FEDERAL TVET INSTITUTE (FTVETI)

Department of ICT
Course title: RESEARCH METHOD IN TECHNOLOGY (IT542)

RESEARCH METHOD IN TECHNOLOGY ASSIGNMENT2

Name: Behailu Demssei ID. MTR078/12 Section: one

Submitted to: venkataramana(Doctor)

1) What are the important concepts for research design
Decisions regarding what, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a
research study constitute a research design “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to
research purpose with economy in procedure”. In fact, the research design is the
conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blue print for
the collection measurement and analysis of data. As such design includes an outline of what
the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and operational implications to the final
analysis of data. More specifically the design decisions happen to be in respect of:

1. What is the study about? (Type of the study-exploratory or experimental etc)

2. Why is the study being made? (The purpose of the study)
3. Where will the stud be carried out? (The location of the study or the places to be
covered by the study)
4. What type of data is required? (Primary or secondary or both)
5. Where can the required data are found? (The sources of data)
6. What periods of time will the study include? (Time frame)
7. What will be the sample design? (Method of sampling and size of sample)
8. What techniques of data collection will be used? (Questionnaire method,
personal interviews, schedules etc.
9. How will the data be analyzed? (Analysis of data)
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated decisions, one may split the overall research design in to
the following parts.

a) The Sampling Design: which deals with the methods of selecting items to be
observed for a given study?
b) The Observational Design: This relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made.
 c) The Statistical Design: which concerns with the question of how many items
are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed.
d) The Operational Design: which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can
be carried out.
Important Features of Research Design:

1. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
2. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing
data.
3. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these
two constraints.
4. In brief a research design, at least contain:
(a) A clear statement of research problem.
(b) Procedures and techniques used for gathering information.
(c) The population to be studied.
(d) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
Criteria of a Good Research Design:

A good design is often characterized by factors like flexibility, appropriateness, efficiency

and economy. Of course, there are many other features, which make the design better, but
the following are the minimum requirements. Generally the design which minimizes bias
and maximizes the reliability of the data collected analyzed is considered as good design.
The design, which gives smallest experimental error, is supposed to be best design in many
investigations. Thus the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of
the research problem and also with the nature of problem to be studied. A design may be
quite suitable in one case, but may be found waiting in one respect or the other in the
context of some other research problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all
types of research problems.
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following facts:

1. The ways and means of obtaining information.

2. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff.
3. The objectives of the problem to be studied.
4. The nature of the problem to be studied.
5. The availability of time and money for the research work.
Design Strategies:

Design strategies is concerned with the arrangement of the conditions and preparing blue
print, plan and a road map for conducting research in scientific and systematic manner.
Design Strategies mean a grand plan which helps the researcher to develop an appropriate
plan or type of research to be conducted in a given environment. The most important
aspect of research design is that, the newly developed design may not conform to the
originally prepared research proposal out the basics of the research should not be stifled.
In other words, the important aspect of research design such as objective, hypothesis,
statement of problem should not be altered. Decisions to construct a suitable research
design is not easy as there are a number of methods of scientific research, methods of
collection of data, and methods of sampling are accessible to the researcher. Among them, a
suitable design he has to chooses and proceeds to implement.
Classification of Research Designs
Early in any research study, one faces the task of selecting a specific design to use. A
number of design approaches exist but, unfortunately, no simple classification system
define all the variations that must be considered. Here the research designs are classified
using different descriptors. A brief discussion of these descriptors illustrates their nature
and contribution to research.
(1) Based up on the Degree of research Question crystallization: a study may be viewed
as exploratory or formal based up on the degree of structure and the immediate
objective of the study.
 Exploratory: tends toward loose of structure with the objective of discovering future
research tasks .Its immediate purpose is to develop hypotheses or questions for the
future.
Formal study: beings where the exploration leaves-off. It begins which research
hypotheses and involve precise procedures and data source specifications. Its goal
or immediate purpose is to test hypotheses or to answer research questions.
(2) Based on the Researchers control over the variables: In terms of the researchers
ability to manipulate variables we differentiate between experimental and ex post
facto design.
Experimental design: the researcher attempt to control and manipulate the
variables in the study. It is enough that we can cause variables to be changed or held
constant in keeping with our research objective. It is appropriate when one wish to
discover whether certain variables produce effect on other variables.
Ex post facto design: the investigators have no control over the variables on the
sense of being able to manipulate them. The can only report what has happened or
what is happening.
(3) Based on the purpose of the study: The essential difference between descriptive and
casual research designs lie in their purpose /objective.
Decretive: it is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, how much. The
purpose is to describe.
Casual: it is concerned with why and how one variable produce changing in anther.
The purpose is to explain causal relation among variables under investigation.
(4) Based up on the time dimensions: based on the time dimension of the research
design can be classified as longitudinal and cross- sectional.
Longitudinal: if the data collection for the research taken place in multiple time
points and the research is undertaken in several time periods. The advantage of
longitudinal design is that it can track changes over time and comparison of data
across time is possible.
Cross- sectional: if the data collection is taken place in single time point are research
is undertaken in single time period (i.e., carried out once and represent a snapshoot
one point in the time)
 Descriptors of Research Designs

Category Options (Type of design)

1.The degree to which the a) Exploratory

research question has been
b) Formal
crystallized

2. The researchers control over a) Experimental

the variable
b) Ex post facto

3. Based on the purpose of the a) Descriptive

study
b) Casual

4. Based up on the time dimension a) Longitudinal

b) Cross sectional.

2) Write down about steps in sample design

Ans A researcher should take into consideration the following aspects while
developing a sample design:
1. Type of Universe: The first step involved in developing sample design is to clearly
define the Number of cases, technically known as the universe. A universe may be
finite or infinite. In a finite universe the number of items is certain, whereas in the case
of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite (i.e., there is no idea about the
total number of items). For example, while the population of a city or the number of
workers in a factory comprise finite universes, the number of stars in the sky, or
throwing of a dice represent infinite universe.
2. Sampling Unit: Prior to selecting a sample, decision has to be made about the
sampling unit. A sampling unit may be a geographical area like a state, district, village,
etc., or a social unit like a family, religious community, school, etc., or it may also be an
individual. At times, the researcher would have to choose one or more of such units for
his/her study.
3. Source List: Source list is also known as the ‘sampling frame’, from which the sample
is to be selected. The source list consists of names of all the items of a universe. The
researcher has to prepare a source list when it is not available. The source list must be
reliable, comprehensive, correct, and appropriate. It is important that the source list
should be as representative of the population as possible.
4. Size of Sample: Size of the sample refers to the number of items to be chosen from the
universe to form a sample. For a researcher, this constitutes a major problem. The size
of sample must be optimum. An optimum sample may be defined as the one that
satisfies the requirements of representativeness, flexibility, efficiency, and reliability.
While deciding the size of sample, a researcher should determine the desired precision
and the acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of the population
variance should be considered, because in the case of a larger variance generally a
larger sample is required. The size of the population should be considered as it also
limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study should also be
considered, while deciding the sample size. Besides, costs or budgetary constraint also
plays a crucial role in deciding the sample size.
(A) Parameters Of Interest: The specific population parameters of interest should also
be considered while determining the sample design. For example, the researcher may
want to make an estimate of the proportion of persons with certain characteristic in
the population, or may be interested in knowing some average regarding the
population. The population may also consist of important sub-groups about whom the
researcher would like to make estimates. All such factors have strong impact on the
sample design the researcher selects. (B) Budgetary Constraint: From the practical
point of view, cost considerations exercise a major influence on the decisions related to
not only the sample size, but also on the type of sample selected. Thus, budgetary
constraint could also lead to the adoption of a non-probability sample design. (c)
Sampling Procedure: Finally, the researcher should decide the type of sample or the
technique to be adopted for selecting the items for a sample. This technique or
procedure itself may represent the sample design. There are different sample designs
from which a researcher should select one for his/her study. It is clear that the
researcher should select that design which, for a given sample size and budget
constraint, involves a smaller error.
3) Explain processing operations of research data
Operations research (OR) are an analytical method of problem-solving and decision-
making that is useful in the management of organizations. In operations research, problems
are broken down into basic components and then solved in defined steps by mathematical
analysis.

The process of operations research can be broadly broken down into the following steps:
1. Identifying a problem that needs to be solved.
2. Constructing a model around the problem that resembles the real world and variables.
3. Using the model to derive solutions to the problem.
4. Testing each solution on the model and analyzing its success.
5. Implementing the solution to the actual problem.
Disciplines that are similar to, or overlap with, operations research include
Statistical analysis , management science, game theory, optimization theory, artificial
intelligence and network analysis. All of these techniques have the goal of solving complex
problems and improving quantitative decisions.
The concept of operations research arose during World War II by military planners. After
the war, the techniques used in their operations research were applied to addressing
problems in business, the government and society.
There are three primary characteristics of all operations research efforts:
1. Optimization- The purpose of operations research is to achieve the best performance
under the given circumstances. Optimization also involves comparing and narrowing down
potential options.
2. Simulation- This involves building models or replications in order to try out and test
solutions before applying them.
3. Probability and statistics- This includes using mathematical algorithms and data to
uncover helpful insights and risks, make reliable predictions and test possible solutions.
The field of operations research provides a more powerful approach to decision making
than ordinary software and data analytics tools. Employing operations research
professionals can help companies achieve more complete datasets, consider all available
options, predict all possible outcomes and estimate risk. Additionally, operations research
can be tailored to specific business processes or use cases to determine which techniques
are most appropriate to solve the problem.
Operations research can be applied to a variety of use cases, including:
 Scheduling and time management.
 Urban and agricultural planning.
 Enterprise resource planning (ERP) and supply chain management (SCM).
 Inventory management.
 Network optimization and engineering.
 Packet routing optimization.
 Risk management.

4) What is need for sampling?

Sampling refers to drawing a sample (subset) from a population (the fullest). The theory of
sampling has been developed recently but this is not new. In our every day life we have
been using sampling theory. In all cases we believe that the sample gives a correct idea
about the population.

In research it also refers to choosing a smaller, more tangible number of people to take part
in the research. The usual goal of sampling is to produce a representative sample (i.e. a
sample that is similar to the population on all characteristics, except that it includes fewer
people because it is a sample rather than a complete population).

The foremost purpose of sampling is to gather maximum information about the population
under consideration at minimum cost, time and human power. This is best achieved when
the sample contains all the properties of the population.

Terminology Used in Sampling

Here are some important terms used in sampling:

A sample: A set of element taken from a population (i.e. a finite subset of individuals
defined in a population.)

Sampling unit: The constituents of a population, which are individual’s to be sampled from
the population and can not be further subdivided for the purpose of sampling
at a time. Ex: to know the average income per family the head of the family is
the sampling unit. To know the average yield of wheat each farmer owner’s
yield of wheat is the sampling unit.

Population: the full set of elements or people you are sampling. Technically known as
Universe. The universe can be finite or infinite; in earlier case the number of
items is certain.

Sampling Design: A definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame. It refers
to technique / Procedure adopted by the researcher.
Census: A measurement of all the units in the population.

Statistics Vs Parameter

Statistics: a numerical characteristics of as ample (i.e. is a number that result from

measuring all the units in the sample.)

Parameter: a numerical characteristic of a population (i.e., is a number that result from

measuring all the units in the claimed population)

 Statistics derived from samples are used to estimate population

Sampling error Vs. Non- sampling error
Sampling error: Although the sample is the part of the population it cannot be expected
generally to supply full information about the population. So there may be in most cases
difference between statistics and parameters. The discrepancy between a parameter and
its estimate (statistics) due to sampling process is known as sampling error (i.e., the
difference between the value of a sample statistics (such as the sample mean) and the true
value of the population parameter (such as the population mean).

Non- sampling error: In all research /survey some errors may occur during collection of
actual information. These errors are called non- sampling error.

Reasons for selecting sample: Why sample?

Sampling is inevitable in the following situations:

 Complete enumeration are practically impossible when the population is infinite,

 When the results are required in short time - it would be too time consuming to
study the whole units in the population.
 When the area of survey is wide - it would be too expensive and time consuming as
will to study the whole units in the population
 When resource (Money, time and trained persons) are limited.
 When the items or units are destroyed under investigation for example a company
to demonstrate that their car can survive certain crash tests. Obviously, the
 company cannot expected to crash every car, to see if it survives, the company crash
only the sample of cars.
Principles of sampling

Samples have to provide good estimate. The following principle tells us that the sample
methods provide such good estimate.

1. Principle of statistical regularity : A moderately large number of units chosen at

random form large groups are almost sure on the average to possess the
characteristics of the large group.
2. Principle of Inertia of large number: Other things being equal, as the sample size
increase the result tend to be more accurate and reliable.
3. Principle of validity: This states that the sampling methods provide valid estimate a
bout the population units (parameters).
4. Principle of Optimization: The principle takes in to account the desirability of
obtaining a sampling design which gives optimum result. This minimizes the risk/
loss of the sampling design.
TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGN

There are different types of sample design based on two factors viz. the representation
basis and the Element Selection Technique. On the representation basis the sample may be
probability sampling or it may be non- probability sampling. Probability sampling is based
on the concept of random selection. Whereas non-probability is non-probability is non-
rand sampling.

On the element selection basis the sample may be restricted or unrestricted. When each
sample element is drawn individually from the population at large, then the sample so
drawn is known as unrestricted sample, where as all other forms of sampling are covered
under the term restricted sampling. However, Sample design is basically of two types:
probability and non- probability sampling

Basics sample Design

Element selection Representation Basis

Technique

Probability Non-probability

Random Sampling Haphazard/

Unrestricted (simple ) convenience

sampling

Restrict Cluster sampling Purposive sampling

Systematic sampling (Quota, judgment sampling)

Stratified sampling

Probability Sampling

A probability sampling is on where the selection of the units from the population is made
according to known probability. The sample is based on probability theory. Every unit of
the population of interest must have a know non-zero chance of being selected in to the
sample.

- Assigns equal probability/ chance to each units of the population (Every element
has equal (non zero) chance of being selected.
- Error of estimation/significance of results obtained can be measured.
- Best technique for representative sample (i.e., produce representative sample).
- Ensure the law of statistical regularity (i.e., on an average, sample chosen will have
the same composition and structure as the universe/ population.)
- Even each combination (possible) of sample will have equal probability of being
picked.
- All choices are independent of one another.
Types of probability sampling

(1)Simple Random sampling: A simple random sample from finite population is a

sample selected such that each possible sample combination has equal probability
 of being chosen. It is also called unrestricted random sampling. In this type of
probability sampling each unit in the population is identified, and each unit has an
equal chance of being in the sample. The selection of each unit is independent of the
selection of every other unit. Selection of one unit doesn’t affect the chance of any
other unit
Methods of selection of simple random sampling

(a) Lottery method: This is the most simple and popular method. In this method all the
items of the population are assigned a number on a separate slip of paper of same
size, shape and color. They are folded and mixed in a container. The required number
of slip is selected at random for the desire sample size. If the universe/population is
infinite this method is inapplicable.

(b) Table of Random Numbers: As the lottery method cannot be used, when the
population is infinite, the alternative method is that of using the table of random
numbers. A random number table is so constructed that all digits 0 to 9 appear
independent of each other with equal frequency. If we have to select sample from
population of size N= 100, then the numbers from 001 to 100.

Procedures: Units of the population from which a sample is required are assigned
with equal number of digits. When the size of the population is less than thousand,
three digit numbers 000, 001, 002, --- 999 are assigned. We may start at any place and
may go on in any direction such as a column wise or row-wise in a random number
table. But consecutive numbers are to be used. If any random number is greater than
the population size N the N can be subtracted from the random number drawn. This
can be repeatedly until the number is less than N or equal to N.

Example: In an area there are 500 families. Using the following extract from a table of
random number select a simple of 15 families to find out the standard of living of the
families in that area.

4652 3819 8431 2150 2352 2472 0043 3488

 9031 7617 1220 4129 7148 1943 4890 1749

2030 2327 7353 6007 9410 9179 2722 8445

0641 1489 0328 0385 8488 0422 7209 4950

In the above random number table we can start from any row/column and read three
digit numbers continuously row-wise or column-wise.

Now we start from the third row, the numbers are:

203 023 277 353 600 794 109

179 272 284 450 641 148 908

280.

Since some numbers are greater than 500 we subtract 500 from those numbers and we
rewrite the selected numbers as follow.

203 023 277 353 100 294 109

179 272 284 450 641 141 408

280.

(2)Systematic Random sampling: each unit in the population is identified and each
unit has an equal chance of being in the sample. It is also called Quasi- random
sampling. Selection procedures: systematic sampling involves three steps:
1st: Determine the sampling interval, which is symbolized by “K” (i.e., it is the
population size divided by the desired sample size).

2nd: Randomly select a number between 1 and k and include that person/unit in
your sample.
 3rd: Include all kth elements in your sample. For example if K is10 and your random
selected number between 1 and 10, for instance 5, then you will select persons
5,15,25----etc. When you get to the end of your sampling frame you will have all the
people to be included in your sample.

(3)Stratified Random sampling :

All of the methods of sampling the procedure commonly used in surveys are stratified
sampling. This technique is mainly used to reduce the population Heterogeneity and
to increase the efficiency of estimate.

Stratification means division in to groups. In this method the population is divided in

to a number of sub-groups/strata. The strata should be so formed that each stratum is
homogeneous as far as possible. Then from each stratum a simple random sample
may be selected and these are combined together to form the required sample from
the population.

There are two types of stratified sampling. They are Proportional and Non-
proportional. In the proportional sampling equal and proportional representation is
given to subgroups or strata. If the number of items is large the sample will have a
higher size and vice versa. The population size denoted by N and the sample size is
denoted by ‘n’ the sample size is allocated to each stratum. That is given by n/N =C. so
in this method each stratum is represented according to its size.

In Non-proportional sample, equal representation is given to all the sub-strata

regardless of their existence in the population.
Example: A sample of 50 students is to be drawn from a population consisting of 500
students belonging to two institutions A and B. The number of student in the
institution A is 200 and the institution B is 300. How will you draw the sample using
proportional allocation? There are two strata in this case with sizes N 1=200 and N2
=300 and the total population N= N1 + N2 = 500.

The sample size is 50.

If n1 and n2 are the sample size:

n1= n x N1 = 50 x 200 =20

N 500

n2 = n x N2 = 50 x 300 = 30

N 500

The sample size is 20 from A and 30 from B. then the unit from each institution is to
be selected by simple random sampling.

(4)Cluster Sampling: cluster sampling views the units in the population as not only
being members of the total population but as members also of naturally occurring
in a cluster within the population. Cluster sampling is used in a large geographic
sample where No list is available of all units in the population but the population
boundaries can be well-defined.
Example: To obtain information about the drug habit of all high school students in a
state:

You could obtain the list of all school districts in the state and select a

set of school districts.

Then with in each selected school district list all the high schools and

select a SRS of classes.

 Within each selected high school list all the high school of classes

Then use the high school students in that class as your sample.

Cluster sampling must use a random sampling method at each stage. Generally it
divides area of interest in to a number of smaller non-overlapping areas /cluster.

Non- Probability/ sampling

It is the one where discretion is used to select representative units from the
population (or) to infer that a sample is representative of the population. This method
is also called Non-Random/judgment / purposive sampling. It mainly used for opinion
survey.

Focus on volunteers, easily available units, or those just happen to be present when
the researcher is done. It is useful for quick and cheap studies, case studies, for
qualitative research, for pilot studies, and for developing hypotheses for further
research.

There are FOUR main types of Non-probability methods/procedures:

(1) Convenience sampling: also called accidental /Haphazard /man in the street
sampling. The researcher selects units that are convenient, close at hand, and easy
to reach.
(2) Purposive sampling: The researchers select the units with some purpose in mind.
The researcher specifies the characteristics of the population of interest and then
locates individuals who match those characteristics. Ex: Experts on coops,
students who lives in dorm on campus.
(3) Quota sampling: The researcher constructs quotas for different types of units. It
also often involves setting quotas and then use convenience sampling to obtain
those Quotas.
(4) Snowball sampling: Each research participant is asked to identify other potential
research participants who have a certain characteristics. You start with one or few
participants, ask them for more, find those, ask them for some and continue until
you have a sufficient sample size. It usually used where no sampling frame exist.