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FOSTER STUDY
It is also called the adoption study. here all we need is a good sample
size (not necessary twins) say for example 500 individuals. These 500
kids are made to adopt in three different types of environments -
good, average, bad. These three adjectives are in accordance with socio
economic parameters. This is splitting of kids into three categories,
randomly in order to avoid any genetic bias. That is VRR emphasising
more on the environmental factors rather than on the genetic factors.

The period of time maybe decided by the trade under study As

different traits may require different time period. What example is a
trait understudy is IQ. IQ testing of the kids is conducted And the
scores are compared to infer the role of environment and the trait.

Following points must be strictly followed in this study :

• adoption should be as early in the childhood as possible. it is done
to negate the influence of the original family.

• The sample size should be large.

• The classification of homes should be on clear parameters. For

example average income, literacy etc…

• We could also compare the difference between the adopted child vs

the biological child of the foster home.

• Orphanages could also be a good catchment for sampling and data

collection.

We have studied that genetics is all about predictability. Because we

know that genetics is the Blueprint and a thorough study of this can
give us more insight into the predictability.
Homo sapiens are Separated on the basis of :
• race (sociological)
• population
• political boundaries
• religion
• language
• culture
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
Pedigree is a French word which translates to crane’s foot. pedigree
chart is a symbolic representation of the inheritance pattern of a trait/
phenotype in a family lineage. Hence it is also useful to predict the
transmission of the traits understudy to the future generations. The
symbols are as follows : ①

①
• Proband - The person who initiates
the process of making the Pedigree chart.
• Questions - related to family
members
• Answers - symbol are used for
universal readability.
• every generation in the horizontal
row is marked by the Roman numeral
sequence. ②
• Based on the Pedigree chart the
inheritance pattern of the trait is
deduced which goes in this order :
* We first find out whether they trait
is dominant or recessive.
* and then whether it is autosomal or
sex linked.
• Based on the results the decision
making on marriage, reproduction or
family planning or management of the
possible future diseases in the child
could be done.

E-
0
 # A dominant trait will not skip a generation. that’s how we figure out
if a particular trait is dominant or recessive.
# we decide if a trait is dominant autosomal or not by - when Male
and female will have equal probability.
# A dominant trait is said to be allosomal - When it is X-linked.

⑦# Mitochondrial genes will be carried only from the mothers to the

offspring. If the Offspring is a male, he will not pass on the traits. If the
offspring is female, she will pass on the trait.

# X-linked recessive traits follow criss-cross inheritance pattern. that

is the treat is transmitted from the female to the grand daughter through
her son.
 CHANCES OF MISLEADING CHART ARISE
• when the sample size is small.
• When there are adoptions in the family or still births in the family.
• if the information given is wrong.

Pedigree analysis in conjugation with The modern molecular genetics.

EUGENICS
Francis Galton in his eugenics study concluded that when good birth
Gets mixed up with Political aspirations have given rise to horrendous
results for example in case of Hitler who supported racism and selective
killing to create a pure genetic breed, or in the case of Swedish
government from 1934-76 forbid the breeding of selective people under
the context of eugenics.
Eugenics refers to racial improvement in animals such as dogs, pigeons
etc... It is also used in humans for predicting the diseases and helping
in the decision-making. And many a times it is the eugenic study which
leads to medical termination of pregnancy.

BIO CHEMICAL GENETICS

it is a combination of biochemistry and genetics.
Biochemical pathways refers to any substrate in the body like glucose,
gene etc is acted upon by any particular enzyme may give us a
particular product which maybe acted upon by another enzyme which
may give us another particular product, which may again be acted upon
by another enzyme which may give us another particular product.

①
This is the no .

of Biochemical

pathway every
day
-

.
?⃝
Biochemical pathway that maybe related with An observable phenotype is
catalysed by a series or a set of enzymes Which are biochemically
proteinaceous. The central dogma connects every protein to a genetic
origin. And hence any phenotype or phenotypic aberrations can be
connected back to the protein through which the gene responsible could
also be decoded.
Biochemical genetics is this study of the gene-protein connect for
various phenotypes and phenotypic anomalies. This leads to better genetic
understanding Vis-a-vis a particular trait and also to derive therapeutic
and management strategies for the congenital disorders. These are the
following steps involved :
• Separation of proteins from the concerned tissue that can purify the
protein of interest.
• sequence the proteins (protein is a sequence of amino acids).
• Convert the amino acid sequence to the genetic sequence. This would
give the presence of a mutated region.

Biochemical pathway is important when it comes to inborn errors of

metabolism.
ALKAPTONURIA or AKU is a disease which may lead to Urine turning black
when left to oxidise in the open for some time, blackening of nose, ears
etc… it is characterised by accumulation of enzymes.
PHANYLKETONURIA aka PKU Refers to a disease which happens when
PHENYLALANINE Into TYROSINE it leads to intellectual disability. it can
be prevented by giving the child PHENYLALANINE restricted diet. This
intellectual disability takes place at the early age therefore once this
stage is crossed the person can still lead a normal life.
Kerala recently has decided to genetically screen all the newborns born
in public health facilities to be called as universal implementation of
newborn screening in India.

IMMUNOGENETICS
It is all about connective genes with the antigen and the response to the
antigen. In other words immunogenetics is the field of genetics of
immune system And studying it’s inheritance pattern :
• to understand the genetics of immunology.
• to decode the genes related immunological maladies.
•
• Study of immunogenetics has also given the insights like Diseases like
schizophrenia Are associated with the alleles related to human……..
Recently a pilot study on a South Indian Tamil speaking group done bye
Jeevan stem-cell foundation, Chennai, confirmed the Association of
specific HLA alleles with the disease. Similarly many autosomal mutations
are associated with B-cells, T-cells deficiencies Leading to compromised
Immune systems.
Immunogenetics Helps understanding the genetic relationship of many
diseases like autoimmune disorders like type 1 diabetes, Rheumatoid
arthritis, multiple sclerosis etc… Immunogenetical methods May also
help (through antigenic and genetic comparisons) understand the
differences between different species and ends infer Their evolutionary
distance.