibut
iveandcorrect
ivej
ust i
cewasf i
rstcar
ri
edoutbyt heanci
ent
Greekschol arAri
stot
le,i
nhi swor kNicomacheanEthics.Corr
ect
iveJusti
cei
sat ypeofJusti
ce
whichdeal swi thmaintenanceofst atusquobypr otecti
ngthet hi
ngswrongf
ullytakenand
resort
ingt hegoodst oi ndivi
dualssowr onged.Correcti
veJusti
cei sal
soknow asr emedial
j
ustice.Iti
spr i
mari
lyconcer nedwiththerev
ersaloft
hewr ongwhichhavebeendone.

12.
4Ri
ght
sofJust
ice
Righttojusticei st
hefundamentalrightsofeverycit
izensandt hi
sri
ghthasbeenguar anteedby
theConst it
utionofNepalunderAr ti
cle20ofPar t3asf undamentalright
s.Rightt ojusti
ceis
essentialbecauset hereisnouseofanyr i
ghtifaper sonwhoset ightsareinfri
ngedcannot
couldn'tgetr emedies.Sothatwit
houtr ighttojusti
c,ther
ei snouseofpr ovidinganyr i
ghtsto
cit
izens.Allrightsbecomeuselessint heabsenceofr emedies.That
'swhyst aterecognizesuch
ri
ghtasf undament alri
ghtsandpr otecteditunderConst i
tuti
onofNepal .TheConst it
utionof
Nepal hasprov idedthefol
l
owingrightsunderr i
ghttojusti
ce:

Arti
cle20.Right
srelat
ingtojust
ice
(1)Noper sonshal
lbedetainedi
ncust
odywi
thouti
nfor
minghi
m orheroft
hegr
oundf
orhi
sor
herarrest
.

(2)Anypersonwhoisarr
est
edshallhavetheri
ghtt
oconsultalegalpr
actit
ionerofhisorher
choi
cef r
om theti
meofsuch ar restand t
o bedefended bysuch legalpracti
ti
oner.Any
consul
tat
ionmadebysuchpersonwit
h,andadvi
cegi
venby,hi
sorherlegalpracti
ti
onershal
lbe
confi
dent
ial
.

Pr
ovi
dedt
hiscl
auseshal
lnotappl
ytoaci
ti
zenofanenemyst
ate.

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Expl
anati
on:Forthepur
poseoft hi
scl
ause,"
legalpr
act
it
ioner
"meansaaut
hor
izedbyl
aw t
o
repr
esentanyper
soninanycour
t.

(3)Anyper sonwhoi sarrestedshallbepr oducedbef oretheadjudi

cati
ngauthori
tywit
hina
periodoftwenty-
fourhoursofsuchar rest
,excludi
ngt heti
menecessaryforthej
ourneyf
rom the
placeofar r
esttosuchaut horit
y;andanysuchper sonshallnotbedetai
nedincustodyexcept
ont heorderofsuchauthorit
y.

Prov
idedt
hatt
hiscl
auseshal
lnotappl
ytoaper
sonhel
dinpr
event
ivedet
ent
ionandt
oaci
ti
zen
ofanenemyst
ate.

(
4)Noper sonshallbel
i
abl
eforpunishmentf
oranactwhichwasnotpuni shablebythel
awin
f
orcewhent heactwascommitt
ednorshallanyper
sonbesubjectedtoapuni shmentgr
eat
er
t
hanthatprescr
ibedbyt
hel
awinforceattheti
meofthecommissionoftheoffence.

(5)Ev er
yper
sonchar
gedwi
thanof
fenceshal
lbepr
esumedi
nnocentunt
ilpr
ovedgui
l
tyoft
he
offence.

(6)Noper sonshal
lbetr
iedandpunishedf
orthesameoffenceinacourtmorethan( 7)No
personchargedwit
hanof
fenceshal
lbecompel
l
edtotest
if
yagainsthi
msel
forher
self
.once.

(
8)Ev
eryper
sonshal
lhav
ether
ightt
obei
nfor
medofanypr
oceedi
ngst
akenagai
nsthi
m orher
.

(9)Everypersonshal
lhav
ether
ightt
oaf
airt
ri
albyani
ndependent
,impar
ti
alandcompet
ent
courtorjudi
cial
body.

(
10)Anyi
ndi
gentpar
tyshal
lhav
ether
ightt
ofr
eel
egal
aidi
naccor
dancewi
thl
aw.

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Uni
t13:Rul
eofLaw

Themeani ngofruleofl
awistheabsenceofanyarbi
tr
arypoweri
nthestat
e.Governmentbeing
thegreatestfor
ceofthestat
e,someti
mesmaynotactast heprot
ect
orsofindi
v i
dual
srights.
butrathertendt oexpl
oitt
hepeople.Theseactsofgov er
nmentareagainstthewil
loft he
peopl
e.Inor dertomakestateactconsti
tut
ional
l
yandlegall
y,t
heconceptofruleoflaw has
beendev el
oped.

Thet ermr ul
eofl aw isthecombi nati
onoft wowor dsr ul
eandl aw.Rulesmeanswayof
governanceandlawmeanssetofr ul
es.Rulesofl awdenotestoasetofrul
esandl awsthatare
requi
redt ogover
nacount r
y.Ift
hereislaw, ther
ei sr
ule.Accor
dingt
oPr of
.JeffryJowell,"
Rule
oflawpr ovi
despri
nci
pleswhichrequir
esf easibl
elimi
tsonpower .
"Br
actonopinesthat"theking
shoul
d notbeundert hemen butundert heGod and l aw.
"Fair
nessofpr ocedureist he
mechanism ofrul
eoflawt oprev
entar bi
tr
ariness.

Simply
,ruleoflawmeanst heexist
enceofpubl
icorder
.What ever
,thecountryt
hatmaybeei ther
faci
storsocial
istorli
ber
al, mustli
veundert
herul
eofl awandmustf ol
l
owt henormsandcause
ofrul
eofl aw.Thet er
msr uleoflawmeansr ul
eaccordingtolawandr uleunderlaw.Nobranch
ofgovernmenti sabovethel awandnopublicoff
ici
alsmayactar bit
rari
lyoruni
later
all
youtside
oflaw.It
'smeansnooneei thert
heyarekingorpri
memi ni
sterorpresi
dentmustactunderr ule
oflaworabidebyLaw.

Ruleoflawi sderi
vedfrom theFrenchphrase"Laprinci
pledel egali
ty.
"Whichorigi
nallymeans
governmentbasedonpr i
ncipl
esoflawnotofmen.Theconceptofr uleoflawwasbegunf rom
ori
ginofthedoct r
ineofnat ur
alschooloflaw.Ari
stotl
ewast hefir
stpersontosaysomet hing
aboutthet er
m ruleofl aw.Accordingtohi m,"Ruleofl aw ispr ef
erabl
et o rruleofany
i
ndivi
duals."Hefurt
heradded" Gover
nmentbyLawi ssuperiorthenbymen. "Simi
larl
y,thetheory
ofrul
eofl awisint
roducedbyA. V.Dicey
,inhisbooknamed' AnI nt
roducti
ontothest udyoft he
l
awoft heconst it
uti
on'(1885AD) .Hedescribedaboutthef oll
owingfeatur
esofr ul
eofl awi n
hi
sbook.

I
. Absenceofar bi
trarypower:Nomani sabovelaw.Nomani spunishableexceptfora
di
stinctbr
eachofl awestabl
ishedinanordi
narylegalmannerbef
oreordinar
ycourt.The
governmentcannotpunishany onemer
elybyit
sownwi l
l
.

I
I.Equali
tybefor
elaw:Everyman,whateverhi
srankorcondi
ti
on,
issubj
ectt
otheor
dinar
y
l
awj ur
isdi
cti
onoftheordinar
ycour
ts.Nooneisabovelaw.

I
II
.Constit
uti
oni sther esul
toft heordi
narylaw:Const
it
uti
oni sther
esultoftheordi
nary
l
awbecauset oconductt hehumanbehav i
ourandtoprotecttheci
ti
zen'
sr i
ght
s,v
arious
r
uleshavebeendev elopi
ngfrom theanci
entti
me.Suchrulesplayavit
alrol
etodevelop
t
hemoder nconsti
tution.

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Backgr
oundpr
inci
plesofRul
eofl
aw
Schol
arJosephRazhasgi
vent
hef
oll
owi
ngel
ement
sofr
uleofl
aw.

i
. Lawshoul
dbepr
ospect
ive,
openandcl
ear

i
i
. Lawshoul
dber
elat
ivel
yst
abl
e,

i
i
i. Themaki
ngofpar
ti
cul
arl
awsshoul
dbegui
dedbyopen,
stabl
e,cl
earandgener
alr
ules,

i
v. Thei
ndependenceofj
udi
ciar
ymustbegr
ant
ed.

v
. Thepr
inci
plesofnat
ural
just
icemustbef
oll
owed.

v
i. Thecour
tsshoul
dhav
ethepowerofj
udi
cial
rev
iew

v
ii
. Thecour
tsshoul
dbeeasi
l
yaccessi
ble

v
ii
i. Thedi
scr
eti
onoft
hecr
imepr
event
ingagenci
esshoul
dnotbeal
l
owedt
oper
ver
tlaw.

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Uni
t14:I
ndependenceofJudi
ciar
y

Judicialindependenceist heconceptt hatt hej udi

ciar
yshoul dbei ndependentfrom theot her
branchesofgov ernment.Thati s,courtsshoul dnotbesubj ectt oimproperinf
luencefrom t he
otherbr anchesofgov er
nmentorf rom pr i
vateorpar ti
sani nterests.Judi
ciali
ndependencecan
bedef inedast heabil
it
yofi ndivi
dualjudgesandt hejudiciaryasawhol etoperfor
mt heirduties
fr
eeofi nfl
uenceorcontrolbyot heractor s.Judiciali
ndependencei sasoldasconst it
uti
onalism
i
tself.Thepr i
ncipalr
oleoft hejudiciar
yi stopr otectrul
eofl awandensur esupr emacyofl aw.It
safeguar dsri
ghtsoftheindividual,sett
lesdi sputesinaccor dancewi t
hthelawandensur est hat
democr acydoesnotgivewayt oindivi
dual orgr oupdictatorship.

Theindependenceofj udi
ciar
ycanbesecur edbymanyway .Onewayt opr omotejudi
cial
i
ndependenceisbygr anti
ngli
fetenureorlongtenur
ef orjudges,whi chideal
lyfr
eesthem to
deci
decasesandmaker ul
ingsaccor
dingtotherul
eoflawandj udi
cialdiscr
eti
on,eveni
fthose
deci
sionsar
epolit
ical
l
yunpopularoropposedbypowerfulinter
ests.

Essenti
altot heruleofl awi nanyl andi sani ndependentjudi ciar y
,judgesnotundert het humb
ofotherbranchesofGov ernment ,
andt hereforeequippedt oadmi nisterthelawimpar ti
all
y .The
U.S.FederalJudiciaryhasbeenamodelf ort hewor l
dint hatr egar d.TheU. S.Constit
ution,for
example,protectsj udici
ali ndependencei nt woway s.Fi
rst,Ar ticl
eI IIsaysthatfederaljudges
mayhol dtheirposit i
ons" duringgoodBehav i
our .
"Ineff
ect,t heyhav elif
eti
meappoi ntment sas
l
ongast heysat i
sfyt heethi calandl egal st
andar dsoftheirjudi cialof f
ice.Second,Art
icleIIIsays
thatthelegislat
iveandex ecutivebr anchesmaynotcombi net opuni shjudgesbydecr easing
paymentsf ort heirser v i
ces.The const i
tutions of some democr ati
c countr
ies pr ov i
de
appoint
ment st ot hej udgesf oraspeci ficper i
odoft ime,buti nv ari
ablytheypr otectt hei
r
i
ndependenceofact i
ondur ingt hei
rt ermsofof fi
ce.

Likewiset hepr eambleoft heconstitutionofNepalhasal soensur edthei ndependenceof

Judiciaryt hr
oughi ndependent,imparti
alandcompet entjudici
ary .I
nt heNepal ,thetenureof
chiefjusticeofsupr emecour tis6xy earsaf t
erthei
rappointmentunf ill
edtheageof65y ears.
Thej udicialcouncilrecommendst hatj udgesofal lt
hecour t
s(exceptchiefjustice).Judi
cial
counci lisani ndependentconstit
uti
onalbody ,whosemai nf unctionist oappoint,tr
ansferand
takedi scipli
naryactionagainstanddi smissalofjudges.Howev er,theconstit
utionalcouncil
appoint sthechiefjusti
ce.

Thei ndependenceoft hej udi

ciaryshallbeguar anteedbyt heSt ateandenshr i
nedi nt he
Constit
uti
onort helawoft hecount ry.I
tisthedut yofal lgover
nment alandot heri
nsti
t utionst o
respectandobser v
ethei ndependenceoft hejudi
ci ary.Thejudi
ciaryshalldecidemat ter sbef ore
them imparti
all
y,onthebasi soff actsandinaccor dancewiththel aw,withoutanyr est ri
ctions,
i
mpr operinfl
uences,inducement s,pressures,t
hreat sori nt
erfer
ences,di r
ectori ndirect ,from
anyquar t
erorforanyr eason.Ther eshallnotbeanyi nappropri
ateorunwar rantedinter f
erence
withthejudici
alprocess,norshal ljudi
cialdeci
sionsbyt hecour t
sbesubj ectt orevi
si on.Thi s

83
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

pri
ncipl
eiswithoutprejudi
cetojudi
cialr
evi
ew ortomiti
gat
ionorcommutat
ionbycompet
ent
authori
ti
esofsentencesimposedbythejudi
ciar
y,i
naccor
dancewi
ththel
aw.

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arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t15:Separ
ati
onofPowerandCheckandBal
ance

Theor
yofSepar
ati
onofPower
s
Thesepar
ati
onofpowermeansdi v
isi
onofpoweramongdi f
ferentor gansofthegov ernment.
Thetheor
yofseparati
onofpowerwaspr opoundedbyaFr enchgr eaterpol
iticalphi
losopher
Bar
ondeMont esquieuinhisbookSpi ri
tofLaw in1748.Hedescr i
beddivisionofpol i
ti
cal
powersamongthethreeorgansofthegov er
nment.Thestatehaveal otoffunctionsandt he
gover
nmentper
for
msal lt
hesefuncti
ons.Themainfunct
ionsofgov ernmentare:

i
. Lawmaki
ng

i
i
. Pol
i
cymaki
ngandi
mpl
ement
ati
on

i
i
i. I
nter
pret
ati
onandadj
udi
cat
ionofl
aw

Forperf
ormi ngtheset
hreefunctions,gov ernmenthasthreeorgansi.el
egislat
ure,execut
iveand
j
udici
ary.Separati
onofpowersi sconcer nedwi t
hinter
-rel
ati
onoft hesethreeorgans.Theoryof
separ
ationofpowerpr oposedt hatthet hreefuncti
onsofgov ernmenti.
el egi
slat
ion,executi
on
andadjudicati
onshoul
dentrustedt othreesepar at
ebranchofgov ernment.

Theor
yofCheckandBal
ance
Theremustbecheckandbal ancebetweent hethreeorgansoft hegover
nment.Complete
separat
ionofpowerisneit
herpossibl
enordesirabl
e.Thedoctri
neofcheckandbalanceist
hat
conceptinwhichthethr
eeor gansofthegov ernmentar
ei nt
err
elat
edinsuchawaybywhi ch
onecancheckandbal ancethepowerofot herorgansofgov er
nment.I
tprevent
sgov er
nment
fr
om beingarbi
tr
aryanddespotism.

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arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Uni
t16:Judi
cialRev
iew

Judicialreview isthepowerofacour ttodeci dewhetheral aw ordeci si

onmadebyt he
governmenti sconstit
utionalornot.Thispowerwasest abli
shedi nt hesupr emecourtcase
Marbur yv .Madi sonofUni tedSt at
es.Judicialrevi
ew r
eferstot hepoweroft hejudi
ciar
yt o
i
nterprettheconst it
uti
onandt odecl ar
eanysuchl awororderoflegislatureandexecuti
vev oid,
Ifi
tfindst hem inconfl
ictwithwiththeconstituti
on.Thedoctri
neofj udicialrev
iewisoneoft he
checkandbal anceinthesepar at
ionofpower .Arti
cle133givesextraordinarypowertosupreme
courtt o check constituti
onal
ityofanyl aw and declarev oidi ftheyar e cont
rar
yt ot he
constitut
ion.

Pr
inci
plesofJudi
cialRev
iew
Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethet
hreepr
inci
plesofj
udi
cial
rev
iew:

I
. Const
it
uti
oni
sthemai
nlawoft
hecount
ry

I
I.Supr
emecour
thasul
ti
mat
epoweri
nrul
i
ngonconst
it
uti
onal
mat
ter
s

I
II
.Judi
ciar
ymustr
uleagai
nstanyl
awt
hatconf
li
ctswi
thconst
it
uti
on.

Judicialrev
iew istheweaponsofcour twithwhichi tcandeclarerlegislat
iveact
ionoft he
l
egislatur
eandadmi ni
str
ati
veact
ionoftheexecut
iveunconstit
uti
onal
orunl awful
.Thi
sprevents
parl
iamentt o pass unl
awfulacts and al
so prevents execut
ivetoi mpose unreasonable
rest
ricti
onstoitssubject
s.

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arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
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i

Uni
t17:Const
it
uti
onal
ism

Const it
utional
ism i
sgov ernmentconduct edinaccordancewithandwi thinthelimi t
ssetbyt he
fundament all
awoft heConst i
tution.TheConstit
uti
on,asabodyofwr it
tenorunwr itt
enbasi c
l
aw,i ssuper i
ortoandt akespr ecedenceov eral
lordinar
yact soft helegi
slatur
eandov erall
decisionsand act ionsoft heexecut i
vebranch oft hegov ernment.Const i
tutionali
sm isa
phil
osophyorpr i
nciplesofr uli
ngast at
eornat i
onaccor dingtoconst it
uti
oni nt heoryand
practice.UndertheConst i
tut
ion,restri
cti
onsonthediscreti
onaryauthori
tyofpublicof fi
cersand
i
nstitutionsareclearlyrecognizedandr egul
arl
yenforced.Inshort,t
heConst it
utionef fect
ively
.
l
imitst hepowerofgov ernment .

AccordingtoCharl
esH.Mel l
wain,"Consti
tut
ional
ism r
ecogni
zesthenecessi
tyforgover
nment
butinsist
suponlimit
ati
onsbeingpl aceduponi tspower.I
tconnotesinessencetherefora
l
imitati
on on gov
ernment.Iti sthe antit
hesis:it
s opposi
teis despoti
c gover
nment,the
governmentofwil
li
nsteadoflaw."

Accordi
ngtoHil
areBarnet
t,"Consti
tut
ional
ism meanst
hatt
heexer
ciseofpowerbewit
hinthe
l
egallimi
tsconfer
redbyparliamentont hosewithpowert
heconceptofintr
aki
resandthat
thosewhoexer
cisepowerareaccountablet
olaw."

Const i
tut
ional
ism gover
ns the legi
ti
macy ofgov ernmentact i
ons.Limi
ted governmentor
decentral
izati
onofpoweri st hemostessent i
alelementofmoder nconst
it
utionali
sm.The
centralpurposeofconsti
tut
ional
i
sm ist oli
mitgovernmentalpower,t
ocheckandr estrai
nthe
personswhohol dpubli
coffi
ceandexer ci
sepoli
ti
calauthor
it
y.

Loui
sHenki
ndef
inesconst
it
uti
onal
ism asconst
it
uti
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngel
ement
s:

 gov
ernmentaccor
dingt
otheconst
it
uti
on;

 separ
ati
onofpower
,

 sov
erei
gnt
yoft
hepeopl
eanddemocr
ati
cgov
ernment
,

 const
it
uti
onal
rev
iew;

 i
ndependentj
udi
ciar
y.

 l
i
mit
edgov
ernmentsubj
ectt
oabi
l
lofi
ndi
vi
dual
right
s;

 cont
rol
l
ingt
hepol
i
ce;

 ci
vi
li
ancont
rol
oft
hemi
l
itar
y,and

 nostat
epower,orv
eryli
mitedandstr
ictl
ycircumscribedst
atepower
,tosuspendt
he
oper
ati
onofsomepart
sof,ort
heent
ir
e, const
itut
ion.

87
LawSchol
arsNepal Ani
shKumarTi
war
i

Hence,Consti
tuti
onal i
sm meansl imitedgovernmentorl i
mitati
onongov ernment .Iti
sant it
hesis
ofarbit
rarypower s.Const i
tut
ionali
sm recognizestheneedf orgov ernmentwi t
hpower sbutat
the same t i
me i nsi
stst hatl i
mi t
ati
on be pl aced on t hose power s.The ant ithesis of
consti
tuti
onal
ism isdespot i
sm.Agov ernmentwhi chgoesbey onditsli
mi tslosesitsaut hori
ty
andlegit
imacy.Ther efore,topreservethebasicfreedomsoft heindivi
dual,andt omai ntainhis
digni
tyandper sonalit
y,theConst i
tuti
onshouldbeper meatedwi th'
Constituti
onalism';itshould
havesomei nbuiltrestr
icti
onsont hepower sconferredbyitongov ernment alorgans.

88