Perform better geotechnical numerical analysis

LEC 1 : Analysis Planning

• So, when we talk about different types of analysis, we're basically talking about
different ways of looking at information or data to try to understand it better.
There are three main types of analysis: numerical, empirical, and analytical.
Numerical analysis is when we use math to analyze data. This might involve things
like calculating averages, percentages, or correlations. For example, if you wanted to
know the average grade in your math class, you would add up all the grades and
divide by the number of students. That's a simple example of numerical analysis.
Empirical analysis is when we use observations or experiments to analyze data. This
might involve things like conducting surveys, running experiments, or making
observations of the world around us. For example, if you wanted to know whether
people prefer cats or dogs as pets, you could conduct a survey and ask people which
they prefer. That's an example of empirical analysis.
Finally, there's analytical analysis. This is when we use logic and reasoning to analyze
data. It might involve things like making arguments, finding patterns, or looking for
cause-and-effect relationships. For example, if you noticed that every time you ate
spicy food, your nose started running, you might make an analytical argument that
there's a cause-and-effect relationship between the two.

• To understand how the anlaysis will be performed we need to gather the information
:Ground conditions, historical information on previous activities of the site bcz stress
history of ground has significant effect on ground behaviour and in order to simulate
the stress path and current stress state correctly we may need to simulate historical
activities on the site.(site investigation), details of loadings on geotechnical structures
like foundations and RW . We may need info for adjacent buildings as well so as to
estimate the allowable distortion of existing structures and infrastructure.We also need
information on proposed structures and infrastructure , proposed construction methods
and the anticipative program:

1. The first stage of analysis planning is important to consider before opening

your analysis program.
2. It is important to justify the use of numerical analysis since it is usually
more time- consuming and expensive than conventional methods.
3. You need to define the aims of your model and document them clearly so
that they are readily available throughout the project for all members of the
project team to refer to.
4. Gathering information about the ground conditions, historical information
on previous activities on the site, audit loadings on existing geotechnical
 structures, and details of proposed structures and infrastructure are
essential in making decisions about how the analysis will be performed.
5. The site investigation process is extensive and performed in at least two
phases to obtain the input parameters for your constituents or modules.
6. You should know the strengths and weaknesses of the numerical analysis
software you choose to avoid errors and verify that the software works
properly on your computer.
7. You need to ensure that your outputs are presented in a form that meets the
needs of other designers and decision makers who will use your results.

• The first stage of analysis planning in this case is to consider whether numerical
analysis is necessary for the technical problem at hand and to define the aims of the
model. This involves justifying the use of numerical analysis, documenting the aims
clearly, and agreeing on them with all stakeholders who may use the outputs of the
analysis. In addition, information needs to be gathered about the ground conditions,
historical activities on the site, existing structures and infrastructure, proposed
structures and infrastructure, and construction methods and schedule. This
information will be used to simulate ground conditions accurately and obtain the
necessary input parameters for the numerical analysis. Finally, the appropriate
numerical analysis software needs to be selected and verified to ensure it works
properly on the computer.
1. Defining the aims of your model involves identifying the specific goals or objectives
that your model is intended to achieve. Here are some steps to help you define the
aims of your model:
2. Identify the problem or issue that you are trying to address: Before you can define the
aims of your model, you need to clearly identify the problem or issue that your model
is intended to help solve or understand.
3. Determine the scope of the model: Decide what aspects of the problem or issue your
model will focus on. This will help you identify the specific aims of your model.
4. Clarify the research questions: Formulate specific research questions that your model
will address. These questions should be relevant to the problem or issue you are
addressing and should be answerable using your model.
5. Establish the model's objectives: Based on your research questions, determine the
specific objectives that your model will achieve. These objectives should be
measurable and should reflect the specific aims of your model.
6. Prioritize the objectives: Determine which objectives are most important and
prioritize them accordingly. This will help you focus your efforts on the most critical
aspects of the problem or issue you are addressing.
7. Refine the aims of the model: Continuously refine and revise the aims of your model
as you gather more information and refine your understanding of the problem or issue
you are addressing. This will help ensure that your model remains focused on the
most critical aspects of the problem and that it achieves its intended objectives

LEC 2: Geometry simplification

• Now we learn about how to simplify real-world geometry in order to create a
manageable but representative analysis model. Here are the key points:
1. To create a geotechnical analysis model, we need to include a significant volume of
the ground. We need to decide how much of the surrounding area we should include
in our model.
2. We can simplify the geometry of the specific structure we are analyzing as much as
we like, as long as it doesn't significantly affect the outputs we need.
3. When simplifying the outside world, we need to locate the boundaries to our model.
We can remove certain features that are far enough from our area of interest that they
won't affect the outputs we need.
4. If we need to predict the settlement of surrounding structures, we need to include
these structures in our model. Generally, only the foundation structures rather than the
buildings need to be modeled.
5. We should include any features that will be influenced by the new basement if one of
the aims of the analysis is to predict the deflection of these structures.
6. When analyzing a simple box-shaped basement, we can probably leave out some
details (such as short return walls and a non-orthogonal corner) if the aim of our
analysis is to predict the overall settlement of the building or ground movements
outside the basement or to reduce a conceptual design for the basement walls.
7. When modeling a contiguous wall, we should include its highly anisotropic stiffness
in the material parameters.
A contiguous wall is a type of structural wall that extends continuously without any
openings or interruptions, such as doors or windows.
Anisotropic stiffness refers to the stiffness of a material being different in different
directions. In the case of a contiguous wall, it can have a high anisotropic stiffness
because it has much greater stiffness in the direction perpendicular to the wall plane
than in the parallel direction. This is due to the fact that the wall is generally much
stiffer in resisting forces applied perpendicular to its surface (such as gravity loads)
than in resisting forces applied parallel to its surface (such as wind loads). The high
anisotropic stiffness of the wall needs to be considered in the material parameters of
the model to accurately simulate its behavior.
8. The acid test in all of these simplifications is whether the detail is needed to obtain
sufficiently accurate outputs from the analysis.

LEC 3: Plane Strain and Axisymmetric Assumptions

• Now we learn about the plane strain assumption and two-dimensional axisymmetric
assumption used in geotechnical numerical analysis. Here are the main points:
A complex three-dimensional structure can be simplified into a two-dimensional plane
to make analysis simpler and faster.

1. The plane strain assumption assumes that all strains are in the plane of the analysis,
and there is no strain in any direction away from the plane. This assumption can help
to simplify the analysis process, but it requires input parameters to be specified
correctly.
2. The two-dimensional axisymmetric assumption is used when a structure has circular
symmetry. In this assumption, all strains are in the plane of the analysis, and there is
no strain in any direction away from the plane except in the circumferential direction
around the vertical axis of symmetry. . Imagine a cylinder, for example. If you
squeeze it from the top and bottom, it will deform in the direction perpendicular to its
axis, but if you squeeze it from the sides, it will deform in the direction around its
axis. In the two-dimensional axisymmetric assumption, only the deformation around
the axis of symmetry is considered, while deformation in the other directions is
ignored.
3. The assumptions made in numerical analysis can affect the input parameters for soil
and rock, and this needs to be taken into account when selecting input parameters and
interpreting outputs.

LEC 4 Locating Boundaries

How to locate boundaries for geotechnical numerical analysis:

1. All numerical models need boundaries, but they cannot be placed too close or too
far from the area of interest.
2. Placing boundaries too close can result in boundary effects, which can affect the
accuracy of the analysis.
3. Placing boundaries too far can lead to unnecessarily large models and longer
analysis times.
4. A general rule of thumb is to place the boundaries at about three times the size of
the loaded area away from the area of interest.
5. Placing vertical or horizontal boundaries too close to the area of interest can result
in boundary effects and affect the output of the analysis.
6. The location of the boundaries can be checked by plotting the output of the
analysis and ensuring that it is not affected by the boundaries.
7. Once the location of the red line (where the output is unaffected by boundaries) is
determined, the boundaries can be placed outside it to eliminate boundary effects.
8. If a very stiff and strong layer exists at a shallow depth, it may be appropriate to
place a horizontal boundary there.
9. The location of the boundaries should balance accuracy and analysis time.

LEC 5 : Fixities and Axes of Symmetry

1. Models need displacement fixity in space so that they are in equilibrium under their
self-weight.
Displacement fixity refers to the constraints or boundary conditions that we apply to a
numerical model at its boundaries to prevent it from moving or deforming in certain
directions. In other words, we fix or restrain the model's movement in certain
directions to simulate the actual behavior of the physical system being modeled.
 In geotechnical numerical analysis, we need to apply displacement fixity to our model
boundaries to ensure that the model is in equilibrium under its self-weight. This
means that the model should not move or deform due to its own weight alone. If the
model is not in equilibrium, then it may not provide accurate results when we apply
loads or displacements to it.For example, we can apply horizontal and vertical fixity
at the bottom boundary of our model to simulate the restraint from the adjacent
ground that we have excluded from our model. This prevents the model from moving
or deforming in the horizontal direction, which is important for maintaining
equilibrium under self-weight.Overall, displacement fixity is essential for accurate
geotechnical numerical analysis because it ensures that our models are in equilibrium
under self-weight and can provide realistic results when we apply loads and
displacements to them.

2. We apply fixities on the horizontal and vertical directions of the bottom boundary of
the model,
3. Vertical boundaries are fixed in the horizontal direction to represent the restraint from
the adjacent ground that is excluded from the model, but allowed in the vertical
direction to allow the ground to apply its own self-weight without any vertical support
from the sides.
4. In cases where there is an axis of symmetry, we can reduce the workload by modeling
only one side of the axis. The displacement fixity is the same as for any vertical
boundary fixed in the horizontal but not the vertical direction.
5. If structures intersect the axis of symmetry, an additional displacement fixity needs to
be considered to simulate bending up a structure, which requires a rotational fixity at
the axis of symmetry to simulate the equal and opposite moment reaction from the
structure.

LEC 6 : Elements and Meshing

1. In most numerical methods, the geometry is divided up into elements forming a mesh
group.
2. The number of nodes along the length must match the number of nodes along the
sides of the elements to which they are connected to, so that no nodes are left
disconnected.
3. There is one particular element that is important in the study of soil structure
interaction called an interface element, which allows a relative movement between
soils and structures.
4. When generating a mesh of elements, it is important to strike a balance between
keeping the number of elements down in order to reduce analysis times and having
sufficiently small elements to provide more precise output.
5. It is also important to inspect the created mesh for any excessively distorted elements.
6. It is recommended to run an analysis model once prior to installing the interface
elements to check that everything works due to the additional complexity introduced
by including interface.
7. It is worthwhile performing a parametric study to obtain the parameters needed for the
interface elements, particularly the stiffness parameters.
 8. It is important to run your analysis twice with slightly different meshes to see if they
have any significant influence on the outputs that you need.
9. The lecture also advises avoiding excessively distorted elements with high aspect
ratios or twist, as they can negatively impact the analysis.

LEC 7. Constitutive Model Selection

1. Establishing the ground model and documenting the aims of the analysis model are
important activities in geotechnical numerical analysis.
2. The ground model characterizes the ground into a number of zones or layers, and
needs to be combined with the aims of the analysis to prioritize the critical aspects of
ground behavior that will have the most influence on the required outputs.
3. Constitutive models provide the relationship between stresses and strains in a
material, and there are basic models like linear elastic and linear elastic perfectly
plastic models, and advanced models that include more aspects of ground behavior
like stress and strain dependency of stiffness and isotropy Creep behavior.
4. It's important to choose the simplest model that includes the priority aspect of
behavior and not introduce unnecessary complexity.
5. The selection of constitutive models depends on various factors including structure
type, loading, construction methods, and ground conditions. Reading case studies of
similar numerical analysis in similar conditions can be helpful to identify critical
parameters.
LEC 8 . Initial Stress

1. Geotechnical numerical analysis requires the establishment of insitu stresses at the

beginning of the analysis, which is crucial for simulating field conditions.
2. The behavior of soil and rock, which are frictional materials, is governed by the
stresses within the ground.
3. Advanced constitutive models may require other initial state parameters, such as
stress history, in addition to insitu stress.
4. If the initial stress is incorrect, all the stages that follow will also be incorrect.
5. To calculate the insitu stress, the total vertical stress can be calculated from the
density of the ground layers, while the horizontal stress is calculated from the insitu
earth pressure coefficient or stress ratio.
6. Yaquis formula is often used to calculate the horizontal stress in normally
consolidated conditions, but in over-consolidated conditions, measuring or estimating
the horizontal stress may be necessary.
7. There are two methods for setting up the initial stress in a numerical model: (1)
specifying the initial stress as input to the analysis, and (2) using the gravity switch on
method, where the analysis starts without gravitational acceleration in the first stage
and then activates gravity to calculate the initial stresses.
8. It's important to simulate natural, historical, and man-made stress changes, such as
those brought about by construction and ground water changes, to establish the
present-day stress state and ensure that the analysis follows the correct stress path.
 9. Initial stresses are important for advanced models that depend on stress and stress
history, such as those that predict stress power reversal.

LEC 9 . Construction Methods

1. Construction methods are important to consider in numerical analysis because they

can influence ground behavior.
2. Compaction is a common construction activity that can improve the properties of the
ground. In numerical analysis, the improved properties can be reflected through
changes in material parameters based on testing.
3. Installation effects occur when structures like piles and embedded retaining walls are
installed in the ground. These effects should be considered in the design of analysis
models, either through simple element addition or replacement, or by simulating the
installation process to check for influence on outputs.
4. The construction sequence is important because the behavior of the ground is heavily
dependent on stress path and history. Simulating significant construction stages in
sequence can improve the accuracy of analysis models.
5. An example of changing stress states during construction is a retaining wall supported
by rake props. The wall must be designed to resist differing forces in each stage of
construction.

LEC 10 . Analysis Options

1. There are different options for calculating deflections, drainage conditions,

and groundwater levels in numerical analysis of geotechnical structures.
2. One option for calculating deflections is to calculate the displacement of nodes
while keeping their coordinates constant, which is accurate for small
deformations.
3. Another option is to update the coordinates of the nodes to match their
calculated displacements, but this is slower and less robust and should only be
used when required.
4. The updated coordinates option is necessary in specific cases, such as when
ground displacements cause changes in water pressure or when simulating
reinforcement in the ground that relies on membrane action to support the
ground such as displacement in case of a slope in contact with water body
5. The assumption regarding drainage conditions is another important choice in
numerical analysis. High permeability soils like sand and gravel can be
assumed to be drained, while low permeable soils like clay require more
complicated consolidation analysis.
6. The choice between drained and undrained behavior depends on whether
short-term or long-term predictions are needed and the permeability of the
soil.
 7. Groundwater pressures must also be specified at each stage of the analysis and
can be simple hydrostatic conditions or more complex seepage analysis
depending on site information and expected construction activities.
8. Other construction activities like groundwater extraction can also influence
groundwater conditions and should be considered in the analysis.

LEC 11 . Analysis Methods

1. When you are setting up an analysis, it's important to choose the right analysis method
that suits your aims. Different software may have different methods, and you need to
know their strengths and weaknesses to make the right choice.
2. Once you have chosen the analysis method, you may need to choose solution methods
and other calculation control parameters, which vary between different programs.
Consult the software manuals for guidance in these areas.
3. In non-linear analysis, one of the most critical parameters is the tolerated or allowable
equilibrium error, which is often used as a convergence criterion during calculation.
It's important to set this parameter correctly, as increasing it may lead to inaccurate
results.
4. If your analysis model fails to run, there could be various reasons. If the analysis
doesn't start at all, look back through the input parameters and geometry to find any
errors. If the analysis runs fine up to a particular construction stage and then stops, it's
probably something that you activated in that stage that is causing the problem. If the
analysis runs a construction stage but can't quite get to the end, it could be caused by
ill conditioning, which is a numerical problem caused by, for example, a very stiff
structure in contact with a very soft soil. In this case, you can try running an inelastic
analysis and investigating what might be causing the problem.

Solution methods and calculation control parameters are additional settings that need to be
selected after choosing the analysis method in order to run a simulation or analysis in a
specific software program.
Solution methods refer to the techniques used to solve the equations of motion or governing
equations for the system being analyzed. For example, finite element analysis uses numerical
methods to solve for the stresses and displacements in a complex structure, while boundary
element analysis uses integral equations to calculate the solution. Each method has its own
advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method depends on the specific problem
being solved.
Calculation control parameters refer to the various settings and inputs that control the
accuracy and behavior of the simulation. For example, the allowable equilibrium error is a
critical calculation control parameter in non-linear analysis, which determines the maximum
difference between the external loads and internal stresses. Other parameters may include the
time-step size, the number of iterations, the type of element used, and the type of material
properties applied.
The specific solution methods and calculation control parameters available depend on the
software program being used, and the user should consult the software manual for guidance
on selecting these options appropriately.

LEC 12 Validation

Validation of a numerical analysis model is an essential task to ensure the accuracy and
reliability of the results. It involves comparing the model outputs with other sources of
information to check if the results are reasonable and plausible.For example, if you are
analyzing the stability of a retaining wall using a numerical analysis model, you should have
some idea of what the stress parts, strain parts, and structural force plots should look like
before you start the analysis. This is based on your own experience and background
knowledge.You can also compare your results with alternative solutions to similar problems,
such as analytical solutions and other analysis methods. There are also design charts available
for most geotechnical structures that can be used to check if the results are in the right
areas.Using different software with the same analysis method can also help to identify any
errors in the initial model. Additionally, real measurements from site monitoring can be
compared with the model outputs either from a specific site or case studies of similar sites in
similar ground conditions.
Overall, the validation process involves checking the plausibility of the results using various
sources of information. This helps to ensure that the outputs are accurate and reliable and can
be used with confidence in design and decision-making.
LEC 13 Reporting

Here are the main points to consider when writing up your geotechnical numerical
analysis report:

1. Highlight the assumptions and methods used in your model for better
understanding and checking by users of the outputs.
2. Present outputs in a form that meets the needs of the users of the outputs,
with clear values and validations, rather than just pretty plots.
3. Include a summary of the information gathered for the analysis plus relevant
background information to the project and how this relates to the numerical
analysis.
4. Clearly state the aims of the numerical analysis, plus details of any previous
analysis that were performed.
5. Present the geometry in plots showing a scale axis, directional ground layers,
structures, boundary conditions, and any geometrical assumptions.
6. Present the input data in tables showing constitutive models and input
parameters for all the materials, along with the derivation of material
parameters and justification for constitutive model selection.
7. Provide initial state plots to verify that initial stress, pore water pressure, and
state variables were established correctly.
 8. Describe each construction stage in the form of tables and plots describing
assumptions such as drainage conditions and other inputs such as loadings,
time intervals, calculation methods, and convergence criteria.
9. Present the outputs in a form that meets the needs of users of the outputs as
well as presenting validation of the outputs.
10. Present your interpretation of the output and your conclusions and
recommendations, in particular for any site monitoring that may be required.
11. Remember to use direct report features in the software as much as possible to
minimize the chance of errors in transferring analysis data to your report. And
don't forget to ask for feedback and provide any necessary updates to your
report for better understanding and future use.

LEC 14 Structural Element Types

Spring Element: Connects two nodes and provides axial stiffness between them. Used for
structures that act in axial tension or compression but require no interaction with the model
except to teach in.
Bar Element: Similar to the spring element but can be connected to other nodes along its
length so that it changes shape and deforms in response to deformations around it. Can only
resist bending to the extent that the bending mobilises tension in the bar element.
Beam Element: Can model the rotational or bending stiffness of the structure as well as the
axial stiffness. Used to represent structures such as imbedded retaining walls where the
bending stiffness needs to be simulated in a 3D analysis.
Membrane Element: A two-dimensional version of the bar element because it has
translational but no rotational degrees of freedom so can deform and extend and sustain
tension but has no bending stiffness. Typically used to represent flexible soil reinforcement
such as geo textiles in order to simulate membrane action.
Plate Element: A flat element with bending as well as axial stiffness. Can be used to represent
structural walls such as basement walls and shear walls and even for floor slopes.
Shell Element: Similar to the plate element but can have a curved geometry sometimes with
and sometimes without rotational degrees of freedom.
Solid Element: Normally used to represent the soil or rock but can be used to represent
structure. Can be more accurate to do so because some effects such as soil friction are taken
into account more realistically and particularly thick structural features will be simulated
better with solid elements.

LEC 15 Plane Strain and Axisymmetric Structural Elements

1. The tutorial covers two assumptions: plane strain and axisymmetric strain.
2. In plane strain, the geometry of the problem is the same in one direction, making it
easier to model. The structural elements can be represented by solid or line elements
with thickness and material properties included in the geometry.
 3. Axisymmetric strain is when the structure has uniform properties in the
circumferential direction, making the modeling relatively straightforward.
4. The tutorial provides examples of how to calculate equivalent structure or section
properties by dividing by the compression or spacing in radians or units of weight.
It also discusses the importance of specifying parameters carefully to reflect the real
structure and interpreting outputs correctly.
5. Solid elements provide more accurate results but require more complex calculations,
while line elements can be simpler but may require entering the section properties
directly.
6. Outputs for structural forces such as axial force, bending moment, and sheer force are
usually provided per unit length or per slice.
7. To obtain output for individual structures such as anchors or piles, you need to
multiply the output by the spacing in radius or units of weight.

LEC 16 Connections, Equivalent Forces and Singularities

1. When modelling connections between structural elements in numerical geotechnical

analysis, it's important to be aware of the assumptions you make and their
implications.
2. In reality, structural connections may not be perfectly rigid and may have additional
flexibility that can impact the predicted forces.
3. It's difficult to estimate or measure connection stiffness, so it's best to perform a
parametric study on the structure stiffness to understand the influence of connections
on the required forces.
4. When using line elements to represent retaining walls, the connection will be
simulated as though it was positioned on the central axis of the wall at the top,
whereas in reality, it will be connected on the front face and slightly below the top,
which can impact the bending behavior of the wall.
5. Careful consideration is required when connecting different element types together to
avoid any issues with incompatibility.
6. Thermal effects can also impact structures, and designers may need to include thermal
expansion and contraction in their models to account for this.
7. In some cases, the effects of thermal expansion and contraction can cause straining or
changes in stress, which may require consideration in the design and numerical
model.
8. Equivalent forces may need to be calculated for distributed loads, but these may not
always represent the intended load adequately, particularly in a coarse mesh, so it's
important to check and refine the specified loading or geometry as required.
9. Singularities are infinite deformations or stresses that may be calculated in elastic
models, but they do not occur in real structures due to their complex 3D geometry and
material behavior.
10. Singularities can be removed or recognized as such, rather than designing structures
to resist such high outputs of force.
LEC 17 Concrete Structural Elements
1. Concrete comes in three forms: plain, reinforced, and prestressed, with vastly
different strengths in compression and tension.
2. Modelling reinforced concrete is commonly done with a smeared approach to
modelling reinforcement, but cracking zones must be considered.
3. Cracking in concrete affects stress distribution and stiffness, making plastic behaviour
in reinforced concrete complex.
4. Stiffness of cracked concrete sections is influenced by reinforcement arrangement and
orientation of cracks, making it difficult to calculate.
5. Non-linear geometrical behaviour may influence structural behaviour, especially for
slender holman's constructs.
6. For concrete modelling, two parameters are needed: Poisson's ratio and Young's
modulus.
7. Concrete properties are affected by age, creep, confinement, and shrinkage strains.
8. Modelling fluid concrete is straightforward and involves applying self-weight and
fluid pressure to the model.

LEC 18 Steel Structural Elements

1. Steel has a linear elastic behavior up to the yield stress, making it well-suited for a
simple linear elastic model. Beyond the yield stress, it undergoes plastic deformation,
and the von Mises criterion is commonly used to relate multiaxial stress states to the
uniaxial behavior.
2. A simple elastic perfectly plastic model or a hardening model can be used to simulate
the plastic behavior of steel.
3. Sheet pile walls are a type of steel structure used for excavation support and
foundation walls. Numerical analysis can be used to include flexibility in the
calculations and lead to economies in design.
4. When modeling plastic bending of sheet piles, geometric effects and the capacity of
the section to develop the full plastic moment resistance must be considered.
5. High rotation capacity sections can develop full plastic moment resistance and sustain
permanent deformations, while low rotation capacity sections suffer local buckling
before the full plastic moment resistance is developed.
6. Geometric buckling effects cause all sections to eventually suffer, even if the material
is strain-hardening. Softening can be included in the material model for beam
elements or excluded by limiting plasticity to the first occurrence of plastic moment
when modeling high rotation capacity sections.
7. The Colgan competency track under Structural Elements provides more learning
resources on modeling steel structures.