Lec.

2
Si
l
vics–Si
l
vicul
tur
e–Local
i
tyf
act
ors–Cl
i
mat
ic–Edapi
c,Topogr
aphi
c
and Bi
oti
cfact
ors

SI
LVI
CULTURE
Accor
dingt
oToumeyandKor
stai
n,
Si
l
vicul
tur
eisdef
inedast
hebr
anchoff
ores
trywhi
chdeal
swi
tht
hees
tabl
i
shment
,
devel
opment
,car
e,andr
epr
oduct
ionofs
tandsoft
imber
‘.
For
estRes
ear
chI
nst
it
ute(
FRI
),Dehr
adun
Si
l
vicul
tur
eisdef
inedast
hear
tands
cienceofcul
ti
vat
ingf
ores
tcr
ops
.
Accor
dingt
oChampi
onandSet
h,
Thet
erms
il
vicul
tur
eist
het
heor
yandpr
act
iceofr
ais
ingf
ores
tcr
ops
.
SI
LVI
CS
Accor
dingt
otheI
ndi
anFor
est
sandFor
estPr
oduct
sTer
minol
ogy

Si
l
vicsi
sthes
tudyofl
i
fehi
stor
yandgener
alchar
act
eri
sti
csoff
ores
ttr
eesandcr
ops
.
I
tisabas
isf
ort
hepr
act
iceofs
il
vicul
tur
e‘.
Thuss
il
vicsi
mpl
i
est
hes
tudyoft
reesandf
ores
tsasbi
ologi
caluni
ts,t
hel
awsoft
hei
r
gr
owt
handdevel
opmentandt
heef
fectofenvi
ronmentont
hem.Theknowl
edge
gat
her ns
edi i
l
vicsi
sappl
i
edt
othepr
oduct
ionandcar
eoff
ores
tcr
ops
.Thust
he
pr
act
iceofs
il
vicul
tur
eisappl
i
eds
il
vicsandi
not
herwor
dss
il
vicsi
sthef
oundat
ionof
s
il
vicul
tur
e.I
tdeal
swi
tht
hepr
ocedur
eofobt
aini
ngnat
uralr
egener
ati
onundert
he
var
iouss
il
vicul
tur
als
yst
ems
,ar
ti
fi
ci
alr
egener
ati
onofvar
iouss
peci
es,andmet
hods
oft
endi
ngyoungcr
ops
,whet
hernat
uralorar
ti
fi
ci
al,t
ohel
pthem t
ogr
ow i
nto
f
ores
tsofqual
i
tyt
imber
sandgr
eateconomi
cval
ue.
OBJ
ECTI
VESOFSTUDYOFSI
LVI
CULTURE
The obj
ectofs
tudyand pr
act
ice ofs
il
vicul
tur
eist
o pr
oduce mor
e us
efuland
val
uabl
efor
est
stomeetourmul
ti
far
iousr
equi
rement
s.
Thes
tudyofs
il
vicul
tur
ehel
psi
n;
1.
Product
ionofspeci
esofeconomi
cvalue
2.Pr
oduct
ionofl
argervol
umeperunitarea
3.Pr
oduct
ionofquali
tyt
imber
4.Reducti
onofrotat
ion
5.Raisi
ngfores
tsi
nbl ankareas
6.
Cr eati
onofman-madef orest
sinpl
aceofnat
ural
for
est
s
7.
Introduct
ionofexotics

1
.Pr
oduct
ionofs
peci
esofeconomi
cval
ue
I
nthevi
rgi
nfor
est
s,manyoft
hes
peci
esar
egener
all
ynei
therver
yval
uabl
enor
us
eful
.Ther
efor
e,t
hepr
oduct
ionoft
imberofs
peci
esofeconomi
cval
ueperuni
tar
ea
i
slow.I
fthef
ores
tshavet
opr
oducet
imberofi
ndus
tri
alandeconomi
cimpor
tancei
t
i
sneces
sar
ytos
tudyandpr
act
ices
il
vicul
tur
esot
hatwecanpr
oduceonl
ythe
des
ireds
peci
es.
2.
Product
ionofl
argervol
umeperuni
tar
ea
I
nthevi
rgi
nfor
est
s,t
hecr
opi
sgener
all
yei
therver
ydens
eorver
yopen.Bot
hthes
e
ex
tremesar
e uns
uit
abl
eforquant
it
ati
ve pr
oduct
ion.
The s
tudy and pr
act
ice of
s
il
vicul
tur
ehel
psi
nrai
si
ngs
uff
ici
entt
reesperuni
tar
ear
ightf
rom t
hebegi
nni
ngt
o
f
ull
yut
il
izet
hes
oilandast
heygr
ow up,gr
adual
l
yreducet
hei
rnumbers
othatt
he
r
equi
rementofl
i
ghtandf
oodoft
her
emai
ningt
reesi
smet
3.
Product
ionofqual
i
tyt
imber
I
ntheunmanagedf
ores
ts,becaus
eofi
ntens
ecompet
it
ion,al
argenumberoft
rees
become cr
ooked,mal
for
med,di
seas
ed and def
ect
ive.Thes
efact
ors ul
ti
mat
ely
r
educe t
he vol
ume pr
oduct
ion.So ens
uret
he pr
oduct
ion ofqual
i
ty oft
imber
,
knowl
edgeofs
il
vicul
tur
ewi
l
lbees
sent
ials
othatt
het
reescanbegr
owni
ndi
seas
e
f
reecondi
ti
onwi
thoutadver
secompet
it
ion.
4.
Reduct
ionofr
otat
ion
I
nvi
rgi
nfor
est
sbecaus
eofi
ntens
ecompet
it
ionduet
odens
e,t
her
ateofgr
owt
his
r
etar
dedwi
tht
her
esul
titt
akesl
ongert
imet
ogetmat
uri
ty.
Wit
htheknowl
edgeand
pr
act
icalappl
i
cat
ionofs
il
vicul
tur
e,t
hedens
ityofgr
owt
hincr
eas
edandr
otat
ion
r
educed.
5.
Rai
si
ngf
ores
tsi
nbl
ankar
eas
I
nnat
ure,al
argenumberofar
eas
,pot
ent
ial
l
ysui
tabl
efort
reesgr
owt
h,occas
ional
l
y
r
emai
nbl
ankduet
ocer
tai
nadver
sef
act
orsi
nhi
bit
inggr
owt
hoft
rees
.Si
l
vicul
tur
al
s
kil
l
sandt
echni
queshel
pinr
ais
ingf
ores
tins
uchar
eas
.
6.
Creat
ionofman-madef
ores
tsi
npl
aceofnat
ural
for
est
s
Ther
emaybear
easi
n nat
uralf
ores
tswhi
ch maynotr
egener
ateorr
epr
oduce
t
hems
elvesnat
ural
l
yorwher
enat
uralr
egener
ati
onmaybeext
remel
ysl
ow and
uncer
tai
n.Wi
thknowl
edgeofs
il
vicul
tur
efor
est
ermayt
akeupt
hewor
kofnat
urei
n
hi
shandandr
ais
eman–madef
ores
tsi
nsuchar
eas
.
7.
Int
roduct
ionofexot
ics
Thei
ndi
genouss
peci
esmaynotbeabl
etomeett
hecommer
cialand/
ori
ndus
tri
al
demands
.Ins
uchar
eas
,ef
for
tsar
emadet
oint
roduceexot
icswhi
chcangr
ow i
n
t
hatpar
ti
cul
arl
ocal
i
tyandcans
uppl
ythet
imberr
equi
redbyi
ndus
tri
eset
c.,i
nti
me.
Thi
sispos
sibl
eonl
ywhent
hef
ores
teri
sconver
santwi
tht
hes
il
vicul
tur
eoft
he
ex
oti
csaswel
lascl
i
mat
icands
oilcondi
ti
onsoft
hel
ocal
i
tiesi
nwhi
cht
heycanbe
i
ntr
oduced.
SI
LVI
CULTUREI
NRELATI
ONWI
THOTHERBRANCHESOFFORESTRY
For
estpr
otect
ion:i
sbr
anchoff
ores
trywhi
chi
sconcer
nedwi
tht
heact
ivi
ti
esdi
rect
ed
t
owar
dst
hepr
event
ionandcont
rolofdamaget
ofor
est
sbyman,ani
mal
s,f
ir
e,
i
nsect
s,di
seas
eorot
heri
njur
iousanddes
truct
iveagenci
es.
For
estMens
urat
ion:i
sbr
anchoff
ores
trywhi
chdeal
swi
tht
hedet
ermi
nat
ionof
di
mens
ions
,for
m,vol
ume,ageandi
ncr
ementofl
ogs
,si
ngl
etr
ees
,st
andsorwhol
e
woods
.
For
estut
il
izat
ion:t
hebr
anchoff
ores
tryconcer
nedwi
tht
hehar
ves
ting,conver
sion,
di
spos
alandus
eoft
hef
ores
tpr
oduce.
For
esteconomi
cs:t
hatdeal
swi
tht
he f
ores
tasa pr
oduct
ive as
set
,subj
ectt
o
economi
claws
.
For
estmanagement
:the pr
act
icalappl
i
cat
ion oft
he s
cient
if
ic,t
echni
caland
economi
cpr
inci
plesoff
ores
try.

Local
i
tyf
act
ors
Vegetati
on in ever
y pl ace isnotuni que.Thisi sdue t o di
ff
erentfactors
pr
evail
inginthediff
erentregions.Besideseveryplanthasitsuniquerequir
ementf or
i
tsfavourablegrowthandr eproducton.Thef
i actorsoflocal
ityar edefi
nedast he
ef
fect
ive cli
matic,edaphic,t opographic and bioti
c condit
ions ofa s it
e whi ch
i
nfl
uencet hevegetati
onoft hes i
te.Thesefactor
sofs it
eorlocalit
ymaybegr ouped
asfol
lows:
CLASSIFI
CATIONOFLOCALI TYFACTORS
I. Cl
imat i
cfactors
II. Physiographic/Topogr
aphi
cfact
ors
III
. Edaphi cfactors
IV. Bi oti
cfactors

I
. CLI
MATI CFACTORS:
Climaterefer
stotheaver ageweathercondi t
ionspreval
enti
nanylocal
i
ty.Cl
imateis
theatmos pheri
ccondit
ionsoveralargear eaandal ongperi
odoft
ime.
Weat her isthe atmos pheri
c conditi
on (temper at
ure,mois
tur
e,wi nd vel
oci
ty,
humidityetc.
)overasmal lar
eaforas hortperiodofti
me.
Climati
cFactorsare:
1.Sol
arradiati
on:(
a)Light(b)Heatandt emper atur
e
2.
Moi
stur
e
3.
Wind

1.SOLARRADI ATI ON
Theener gyr adiat edbys unr eachesi nthef orm ofelectr
omagnet icwavesofl ength
ranging,r angingnear l
yf rom 290mμt o5300mμ.Vi si
blewavel ength-
39% ( 400t o
720mμ) ,ultr
avi oletwavel engt h-
1%( <400mμ)andi nfrar
ed-60%( 720mμ) .Partoft he
solarener gyt hatcomest oear thisr ef
lected backt os pacei nt hes ame,s hort
wavel engt hsinwhi chitcamet oear t
h.Thes kyappear sbluebecaus eofs cattered
l
ightwhi chi sbl uei ncolour.A largepar tofs olarradiati
onr efl
ectedbackt ot he
atmos pher ef rom ear ths urface,thatr efl
ect i
vit
y percentage (42%)oft he s ol
ar
radiati
onf rom t heear t
hs urfaceiscalledalbedo.Sol arradi
ationisthes ourcesf ori
)
Lightii
)Heatandi i
i)Temper ature.

• Theenergywhi chisres
pons i
bleforthegrowthofveget ationandalll
ife
dependonitont heearthwhi chcomesdi rect
lyorindir
ectlyfr
om thesun.
• Thevisi
blespectrum,whichcontributes39%oft hetotalenergyandfall
s
between400nm t o720nm isusedasi tsenergysourcebyt heplant
s.
• Themos timpor t
anteffectofsol
arr adi
ati
onisthatitprovidesbothli
ghtand
heat(t
emper ature)
.

a)LIGHT
Lightisaform ofenergythataff
ectst
heeyess ot
hatoneisabletosee.Si
mplyit
refer
st heincomi
ngs olarradi
ati
on.Li
ghtinf
luenceonvegetati
oni nmanyways .
Relati
velengthofl
ightisavail
abl
etoplant
swhi chref
ersphot
operi
od.Theef
fectof
l
ightont hef or m oft reesi sexpr es sedi nphot ot ropi sm.Var iouss peci ess how var ying
tolerancet ol ighti ntens i
ties .Butt heydependons tagesofdevel opment ,eg.Sali s
l
ightdemander ,butr equi respar tials hadei nt hebegi nningorear li
es ts t
age.So,t o
classif
yt hes peci es ,det ailinf or mat i
ononcondi ti
onsofs peciesi sr equi red.Ont his
bas i
s,theyar ecl as sifi
edasf ollows :
1.Lightdemander :As peci est hatr equi r esabundantl i
ghtf oritsbes tdevel opment .
eg.Shor ea r obus ta( Sal ),Tect ona gr andi s( Teak) ,Bombaxcei ba ( Semul ),Pi nus
roxbur gii (pine) ,et c.
2.Shadebear er:As peci escapabl eofper sistinganddevel opingunders hade.eg.
Pterocar pus mar s upi um ( Vengai ), Gmel ina ar bor ea ( Kumi l), Cedr us deodar a,
Cuppr es s ust or ulos a, Piceas mi thi ana( Spr uce) , etc.
3.Shadedemander :As peci esr equi ri
ngs omedegr eeofs hadeatl eas tini tsear l
y
stages ,f ori tsnor maldevel opment .eg.Mes uaf er ea( Ironwood) ,Xyl i
axyl ocar pa,
Syzygi um cumi nii,Abi espi ndr ow( Fir),et c.
I
mpor tance
1.Chlor ophyl lFor mat i
on:Li ghtofanywavel engt horl owi nt ens i
tyi ss uf fi
cientt ofor m
chlorophyl l.Wi thoutl i
ght ,pl ant sbecomepal eyel low andhavet hi ni nter nodes ,a
condi t
ion known aset iolat i
on.Chl orophyl ldecompos esi n brights un l ight ;t hus
format ionanddecompos iti
onbot hgoons i
mul taneous l
ywhent hepl anti sexpos ed
tolight.
2.Funct ioni ngofs tomat a:Li ghti nfluencesdai lyopeni ngandcl os ingofs tomat a,
whi chaf fectsr es pi rationandphot osynt hes i
s.
3.Phot os ynt hes is:Thel i
ghtus edi nphot os ynt hes i
si sas mal lamountoft het ot al
l
ightt hatf al l
sonal eaf .Ithasbeenes timat edt hatl i
ghtus edi ni ti sles st han2% of
thel i
ghtener gyi nci dentonwel l-i
ll
umi nat edl eaves .Ther ei sus ual l
ys uf fi
cientl ight
eveni ndens ef or es tf ort hisi mpor tantphys i
ol ogi calact ivity.Outofs evencol our sin
thenvi s i
bl es pect rum onl yr edandbl uear eef f
ect i
vei nphot os ynt hes is.
4.Gr owt h:For es tt reesgener al lyr equi reabout1t o1 .5% oft hef ulls unl ighti n
moder at ei ntens i
tyofl ight .Thebes tgr owt ht akespl acei nmoder atel ighti ff oodi s
avai l
abl e.Qual ityofl i
ghtr efer st ot hewavel engt hoft hel i
ghts pect rum orcol ors.
Violetand ul tra-vi oletl i
ghtbr i
ng aboutdwar f
ing ef fect .Phot oper i
od var ieswi t
h
alti
tudeandl at itude( phot oper iodi sther elat i
vel engt hofdayandni ghtt owhi cht he
planti sexpos ed) .Li ghtaf fect sbr eaki ngofdor mancy,ger minat ion,l eaff alland
fl
ower ing.Ext remel yhi ghi nt ens ityofl ighti ncr eas et rans pi r
ationexces sively,s tem
remai ns hor tanddevel ops mal lerl eaves .
5.For m andqual ityoft rees :Hei ghtgr owt hi sr et ardedi ni ntens el i
ghtcondi ti
ons .
Treesgr owi ngi ns hadear eus ual l
yt allert hant hos egr owi ngi nopen.Li ghtcaus es
format ionofr elat i
vel yl ar gecr ownands or api dgr owt h.
6.Speci ess tratificat i
on,s ize and s truct ur e ofl eaves :Ful lli
ghtr eachest he t op
canopyandl owercanopi esr ecei veonl yes capedl i
ghtr esultsi nt hes tratifi
cat i
on.
Lightal s
oaf fectst hes i
ze,col ourands tructureofl eaves.Thel eavesexpos edt of ull
l
ightar es mal l
ert han t hos ein par t
iall i
ght .Manyf oresttreesdevel op dif
ferent
anat omi cals tructurei nt heirleavesi ns hadeascompar edt othos egr owni ns un.
Lightal soaf fectsthear rangementofl eaves .
b)HEATandTEMPERATURE
Whi l
eener gyr eceivedi scons tant ,t hetemper atureofvar iousplacesont heear this
differentbecaus ei ti
saf fectedbyt hef oll
owi ngf actors:
1.Lat itude:Ast hel at i
tudei ncr eas es ,thet emper aturedecr eases.Temper at
urei s
highes tatequat or .
2.Al ti
tude:I thasbeenes t
imat edt hatt her eisaf allof10ci nmeant emper aturei n
the hi l
lsf orever y270m r isei n al ti
tude.Ast he al t
it
ude increas es ,temper ature
decr eas es.
3.Di stancef rom t hes ea:Thef artherapl acef r
om t hesea,thegr eat eri st
hedi urnal
ands eas onal rangesoft emp.
4.Wi nds :I
fwi ndsar ef rom t hes eas i
de,t hei reff
ecti smor emar ked.Duet owi nds ,
eas tofNepal hasmor er ai nthant hatofwes t.
Mus tangunder goesmi nimum r ain.
5.Mount ai
ns :Thedi rectionoft hemount ainr angesaf fectstemper at urethroughi t
s
effectonwi ndsandr ai nfall.
6.Cl oudines s:Ascl oudss creenof ft hes un, theirpresenceaf f
ectstemper at
ure.
7.Pr es enceorabs enceoff orestveget ation:Ther aysoft hes uns trikebar esites
directlyands uchpl acesar et her ef orehot terthant hepl acescover edwi t
hf orest
veget at i
on.Thecr ownsoft reesobs tr
uctt her aysofs unbef oret heycanr eacht he
groundandt husr educet hetemper atureoft heplace.

2.MOI STURE
I
mpor t
anceofmoi st
ur e:
1.Impor t
ancei nphys i
calact i
viti
es :Moi st
ur eisessentialf
orger minati
on,viabili
tyof
seeds,t r
ans pi
rat i
on,r espi
rationofpl ants,whi chcannotbepos si
bleinitsabs ence.It
i
st hes i
ngl emedi um f orabs orptionofs oilmineralsandgas esinthepl ants.Itisone
oft he r aw mat erialsr equired f orphot osynthesis.Itisr equired notonl yf or
transl
ocat ion ofmanuf act
ur ed food,butal sof orallkindsofchemi calr eacti
ons
takingplacei nt hepl ant .
2.Impor tanceins oilformat i
onpr oces ses:Moi st
ureisrequiredf orphysicalaswel las
chemi calweat her ingr esult
ingi nt hef ormat i
onofs oil
.
3. I
nfl
uenceonveget ati
on:Itdet ermi nest henat ureofveget ati
ont hatwoul ds urvive
i
napar ticul
arar ea.I tdeter minest hes pecies,theirnumberperuni tarea,hei ght,
diamet erandvol umegr owt hoft reesandot herveget ati
on.So,i tcanbeus edasa
bas i
sforcl ass
ifyingveget ationinbr oadt emper aturezones.
FROST
Frostmeanschi l
lingofai rbel ow t hef reezi
ngpoi nt
.Dependi ngont hemodeof
occurrence,iti
sclas
s i
fi
edas :
1.Radiati
onf r
ost:I
toccur sonni ght swithclears ky,producedbylossofheatby
radiati
on.I
toccur si
npl ainandki ll
sbackyoungpl ants.Whenevericecr yst
alsar e
formedont hegroundandot herobj ectsnearthes urf
ace,iti
scall
edgroundf ros
tor
hoarf r
ost.
2.PoolFr ost:Theaccumul ationt oacons i
derabledepthofheavycol dai rfl
owing
down i nt
o nat ur
aldepr essi
on f r
om adj oi
ning areas.Itoccursin hi
l
land val ley
country.
3.Advect i
vef ros
t:Af ros tproducedbycol dai rbroughtfrom el
sewhere.Thisfrost
occursinnor t
hernpart sofI ndia,whi charevi si
tedbys everecoldwavesbr ought
from outsi
deofNor thWes tsi
de.

Frostpocketorf rosthol e
Whenanar eai saffectedbyf rostmoret hanotherareasint
helocali
ty,i
tisr
efer
red
toasf rostpocketorf ros tholeorfrostl
ocal it
y.
FrostI njuri
es
Killingofyoungpl ant sortheirparts
Deat hofpl antsduet odamaget ocel ls
Injur iestot hecrownsofpol esands apl i
ngs
Fr os tcracks
For mat i
onofCankerThes pecieskil
ledbackbyf r
ostiscal
l
edfrosttenderandthe
speci eswhi chpos epowert owi t
hstandf rostwit
houtbeingdamagedar ecall
edfr
ost
hardy.
i
)Fr os thar dy:Khai r
,Sissoo, Mahua, etc
i
i)Moder atelyfrosthar dy:Si mal,Gmel ina
i
ii
)Fr os ttender:Babul ,Neem, Teak,Arjun

Factorsaff ectingfrostresi
stance
1.I
nternal Fact ors
oSizeofcel l
oWat ercont ent
oOs mot i
cconcent ration
oPer meabi lit
yofwat er
oWat er-
bindi ngcolloids
2.External Fact or
s
oTemper at ure
oLight
oMi neralnut riti
on

Har
deni
ngof
f
 I
tisthenaturalpr
oces sbywhichplant
sbecomeadoptedtodrought,col
dorheat
Thist er
mi salsous ed forprepar
ing s
eedl
ingsinnurs
ery,forplanti
ng outby
gr
adual l
yreduci
ngwat ering,s
hadeand/orshel
terr
esul
ti
nginhardeni
ngof fpl
ant
.

3.WI ND
Pos i
tiveef fect
s
1.Wi ndbr i
ngsf reshs uppli
esofcarbondi oxidet ot hefoli
ageoft reesandt hushel
ps
i
nphot osynthesis
2.Wi ndhel psinpol l
inati
onofanemophi lousf lowers
3.Wi ndhel psint hedispersalofseedofmanyf oresttrees.Eg.Toonacili
ata,Bombax
ceiba, etc.
Har mf uleffects
Directhar mfulef f
ects:Taperinginthebol es,bending,upr ooted,branchesdamaged,
growt haffected, etc.
I
ndi r
ecthar mfulef f
ects:Fansup f ores tf i
rer esult
ing inf i
re damage;i ncr
ease
evapor ati
on;wi nder osionandr emovesf ert
ilesoi
l depos i
ti
ngs and,etc.

I
I.TOPOGRAPHI CFACTORS
Topogr aphy:I tisthedes cri
pt i
onoft hephys icalfeaturesofapl ace.
Des cr i
besconf igurati
onoft hegr ound, i
t salti
tude, s
lope, aspect,etc.
Affect sveget ati
ont hr oughcl i
mat e,s oi lformat i
onpr ocesses,soilmoisture,soi
l
nut rients, et
c.
Topogr aphi cFact orscanbecl ass i
fiedi nto:
1.Conf i
gur ationofl ands urface
2. Altit
ude
3. Slope
4. As pectandexpos ure
1.CONFI GURATI ONOFTHELANDSURFACE
Itinfluencesveget at
iont hroughi tsef fectont emper atur e,windmovement ,etc.
Inahi l
lsandval l
eycount ry,s unlightr eachest heval l
eyl ateint hemor ningand
disappear sear l
yi ntheaf t
er noon.
Thes hadeoft henei ghbor inghi ll
smakesval leycol derinwi nt erandt hatof
radi atedheatmakest heval leyhot .So,di urnalands eas onaltemper atur
esoft he
val l
eydi fferfrom t het emper at uresont hehi l
l
s.Poolf ros toccurri
ngonhi llsandi n
val l
eysaf fectst heveget at i
on.
Ital soaf fectswi ndmovement s.Itr esul tsinmor eraini ntheeas tandl essi nthe
wes tern Nepal .I thasgr eateri nfluence on humi dity and t emper at
ure var i
ance
event uallyaf fectsveget at i
onoft hes ite.
2. ALTI TUDE( elevat i
onf rom t hemeans eal evel atpart i
cularplace)
Itaffect sveget ati
ont hroughs olarRadi at i
on, temper atureandr ainfal
l
 Thei ntens i
tyofr adiationgoesbeyondopt imum l i
mithasadwar fingeffecton
shoot,thegr owthofr ootbei ngfavored.
Temper atureasi tishi gherandl owert heopt imum level
,affectsthes pecies
compos it
ionandt hesit
equal i
ty.
Simil
arly,rainfal
laf fected by alti
tude aff
ectst he temperat
ure and moi sture
resul
tinginthechangei nt henat ureofvegetati
on.Ithasbeenes t
imat edthatabout
halfthewat ervapori nt heai rl
iesbelow 2000m whi lethreequar t
ersliesbelow
4000m ands o,highmount ainrangeisaveryef fect
ivebarri
erfort
hemons oons.

3.SLOPE
Slopeaf fect sr un- of fanddr ainagehavi ngapr ofoundi nf l
uenceont hemoi s t
ure
regi meoft hes oi l
.Asagener alr ule,thes teepert hes lope,t hegr eat ert her un- off
andbet tert hedr ainage.
Slopemodi fiest hei ntens i
tyofi nsolation, temper atureandmoi st
ur eoft hes urface
soil
Slopeal s oaf fect ser os i
onanddept hofs oilasgr eatert hes l
ope,gr eatert he
eros ion. Thedept hofs oil i
nt hehi l
lsvarieswi tht heincr eas i
ngs l
ope.
Thus ,slopeaf fect sveget ationoft hes i
tet hroughaf fectingt her un- off,i nsolation,
temper ature, moi s tur eanddept hofs oi
l
4.ASPECTANDEXPOSURE
As pect :thedi rect iont owar dswhi chas lopef aces
Expos ure:t her elat i
onofas itet oweat hercondi ti
ons ,especi all
ys unandwi nd
Bot h det ermi ne t he amountofi nsolat ion r eceived by a hi l
ls l
ope.I n Nepal ,
sout her ns l
opei swar mert hant henor ther ns lopesandcons equent l
yt emper ature
differs .
Wecans eedi ffer ents peciesondi f
ferentas pectofahi l
l
.
Simi l
ar l
y,di ffer entas pect sr eceive ins ol ati
on di ff
er ently.The eas ter ns l
ope i s
expos edt ot hes uni nt heear l
ierpar toft hedayands odew i ss een.I nt hemor ning,
soilmoi sturehasnotmel tedr es ulti
ngi ns eedl i
ngsbei ngki ll
ed. Wher eas ,t hewes t
ern
aspecthasdes iccat ingef f
ectduet onoon‘ ss un.
BIOCLI MATE
The cl imat e def i
ned by t hes e modi fi
ed oradj usted cl imaticf actor si scal l
ed
bioclimat e.
Climat icf act or si nf l
uencet heveget at ion col l
ectivelybutnoti ndivi dual l
yand
separ ately.Whi leaf fect i
ngveget at i
oncol lect ively,t
hes ef actorsmodi f
yt hei nfl
uence
ofeachot hert ocer tai next ent .Forexampl e,
Tot alr ainf allofapl acehasacer t
ainef fectonveget ati
on.Butt heef f ectoft otal
rainfal lismodi fi
edbyt henumberofr ai nydays .Theef fectoft otalr ainfalland
numberofr ainydaysi sfur t
hermodi f
iedbyt heamountofevapor ati
on.
 Simi l
arly,todes cribemoi stureasacl imati
cfactor ,temperature,pr ecipit
ationand
theirrel
atedf act orsar etobes tudied.
MICROCLI MATE
Thecl i
mat eofs mal lareas ,whichdi f
ferss
igni
ficant l
yfrom thegener alcl
imat eof
thear ea;chi efl
yt hecl i
mat eunderapl antorothercover ,di
fferi
ngi next remesof
temper atur e, moi s
ture, etc.
,from theclimateoutsi
det hatcover.Ifproperat t
ent i
onis
notgivent ot hi
si mpor tantf actor,si
lvi
cult
ureoper ationssuchasnat ur alorar ti
fi
ci
al
regener ation may f ailcompl etel
y due t othe l ocaladver se orl imi ti
ng f act
ors
respons i
blef ort hemi crocli
mat e.
Microclimat eaf fectss olarr adiati
on,temperatur e,rai
nfall
,humi dityoft hes i
te
result
ingint hedi fferencei nthes peciescompos i
ti
on.

I
II.EDAPHI CFACTORS
Edaphi cf actor sar edef inedasecol ogicali nfluencesofpr oper ti
esoft hes oilbrought
aboutbyi tsphys i
cal andchemi cal charact eristics.
Soil:canber ecognizedass urfaces oi
l,sub- soi landf ores ts oi
l.Ifas ecti
onofs oilis
obs ervedf rom i tssur facet ot heunder l
yingr ock, horizons( l
ayers)ar eseen.Aver t
ical
sectionwi thr es pectt ot hes equenceofl ayer siscal l
eds oilprofil
e.Eg.Aoohor i
zon
surfacel itter;Aohor i
zon- humusl ayer ;Ahor izon-Upper mos tlayerofmi ner alsoil
;B
hor i
zon- layerf ormedbywas hingdownf rom Ahor izon, etc.
Clas si
ficat i
onofSoi l:Soi lisclas s
ifi
edi nt ot womaj orgr oups :Soil
swhos epr operties
arei nfluencedmai nlybyt hepar entmat erialar ecalledEndodynamor phic,wher eas
proper tiesi nfluencedbyf actorsot herthanpar entmat erialisEctodynamor phic.
I
mpor tanceofs oil:
1.Thes eedsger minat eint hes oi
landt her oot sgoi ns i
det hes oilnotonlyt oanchor
butal sot opr ovi denut r
ient s&wat er
2.Soi lpr ovidesai rtot her oot s
3.Itaffect srat eofgr owt hoft rees, yi
eldoft reesandnat uralregener ati
on
4.For es tercan i mpr ove t he pr oduct ive capaci ty ofs oil
,wher easclimat ic and
topogr aphi cf actorsar ebeyondt hecont rol off oresters.
5.Speci escompos i
ti
onofaf orestdependsont hepr oper tiesofs oil
Soilfact or s
1.Phys ical Pr oper ti
es
2.Chemi cal Pr operti
es

PHYSI CALPROPERTI ES
Supply ofmoi s
ture,nutri
ents and ai
raffectphysi
calpr
opert
ies ofsoi
lcaus
e
signif
icantinf
luence on tr
ee growth.Such pr
oper
ti
esofsoilr
elat
e chi
efl
ytoits
texture,st
ruct
ureandpor osi
ty.
1.SoilText ure
Soiltext ur e playscr ucialr olef ornut rients upplies,aer ation,r ootdevel opment ,
moi s
tur er elati
ons ,etc
Nut rients uppl ies:Thef ine-t
ext ureds oilsar ehi ghi nnut r
ients tatus ;butsandys oi
l
s
arelowi nf erti
li
ty.
Aer at i
on:Coar s e-textureds oilsar ebet teraer atedt hancl ayeys oil
s .
Rootdevel opment :per centageofs oi
l par t
iclesaf f
ectr ootdevel opment .
Moist urer el
at ions :Coar se-textur eds oilsar eeas il
ydr ained;f i
ne- texturedsoil
sare
poorlydr ainedandhol dmuchwat eront hel ar ges urfacear ea
2.SoilSt ructure
Itaffect ss oi
lmoi stur eands oi
l airrelations
Itisani ndicationofnut rientstat usandact ivityofmi cro-organismsi nthesoil
Itaffect ss oi
l eros i
on. Crumbi sl eastliabl etoer osi
onwhi l
es ingle-gr ai
nedstructur
e
i
smos tl i
abl etoer osion
3.SoilPor os i
ty
I
mpor tance
Itdet er minesmoi stureandai rrel at
ionsoft hes oil
Itaffect sinter nal drainageanddi ff
us i
onofs oilair
.
CHEMI CALPROPERTI ES
Themaj orchemi cal pr oper t
ieswhi chaf f
ectpl antgr owt har e:
1.CationExchangeCapaci ty
2.SoilAci dity

3.Sili
ca-sesquioxider ati
o
4.Or ganicmat ter
1.Cat i
onExchangeCapaci t
y
CECi sas ortofs t
or ehous eofmi neralnut ri
ents ,whichdeterminetotalamountof
nutrientsavai l
ablet opl ants
CECdet ermi nest her ateoff erti
l
izer stobeappl iedt onurs
eryandpl antati
ons oi
ls
.
Eg.I nf i
ne-textured s oil
s,wher eCEC i shi gh,lar geamount sofferti
li
zerscanbe
appl i
ed
Itdet erminest hedegr eet owhi chexchangei ss aturat
edwi thbasesascompar ed
with hydr ogen.I fH- ions predomi nate,t he s oilbecomes aci di
c.Buti fbas es
predomi nate, t
hes oilmaybeneut ral t
oalkal i
ne.
Ithelpsint hechoi cesofs peciesfors ucces sf
ulpl antati
on
Ithelpsinpr operandcompl etes oiluti
li
zat i
on
2.SoilAcidit
y
PH val uehasapr of oundi nf
luenceont hedi s
tributionandgr owthoff or
esttrees
di
rect l
yaswel lasi ndirectl
yt hroughi t
si nfl
uenceont heavai l
abil
i
tyofnut r
ients
,
activit
iesofs oi
l organi sms ,
phys i
cal propertiesofs oilasgivenbelow:
 PHval uei ndi cat eswhats peci eswoul dbes ucces sf
uli
napar t i
cularsoi
l,eg.Sal
growsbes tins oi lswithPH4. 5to5. 5;Teakoccur sbes tinPH6. 5to7.6
PH valueaf fect stheavai l
abi l
ityofnut ri
ent s.IncreaseinPH r esultsinincreas ed
availabili
tyofcal cium. Nitrogeni sbes tavai l
abl ewhenPHi sbet ween6t o8
Valuedet er mi nest hedegr eeofmat urit
yofs oilandt hes tageofdevel opmenti n
plants uccession. Soilacidityisas soci at edwi t
hmat urit
yofsoilandcl i
maxveget ati
on,
wher easbas ics oilsareindi cat i
veofi mmat urity.
3.Sil
ica-sesqui oxi derat i
o
Asar esul
tofl os sofs il
icabyl eachi ng,s esqui oxidesgetaccumul atedi nthes oi
l
profil
e.The r elat ion between s il
ica and s es quioxidesofs oil
,isknown ass ili
ca-
sesquioxider at io.I ncreasei ns esqui oxi desr esultsi ndecreas eincat ionexchange
capaci tyandmoi stur
er etent i
vityofs oil.
SoilOrgani cMat t er
Humusgetmi xedwi t
hs oi l
,itimpr ovesi tss tr
uct ureincr
eas i
ngt heirwaterhol di
ng
capaci tyandr ateofper colat i
onofmoi s t
ure
Itmakess andys oi
lsmor ecohes ive, therebyi mpr ovingtheirstr
uctur e
Itmakescl ayeys oilmor eper meabl et oairandwat er
Itisagr eats our ceofpl antnut ri
ent s
Itsaddi t
iont ot hes oili
ncr eas escat i
onexchangecapaci ty

I
V. BIOTICFACTORS
Thei nf l
uenceofl i
vingorganis
msissaidtobebioti
cf actors
.Thesefact
orshavea
profoundi nfl
uenceonveget ati
onnotonl
ybythei
rdirectinter
acti
onbutal
sothrough
theireffectons oi
landtherefor
edeter
minethenatureofveget at
iont
hatcanexisti
n
apl ace.
Bioticfactorscanbedes cri
bedundert
hefol
lowi
ngt i
tl
es:
1.I
nf l
uenceofpl ants
2.Influenceofinsects
3.Influenceofwi l
danimals
4.Influenceofmanandhi sanimal
s

1.I
nfl
uenceofpl ant
s
Whenveget at
ioncomesuponas it
efort hefi
rstti
me,pl ant
sgraduall
yincr
easein
numberands tartcompet i
ngwi theachot herfores sent
ialr
equi
rementsofli
fe,i.
e.
foodandl i
ghtbydes i
redand/ orundesi
rablespeci
es.
Compet i
ti
onbet weendes ir
eds peci
esdependsont heirpowertoproduceabundant
seedever yyear,todisperseitwidel
y,andt oger minateandgrow eveninadver s
e
condi
tion,thei
rrateofgr owth,moistur
er equi
rement ,modeofbranchi
ng,browsing,
l
ongevi t
y,f ire,et c.Bes i
desdes ired s peci es ,t her e ares ome undes i
rabl
es peci es
affect i
ngt hegr owt hoft reesoft hef avor eds peci es.Undes irables peci
esmaybe
weedsorhar mf ul speci es .
Undes irabl ehar mf uls peciesmaybes tudi edasf ol l
ows :
(i
)Par as ites( i
i)Epi phyt es(iii
)Climber s(i
v)Abnoxi ous weeds( v)Fungi
(i
)Par as ites :Par as i
tesgr ow ons omel ivingpl antcal l
edhos tandpenet r
at et heir
suckingr oot si ntot hehos tpl antcal l
edhaus toria.Theydonotdr aw moi stur eand
miner alnut rient sf rom s oil
.Sanalt reei sar ootandval uabl epar asit
e.Eg.Common
par asites :Cus cut ar eflexa,Cas sythaf i
liformi s .Par ti
alpar as it
es :Vi s
cum,Lor ant hus,
Arceut hobi um
(i
i)Epi phyt es :Epi phyt ei sapl antgr owi ngonbutnotnour ishedbyanot herpl ant.
Theyonl yt aket hehel pofot herpl anti nget tingacces st ol i
ght .Eg. Fi
cusbengal ens is
,
F.religios a, or chi ds ,et c.
(i
ii
)Cl i
mber s:A her baceousorwoodypl antt hatcl i
mbsup orot hers uppor tby
twinni ngr oundt hem orbyhol dingont ot hem byt endril
s ,hooks ,aerialrootsorot her
attachment s .Lar gewoodycl imber si nt ropi calar easar ecal l
edl i
ana.Theydepend
onot herpl ant sf orphys icals uppor tort ogetacces stol ight.Theydamaget het rees
byki llingt hem orbymaki nggr ooveorbybendi ngt het rees.Eg.Bauhi niavahl i
i
,
But eas uper ba, I
pomea, etc.
(i
v)Obnoxi ousweeds :Obnoxi ousweed r eachesi n an ar ea and s preadsf as t.It
coppi ceswel landbecomesas eriousobs tacl ei nt her egener ati
on.Forexampl e;
Lant anacamer a, Eupat ori
um odor ant um.
(v)Fungi :A l ar genumberoff ungiat tackf ores tt r
eesand t heirat tack,bes i
des
reduci ng qual ity oft imberoft reesat tacked,s omet imeschange t he form and
structur eoff or es tcommuni ties .Theycaus edampi ngof fi ns eedl i
ngs ,woodr otand
rootr oti npol esandt rees,t her ebyki lli
ngt hem ormaki ngt het i
mberal t
oget her
useles s .
2.Influenceofi ns ect s
I
ns ect sar ei mpor tantpar toff ores tecos ys tem.Buts omeoft hem ar eharmf uls uch
asHopl ocer ambyxs pi nicornis( Salbor er),Eut ectonamachaer alis(Teakdef ol i
at or)
,
Hybl eapuer a( Teaks keletonizer )et c
3.Influenceofwi ldani mal s
Wi l
dani mal sar eal socr ucialpar toff or es tecos ystem,whi chhel pinpol l
inat i
onof
fl
ower sanddi sper salofs eed.However ,t heydamaget hef ores tcropscons i
der ably.
Forexampl e;Cheet al s,Sambar sandNi l
gaief f
ectonSalr egener ation.Porcupi nes
des tr
oys eedl ingsofbamboo,khai rands imal .Pi gs,elephant sandmonkeysdamage
seedl i
ngss ampl ingsandpol esbybr eaki ngt hebr anchesandupr oot i
ngt hem.
4.Influenceofman
Mani sr es pons iblef ormanagi ngf orest s,yethecont inuest obet hemos tpower f
ul
agenti ndes troyi ngf ores t
si nmanyways .Ther ear es omewaysofdamagi ngf or est
veget
ati
on.Theyar
e;
Def
orest
ati
onanddenudat
ion

Loppi
ng

Removal
ofdr
yleaves

Col
l
ect
ionoff
lower
sandf
rui
ts

Gr
azi
ng

Fi
ri
ng

Encr
oachment