VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

V - 61
^ra`k hms njalraias
njalraias nk oukrzas `mrtagtks y imi
imikgtms
kgtms ohkxjmgagtks para ha vjla quk sk iukstrag
a `mgtjgua`jðg.

PMH[@JMG

1
 
VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

9> 3.<  3  >  >  5  

9>  1616 3.<  

9> >63.< ?:.:6> 1?    ↕ 5  10.? 

96.<  

∾  96.0;  

96.<6.0;; 10.?6.0;
96.<    9 . 
↕   

Z pmr kh iêtmnm nk ha suia nk árkas4

5
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

V - 65
[ga vjla nk sk``jðg rk`tagluhar kstá smiktjna a uga oukrza `mrtagtk nk 10 BG.
a) Nktkrijgar kh ksoukrzm `mrtagtk kg kh pugtm V nk ha sk``jðg tragsvkrsah
e) Kh ksoukrzm `mrtagtk iáxjim kg ha vjla.

PMH[@JMG
a) (οV)4

@mg4 A 9 (6.1)(6.15) 9 6.615 i5  _ 9 (10 BG)(1666) 9 10666 G.

y1 9 (?6-;6) 9 16 ii 9 6.61 i. ` 9 (c/5) 9156/5) 9 ?6 ii 9 6.6? i.

0
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

 9 56.615  11 6.6? ∾  9 1;<:3?1.1    ↕  91.;3 

010666 6.61 
 

e) Kg`mgtraims kh ksoukrzm `mrtagtk iáxjim kg ha vjla (y 1 9 6)4

0  010666  
 9 5 1        9 6 4  9 56.615  

∾ 91?5;666    ↕  9 1.?5;
?5; .
.  

V - 60
Ha vjla smhkra nk 0’ x ?’ imstrana ksta rkomrzana `mg uga phatjga
phatjga nk ¹’. @ah`uhar πijg. y πIax. 
Kg ha iankra y ha phatjga sj Iiax.  9 56 BG ‐ i, sj Kian 9 16 LVa y Ka` 9 566 LVa

PMH[@JMG

 9    9  

.. ↕    9  9 
      ∾ 9  

  4  9  ∜  9  .

    
  ̋4  9 ∑∑  9 ... . 9.9.
.  

>
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

Jgkr`ja nk ha sk``jðg ^ragsomriana4 Pk `ah`uha pmr kh tkmrkia nk hms kdks parahkhms.

 9 151 0? 0∜?0.;1.><  151 ?66.; ?6∜6.;1.><6.5;  

 9.   ↕  9.∕  

Ksoukrzms Gmriahks kg ha Iankra4

  9 56∜16 6.1?;16.60<0

∕ 9 0;.>  


  

56∜
56 ∜ <.
 51:<16
16
16 6.60<06.615<
  9 <.51:<16∕ 9 ?.31   
  

Ksoukrzms Gmriahks kg kh a`krm4

56
56∜ ∜  16  6.60<0
  9 <.51:<16∕ 56 56 9 56?
56?..?? 
 

 

  9 56∜

56 ∜  16  6.60<06.615<
∕ 556699 10?
10?..5: 
 
  

V - 6> <.51:<
1:<1616
Ukprkskgtar has hkyks nk varja`jðg nkh imikgtm ohk`tmr, kh ksoukrzm `mrtagtk y kh ksoukrzm gmriah 
kg ha vjla nk ha ojlura, a`mtagnm hms vahmrks iás `ara`tkréstj`ms4

;
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

PMH[@JMG

^raeadagnm pmr traims tkgjkgnm kg `ukgta has prmpjknanks nk has artj`uha`jmgks

^raeadagnm `mg kh N@H nk ha vjla `miphkta tkgkims4

?
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

 A partjr nk ksta tra`kims

tra`kims ha `urva khástj`a m nkomriana nk ha vjla

Kg ha ojlura agtkrjmr meskrvaims quk hms vahmrks nk imikgtm

i mikgtm ohk`tmr quk nkekims `ah`uhar skrág
hms `mrrkspmgnjkgtks a hms pugtms A, @ y kh pugtm jgtkriknjm nkh traim NK, puks kg khhms kh
imikgtm ohk`tmr pmnrá skr iáxjim pmsjtjvm m iáxjim gklatjvm.

x 9 3 i4 @mgsjnkraims ha partk nk vjla a ha nkrk`ca nk x 9 3 i.

Vmr hm tagtm4 Ha rkprkskgta`jðg lráoj`a nk kstas hkyks nk varja`jðg ks ha sjlujkgtk4

sjlu jkgtk4

<
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

V - 6;
Vara ha vjla kg vmhanjzm `mg `arla ‘V’ kg kh kxtrkim hjerk E. Pk pjnk4
a) @ah`uhar kh
kh ljrm kg ha sk``jðg @.
e) @ah`uhar kh
kh nksphazaijkgtm vkrtj`ah nkh pugtm E.

PMH[@JMG

VAU^K a)4

Gukvaikgtk ca`jkgnm tkgnkr i 9 6, tkgkims4

1 /  1 1 
∋ 9  {∢ 6  ∢/1} 9  5  >   


∾ ∋ 9 
 

VAU^K e)4  

3
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

  915 ?0     915 ?:  

Vara 6 ≮ x 1 ≮ ? 
>  
 9   5   ↕  915 6.; 5  

Vara 6 ≮ x 5 ≮ 0
   
↕ 4 915
9  6.; 5 

  9  ↕ ∏9    

V - 11 
V61 Vara ha vjla nk ha ojlura, nktkrijgar hms njalraias nk oukrza `mrtagtk y imikgtm Ohk`tmr.

@áh`uhm nk Uka``jmgks
Kh prjikr pasm ks jnkgtjoj`arhas, nk a`ukrnm `mg kh tjpm nk sustkgta`jðg kstaehk`jna, y ankiás ojdar a prjmrj su
skgtjnm.

Kg ksta kstru`tura ankiás apark`k uga gukva artj`uha`jðg kg @, hm `uah ks gk`ksarjm para kh `áh`uhm nk has rka``jmgks
ya quk sj gm tkgnréaims iás jg`ðlgjtas quk k`ua`jmgks.
Kg kstk `asm, para kh `áh`uhm nk has rka``jmgks skrá gk`ksarjm partjr ha kstru`tura pmr ha artj`uha`jðg @. @mg khhm sk

metkgnrág has rka``jmgks kg N.

:
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

[ga vkz metkgjna uga nk has rka``jmgks sk metkgnrág kh rkstm.

Ah caekr metkgjnm has rka``jmgks vkrtj`ahks iknjagtk nms k`ua`jmgks jgnkpkgnjkgtks nk imikgtms pkrijtk vkrjoj`ar
ha `mgsjstkg`ja nk nj`cms rksuhtanms iknjagtk ha k`ua`jðg kh kqujhjerjm lhmeah nk oukrzas vkrtj`ahks, gm usana tmnavéa4

[ga vkz vjstm quk ks jrrkhkvagtk kh skgtjnm

skg tjnm ojdanm a prjmrj para has rka``jmgks y para has k`ua`jmgks nk kqujhjerjm, `aek
ikg`jmgar quk, nksnk kh pugtm nk vjsta prá`tj`m, gm ks iahm iagtkgkr ug ijsim `rjtkrjm nk sjlgms. Ksm `rka ug cáejtm
y `mg khhm sk rkoukrza ha sklurjnan ah mpkrar.
Kg ha Ojlura sk cag guikranm hms `mrtks quk sk vag a nar para uga iaymr `harjnan.

Pjstkia `miphktm nk a``jmgks y rka``jmgks

V - 15 
½@uáh nkekrá skr ha njstag`ja ‘S’ kg ha sjlujkgtk vjla, para quk kh imikgtm iáxjim pmsjtjvm ska
guiêrj`aikgtk jluah ah imikgtm iáxjim gklatjvm=

16
 
VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

Pmhu`jðg4
@ah`uhaims has rka``jmgks kg hms apmyms, hms `uahks skrág nk 5^ ca`ja arrjea, nkejnm a quk ha vjla ks sjiêtrj`a kg
lkmiktréa y `arlas, ksqukiatjzagnm kh njalraia nk imikgtm
ohk`tmr quk sk prmnu`jrá, hm `uah sk jgvjta ah hk`tmr a `miprmear
quk sk trata nk paráemhas `uanrátj`as, tahta h `mim sk iukstra kg
ha ojlura.
Vmr natm nkh prmehkia4

Vhagtkaims has k`ua`jmgks4

Kok`tuaims kh `áh`uhm, metkgjkgnm uga k`ua`jðg

`uanrátj`a4
 5196  
Nj`ca k`ua`jðg tjkgk 5 smhu`jmgks, sjkgnm ha pmsjtjva ha vkrnankra, ks nk`jr4
nk`jr 4
 9 .  
 

V - 10 
[ga vjla `mipuksta sk `mgstruyk nk uga vjla nk iankra nk ? phl nk ag`cm y 3 p
phl
hl nk ahtura, rkomrzana
kg ha `ara jgokrjmr pmr uga pha`a nk a`krm nk ? phl nk ag`cm 5 puhl
   l
pmr nk
phl 6,;phl
ag`cmnkpmr
kspksmr y kg
1 phl nk ha `ara tah
kspksmr, supkrjmr
`mim pmr mtra pha`a
sk iukstra kgnk
ha a`krm
ojlura nk 5     h
   u
   p
 
Kh iðnuhm nk khastj`jnan para ha iankra ks Ki 9 1.; x16 ? psj y para     1

kh a`krm ks Ka`.9 06 x 16 ? psj Nktkrijgar kh imikgtm ohk`tmr

iáxjim ‘I’ para ha vjla, sj hms ksoukrzms pkrijsjehks para ha iankra
y kh a`krm smg πi 9 5666 psj y πa` 9 1?666 psj. 
psj.     l
    h
   u
Iankra    p
 
    3

   l
    h
   u
   p
 
    ;
 .
? puhl     6

PMH[@JMG
Ksqukiatjzaims ha sk``jðg trasvkrsah nk ha vjla y su `mrrkspmgnjkgtk sk``jðg kqujvahkgtk nk a`krm.
@ah`uhaims kh ag`cm kqujvahkgtk nk ha vjla nk iankra, `mgvkrtjna kg a`krm, usagnm omriuha sjlujkgtk4

11
 
VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

 1.;∜16 
 9   9 06∜16 ?   ↕  9 6.0 ..  
[ej`aims ha pmsj`jðg nkh kdk gkutrm (KG), kh `uah pasa pmr kh @L nk ha sk``jðg `mgvkrtjna kg a`krm.
 9 ?6.;?6.5;6.0
6.5;6.03>.;5
6.; 6.0
>.;51: 9 0.::
6.03 51 :: ∾  9 0.::::  
 
@áh`uhm nkh imikgtm nk Jgkr`ja rkspk`tm ah KG4

 9 ?6.15;  ?6.;0.<>  6.0153 6.0 6.;11  51

6.036. 15

 5  1  ;. 6 1 9 .  

PK@@JMG NK HA _JLA PK@@JMG NK HA _JLA KQ[J_AHKG^K

NK A@KUM

 Aphj`agnm has oðriuhas para ha `mgnj`jðg

`mgnj`jðg nk rksjstkg`ja para kh a`krm y hha
a iankra, tkgjkgnm kg `ukgta kg
aiems `asms kh raglm nk imikgtm ohk`tmr iáxjim, tkgkims4
 A`krm
 A` krm44
 ;.;1 ≮1?666 ∾  ≮. 
 9   ≮    ↕ .  -Vuhl  
-Vuhl

Iankra4
 9   
  ≮  ↕ 1.;16
16
  >.;1 ≮5666 ∾  ≮ 
 
..  
 
  0616  

@mim kh imikgtm ohk`tmr ks ôgj`m nkek nk `uiphjr `mg aiems `asms, tah `mim sk iukstra kg ha ojlura4

Nk ksta iagkra, kh imikgtm pkrijsjehk skrá4

 9.9..  

V ‐
 ‐ 1>
 1>
[ga earra rk`tagluhar nk a`krm nk ;6ii nk ag`cm pmr 36 ii nk kspksmr, ks `arlana `mim sk iukstra kg ha
ojlura. Nktkrijgar ha ialgjtun y uej`a`jðg nkh iáxjim ksoukrzm ohkxjmgagtk. 

15
 
VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

; BG - i 5 BG

1i 1i 1i
 
PMH[@JMG

@áh`uhm nk has rka``jmgks kg hms apmyms4

  96 ↕ 0
0 5
55
5 ;96 ∾  9  

  9 6 ↕    596 ∾ ∾    9  

Tmga J4 6 ≮ x 8 1 i 
i   9 1
1  
Tmga JJ4 1 ≮ x 8 5 i 
i  9;1
9; 1  
Tmga JJJ4 5i ≮ x 8 0 i 9;1
9; 155  
∾  9 :   0
0  

Huklm kh iáxjim imikgtm ks nk > bG-i, y sk uej`a kg a u

ugg iktrm nkh apmym jzqujkrnm. A `mg
`mgtjgua`jðg
tjgua`jðg sk
nktkrijga kh ksoukrzm iáxjim prmnu`jnm kg kstk pugtm.

 9 
 
  
..   9 
..    ∾   9.  /   

 4  9 
 9.     9./   

V ‐
 ‐ 1;
 1;  
@mgsjnkraims uga vjla AE, smerk ha `uah kstá sjkgnm aphj`ana uga `arla ugjomria w y uga oukrza V kg su kxtrkim.
Pjkgnm M kh harlm nk ha vjna nk 5i, w9 > bG/i, K.J 9 ; IG.i5 y V 9 ? bG nktkrijgk ha nkohkxjðg hjgkah kg kh pugtm A.  

PMH[@JMG

10
 
VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

Z kh imikgtm ohk`tmr skréa4

9 15  ↕   9   

1   1 
↕  9  ∢ 1  
 5    4  9   0  3   

Pustjtuykgnm hms vahmrks nanms kg kh kdkr`j`jm tkgnrkims quk4
  9 .   

V ‐
 ‐ 1:
 1:
Nktkrijgar kh imikgtm ohkxjmgagtk pkrijsjehk `mg rkspk`tm ah kdk gkutrm cmrjzmgtah nk ha
sk``jðg nk ha vjla imstrana, `mipuksta pmr iankra y iktah , hms `uahks kstág ugjnas
ojrikikgtk `mim ug smhm `ukrpm, sj KIktah 9 5.> x 16? Bl/`i5, K Iankra 9 :.? x 16> Bl/`i5,
hms ksoukrzms pkrijsjehks smg πIktah 9 1?66 Bl/`i5  y πIankra 9 :? Bl/`i5.
; `i

1.5; `i

Iankra      i
     `
      6
      0

1.5; `i

<.; `i ; `i <.; `i

PMH[@JMG

1>
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

Vmr kh iktmnm nk ha sk``jmg trgaomriana tkgkims4

; `i

1.5; `i

Iankra      i
     `
      6
      0

1.5; `i

<.; `i ; `i <.; `i

PK@@JMG NK HA _JLA PK@@JMG ^UAGPOMUIANA

^UAGPOMUIANA KG IANKUA

9   5.>∜16 
9    ↕  95; 95;  

 9
∜ ;  9:.?∜16
5; ∜ ; ∾  9 15;.  

Huklm, kh árka nk iktah kqujvahk a 5; vk`ks kh árka nk ha iankra y ha jgkr`ja nk ha sk``jðg tragsomriana skrá4

5606 5;1.5;
 9 15  5  15 15;∜1.5;1?.5;6.?5;  

∾  9 , .    

Vara ha iankra sk tmia ha njstag`ja a ha ojera ias ksomrzana y Ian 9 1; `i

 9  :?151,
∜   00>.↕?0  9   

 9 ∕ 9 1; 9 <<<<?,?,;>1>1.?.?00     

∾ .  9 , .      

Vara kg`mgtrar kh iáxjim ksoukrzm kg kh iktah sk `mgsjnkra has ojeras yIktah 9 1?.5; `i y sk iuhtjphj`a
iuhtjphj `a pmr ha
rkha`jðg nk iðnuhms
iðnuhms ‘g’ , kstm ks4
ks4  

 9  ∜  ∜   ↕  9 

 9 ><<,
><<,3<1.
3<1.<<<< 
   

 9 .∕ 9 5;5; ∜ 1?66∜151,

1?.5;00>.?0 9><<,3<1.<<   

1;
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

∾ ∕ 9 , .      

∾   9 , .      

V ‐
 ‐ 56
 56
Ha vjla nk ha ojlura tjkgk uga sk``jðg ^, `uyas `mtas kstág kg `i. @mgomrik sk jhustra kg ha ojlura. Nktkrijgar
Nktkrijgar
kh vahmr nk ha oukrza Q para quk ha oatjla nk ohkxjðg kg kh pugtm E ska nk 1166 bl / `i 5 

Q 0 ^g 56 ` i
V1    i
   `
5 ^g / i     ?

A
E @

5i 5i 1i 5i 1; ` i
1i

;`i
 

    .
.
 9           56 ` i

 A 5    i
   `
    ?

 9 ..     i    i

   `    `
   ;
    3     ?
 .
K.G

   i
    1     1    `
↕  9 10.:? ≋ 1> .      i
   `
   ;
 .
    <  A 1
    @    ;
    1

↕  9 51  1> ≋ < .   ;`i

 
  
 9     ↕  9   9 
 9    9     . 
 
 9 ,
,    

 9 
 9 ,
,.    9 .
...      

  9 ↕    (⁎ )   9  ↕   9   

 9.9          

1?
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

 9 .    ≋ .     

V ‐
 ‐ 51
 51
[ga vjla nk `mg`rktm arianm, sjiphkikgtk apmyana nk > its. nk hmgljtun, nk sk``jðg rk`tagluhar nk >6 `i nk
ag`cm pmr <6 `i nk ahtm, tjkgk ug rkoukrzm `mipukstm nk varjhhas nk 0/>’ . Nktkrijgar `uágtas varjhhas nk a`krm
sk kiphkarág y `uáh skrá ha iáxjia `arla V (pugtuah) a`tuagnm kg kh `kgtrm nk ha huz para ug njskñm eahag`kanm
kg ha vjla. Hms ksoukrzms nk traeadm nkh `mg`rktm y kh a`krm smg nk ?0 bl/`i 5 y 1>66 bl/`i5 , `mgsjnkrar g 9 1;. 

    S
 9   

K. G. Vara kh @´4

 9    …….
 .
   i
   `  
    6
   <
   x
  -
    6 Vara kh a`krm4
   <

 . 9 . .  9  

 A' 9 1; A
>6 ` i P P

  ↕ ,9 ∕
  …  ……… … 
 9    ↕  9 53.0 .  
Njvjnjkgnm (1) y (5)4
 ∕
<6-S 9 >1.< `i.

^miagnm imikgtms rkspk`tm ah Kdk Gkutrm4

1; AP (>1.<) 9 >6 (53.0) (53.0) (1/5) AP 95;.? `i5.

(# nk varjhhas nk Ó ·" )
Pka G (#
53.09 ∜.. 93.:35  ≋: ∋ 0⁎> "  

 9 151 >6>653.0 >6∜53.0 5  1;∜

1;∜5;.?>1.<   ↕  9 :?::0
:?::0?.?.5;   

/ 9 ?0    ↕  9 ?0:?::0?.5;   ↕  9 >?0:?::0?.5;

> 53.0 53.0>66  

bl..
V 9 51,;:5.55 bl V 9 51.;:5 ^g

1<
 
VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

V ‐
 ‐ 55
 55
[ga vjla Pjiphkikgtk apmyana nk 16 pjks nk hmgljtun smpmrta uga `arla ugjomrik nk 1166 hes/pjk. Ha vjla
`mgsjstk kg ug ijkierm nk iankra nk >’ x  3  3’,
’, rkomrzana pmr pha`as
nk a`krm nk 6.5;’ nk kspksmr kg has `aras supkrjmr k jgokrjmr2 hms
iðnuhms nk khastj`jnan smg K A`krm 06 x 16? he/puhl5 KIankra 9 1.; x 16 ? 
psj. ½@uáhks skrág hms ksoukrzms iax. nkh a`krm y nk ha iankra= 

Vmr sk``jðg ^ragsomriana a iankra4 g9 K A` / KIan 9 56

  116616
. 9 3 9 3 9 1010<<;6 
   8 7 1?1?;,;,666666  ..  

@mg4 15’ ˅ˀ 1‚ , 6.5;’ ˅ˀ 6.6563‚  , 3’˅ˀ6.??<‚ , >’˅ˀ 6.000‚ 

>"
         "
         ;
         5
  .
>  . 
 9  >3  5  366.5;  366.5; >
         6

↕  9.   
K. G.          "
         3

.. 9 1?;,666> 9. ⁎

3;1.;60>  

         "
         ;
         5
  .

ei 9 ge 9 56(>) 9 36          6

. . 9 ,.. 9,. ⁎  

V ‐
 ‐ 50
 50
Nktkrijgar hms ksoukrzms iáxjims kg kh a`krm y ha iankra nk ha sk``jðg tragsvkrsah nk ha vjla imstrana kg
ha ojlura, sj hms iðnuhms nk khastj`jnan nk aiems iatkrjahks smg K A`. 9 56: LVa y KIan. 9 11LVa.

13
  VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

PMH[@JMG

^ragsomriagnm ha iankra kg a`krm4

@ah`uhm nkh ag`cm nk ha sk``jðg kqujvahkgtk4

11 1;1;   ↕  9 6.<3:

 9   9 56: <3: 
 

@áh`uhm nkh imikgtm nk jgkr`ja rkspk`tm nkh K.G. (Kdk @kgtrah)4

1:
  VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

1;∜;   6.<3:∜5;
95 15 1;∜;∜1;   15   ↕ 9.  

@áh`uhm nk hms ksoukrzms iáxjims para kh a`krm y ha iankra4

 9 
  
 9 15;∜16 
0;63:.3>∜16 ∕ 1<.;∜16 ∕ 9?5.0>∜16  
    ∾    9.

  

    11 15;∜16 ∕    

 9    9 56: 0;63:.3>∜16∕ 15.;∜16 95.0>∜16    ∾   9.

Nmgnk4

4    ..ℇ        


 4    ..ℇ         

V ‐
 ‐ 5>
 5>
Vara ha vjla imstrana kg ha ojlura, nktkrijgar kh vahmr nk ‘w’ (bl/i), sj hms ksoukrzms anijsjehks
anijsjehks a @mgsjnkrar smg
5 5
^ra``jðg 9 @mip  9 1566bl / `i   y bl / `i  kg `mrtagtk. 
ο 9 1; bl

PMH[@JMG

56
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

@áh`uhm nkh imikgtm kstátj`m (P) y imikgtm nk jgkr`ja (J) rkspk`tm nkh K. G. quk pasa pmr kh
`kgtrm nk ha sk``jðg tragsvkrsah (a 15 `i nk ha eask), nkejnm a su sjiktréa.

 9 56∜ 5∜ 11 5 ∜1∜166 ∜; ↕  9 ;>6  

56∜5  5∜56
 9  15 56∜5∜11  5  15   ↕ 9116>6  

 Aphj`agnm ha `mgnj`jðg nk rksjstkg`ja para hms ksoukrzms gmriah y taglkg`jah.

KPO[KUTM GMUIAH4

 9  
  ≮ R Y   ↕ 1. < ;<3
116>6∜16∕ 15∜16∕ ≮106∜16   ∾ ≮. /  

KPO[KUTM ^AGLKG@JAH4

 9   ≮ RY   ↕ 1.<;<3 ∕ ≮1>∜16   ∾  ≮ .  /

 116>6∜16  

@mim kh vahmr nk ‘w’ nkek nk `uiphjr `mg aieas `mgnj`jmgks nk rksjstkg`ja

rksjstkg`ja,, kgtmg`ks agahjzaims kh jgtkrvahm kg kh `uah
`uipha.. (Ojlura ‘a’) 
`uipha

Nk nmgnk4  9 .. 

/  

V ‐ 5;
 ‐ 5;
Nktkrijgar kh vahmr nk ‘a’ kg oug`jðg nk ‘H’, sj hms ksoukrzms gmriahks smg hms ijsims kg hms pugtms A, E y @
nk ha vjla iktáhj`a imstrana kg ha ojlura k jluahks a iáx , smiktjna a ha a``jðg nk su pksm prmpjm. @mgsjnkrar
quk ha vjla ks nk sk``jðg `mgstagtk

PMH[@JMG

@arlaims ha vjla pmr su pksm prmpjm y lraoj`aims sus njalraias nk `mrtagtk y imikgtm ohk`tmr

51
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

Vmr `mgnj`jðg nkh prmehkia tkgkims quk4

 9  9  9 .  

@mim ha vjla ks nk sk``jðg `mgstagtk, kgtmg`ks sk nkek nk `uiphjr quk hms imikgtms ohk`tmrks nkekg nk skr jluahks kg vahmr

aesmhutm, ks nk`jr4

RIAY 9 RIEY  

 9  >   ↕ > > 9 6

5 3  

Uksmhvkims ha k`ua`jðg `uanrátj`a,

`uanrátj`a, `mg ha `mgnj`jðg quk su vahmr ks ikgmr quk 6,;H, `mim sk iukstra kg ha ojlura >.> y, nk
ksta iagkra, metkgkims4

 9 ..   

V ‐
 ‐ 5?
 5?
Ha vjla smhkra nk 0’ x ?’ imstrana kg ha ojlura  ksta rkomrzana `mg uga phatjga nk ¹’.
@ah`uhar π^ y π@ iax kg ha iankra y ha phatjga, sj
Ia`tuagtk 9 56 bG.i

PMH[@JMG

55
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

.   

Ki 9 16 LVa y K A`krm 9 566 LVa

 4 9 

 9 566   ↕  9 56
16  

 Ag`cm nk ha Pk``jðg ^ragsomriana4 e^ 9 0*56 9 ?6 Vhl.

Pk``jðg ^rasomriana a IANKUA

IANKUA44

Jgkr`ja nk ha sk``jðg4 Pk `ah`uha pmr kh tkmrkia nk hms kdks parahkhms

Ksoukrzms gmriahks kg ha iankra.

56∜16 6.1?;16.60<0
.  9  <.51:<∜16∕   ↕ . 9 0;
0;..>  


  

56∜166.60<06.615<  

.  9 <.51:<∜16∕   ↕ . 9 ?.31  



50
 VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J
 

Ksoukrzms gmriahks kg kh a`krm.

56∜16 6.60<0
.  9  <.51:<∜16∕ 56 ↕   9 56?
56?..?? 
 

  

56∜166.60<06.615<
.  9  <.51:<∜16∕ 56 ↕   9 10? 10?..5: 
 

  

V ‐
 ‐ 5<
 5<
Kg uga vjla nk `mg`rktm arianm, e 9 5; `i, n 9 >; `i y g 9 16. Hms ksoukrzms iáxjims
nksarrmhhanms smg nk ? IVa kg kh `mg`rktm
`mg `rktm y nk 156 IVa kg kh a`kr
a`krm.
m. @ah`uhar kh imikgtm ohk`tmr
aphj`anm y kh gôikrm nk varjhhas nk a`krm nk ;/3’ rkqukrjna. @mgsjnkrar ‘n’ ha njstag`ja nksnk kh
kdk nk has varjhhas nk a`krm casta ha `ara supkrjmr nk ha vjla.  

PMH[@JMG 

Pk saek quk4 

 9 
   
   1    9   
   (5)

Ukiphazagnm vahmrks y njvjnjkgnm (1) kgtrk (5) tkgkims4

 9   
 ↕  9 5

    (0)

Kg ha ojlura sk iukstra 

  
  k .

@aek jgnj`ar quê kg kh lraoj`m sk iukstra 6> varjhhas nk a`krm, hm `uah ca sjnm khkljnm arejtrarjaikgtk,
nkejnm a quk kg kh njskñm kstru`turah uga vkz metkgjna kh árka tmtah nk
a`krm, sk khkljrá kh gôikrm nk varjhhas y njáiktrm nk `ana uga nk khhas.

@mim natm nkh prmehkia sk tjkgk (n)4

   9>; >

Ukkiphazagnm (0) kg (>), tkgkims4
 

 9 1; 
9
9006 
 

^ragsomriagnm kh árka nk a`krm kg `mg`rktm tkgkims4

¾  

@ah`uhm nkh∾arka
   `mgm`jna
nk a`krm, 

 `mim
taiejkg 

@[AG^JA 9  a partjr
 4  NK.A@KUM, 9nk ha jluahna nk
imikgtms kstatj`ms nk ha partk supkrjmr k jgokrjmr nk ha sk``jmg tragsomriana, kstm
ks4Ks`rjea aqué ha k`ua`jðg.
 
5>
 
VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

 9    ↕ 5;1;<.; 91606  

1 ∋ 0/0/>">"99 5.33>>   

  9:.0<;  8 7 0.0      0/>"

∾  
      /
/"" 8 7 .
.   

Kh Imikgtm
`mg`rktm aphj`anm
m oahhk sk rkspk`tjvaikgtk.
kh a`krm nktkrijga rkkiphazagnm vahmrks kg has k`ua`jmgks (1) y (5), vkrjoj`agnm quk puknk oahhar kh

V ‐
 ‐ 53
 53
Njeudar hms njalraias
njalraias nk oukrza `mrtagtk y imikgtm
imikgtm ohk`tmr nk has vjlas (A), (E) y (@) quk sk iukstra,
uej`agnm hms vahmrks `rétj`ms y a quk njstag`ja sk prkskgtag.

(A) (E)

(@)

PMH[@JMG

Vartk A4 
A4 

^raims a agahjzar4

5;
 
VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

1. ^raim ae ↕ 6 ≮ x ≮ >

5. ^raim e` ↕ > ≮ x ≮ :

0. ^raim `n ↖  ? ≫ x ≫ 6
 9  
 

5?
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

UKP[IKG

5<
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

Vartk E4 
E4 

Pmhu`jðg

@áh`uhm nk Uka``jmgks
Njalraias nk @ukrpm Hje rk (N@H)
(N@H)  

53
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

16 ^g

^raims a Agahjzar

5:
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

Njalraias
Njalraias nk @mrtagtk y im ikgtm Ohk`tmr

Uksuikg nk Natms

Njalraias nk @mrtagtk y imikgtm Ohk`tmr

06
  VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

Vartk @4 
@4 

PMH[@JMG

@ah`uhm nk Uka``jmgks4

⃞+    9  ↕       9  

 9 
 9 .  ∾  9 .  .  

↑   9 6 ↕ >  >3<.096  

 9 1?  <.0 ∾  9 3.< .. 

 Agahj
 Ag ahj sj s Vm
Vmrr ^raim
^r aim s4

6 ≮ S ≮ > 
> 
01
  VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

 
915 9 5 
 

> ≮ S ≮ 3 
3 

9>  5 3.<
9>  9
3.<  >   ↕ 9 >  3 .< 9 > .<   
 9 >  3  3.<  0:.3 ∾  9 >.<  5?.3
3 ≮ S ≮ 15
≮ 15

 
9>.<5?.3>
9>.<5?.3>
9>.<>96.<
  3   ∾ 96.<;.5  

 9 15
15 ↕  9  15 ∾ 915.0; ¾

15 ≮ S ≮ 1?
≮ 1? 

9>3.<>5   ↕ 96.<5   ∾  9 6.5< 96.0;¾  

9> 3.<  3  >  >  5 5 

9>  1616 3.<  

9> >63.< ?:.:> 1?   

10.?    96.0; ↕ 96.<

96.< 10.? 96.<6.0;; 10.?6.0;  

∾  9 10.<5     

05
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

V ‐
 ‐ 5:
 5:
Njeudk kh njalraia nk `mrtagtk y imikgtm para ha vjla AE. Ha `arla njstrjeujna nk >6 hes/jg sk kxtjkgnk a

hm harlm nk 15 pjks, nksnk A a @, y uga `arla nk >66 hes ks aphj`ana kg K.

PMH[@JMG
Imnkhaijkgtm y agáhjsjs
Imnkhaijkgtm
➥  Njalraia nk `ukrpm
`ukrpm hjerk (N.@.H.)
(N.@.H.) y `áh`uhm nk rka``jmgks kg A y E.

00
 
VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

N.@.H
 

  9 6 ↕ 05  >36?  >6655 96 ∾  9  .

.  

  96 ↕ >365?  >6616  0596 ∾   9  

.. 

  9 6 ∾  9 6  

GM^A4 Ha oukrza nk >66 hes kg ‘K’ puknk skr rkkiphazana pmr uga oukrza nk >66 hes y ug par nk 1?66 hes
 ‐ jg kg N, kstm ks4.
 ‐ jg

8 7

➥  Nktkrijga`jðg nk hms sjstkias nk ooukrzas

ukrzas jgtkrgas kg `ana ugm nk hms `mrtks kg hms traims A@,
@N y NE.
^UAIM A@ (6 ≮ x ≮ 15)
15)44

0>
  VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

N.@.H.

  9 6 ↕ ;1;  >6  9 6 ∾ 9  

  9 6 ↕   >65;1;96 ∾ 9 
^UAIM @N (15≮ x ≮ 13)
13)44

N.@.H.

 9 6
 ↕ ;1;  15>6
>6 96 ∾  9  .  
0;
  VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

  9 6 ↕ ;1;  >36  ? 96 ∾ 9   

^UAIM NE (13≮ x ≮ 05)4

05)4

N.@.H.

  9 6 ↕ ;1;  >36  >66   9 6 ∾  9    

  9 6 ↕ ;1;; >36  ? 1?66>66

1?66>6613
13   9 6 6 
∾ 9   

NJALUAIAP NK O[KUTA @MU^AG^K Z IMIKG^M OHK@^MU 

OHK@^MU  

0?
 

VUMEHKIAP UKP[KH^MP
UKP[KH^MP NK UKPJP^KG@JA NK IA^KUJAHKP J

V ‐
 ‐ 06
 06
Kg uga vjla nk `mg`rktm arianm, e 9 5; `i, n 9 >;`i y g 9 16. Hms ksoukrzms iáxjims nksarrmhhanms smg nk ? IVa
kg kh `mg`rktm y nk 156 IVa kg kh a`krm. @ah`uhar kh imikgtm ohk`tmr aphj`anm y kh gôikrm nk varjhhas nk a`krm nk ·’
rkqukrjna. @mgsjnkrar ‘n’ ha njstag`ja
ha njstag`ja nksnk kh kdk nk has v arjhhas nk a`krm casta ha `ara supkrjmr nk ha vjla.

PMH[@JMG

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