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Ability to Translate from One

Representation of the Concept of
Function to Another and Mathematical
Problem Solving
a a
Athanasios Gagatsis & Myria Shiakalli
a
University of Cyprus

Available online: 05 Oct 2010

To cite this article: Athanasios Gagatsis & Myria Shiakalli (2004): Ability to Translate from
One Representation of the Concept of Function to Another and Mathematical Problem Solving,
Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 24:5,
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 Educational Psychology
Vol. 24, No. 5, October 2004

Ability to Translate from One

Representation of the Concept of
Function to Another and Mathematical
Problem Solving
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Athanasios Gagatsis* and Myria Shiakalli

University of Cyprus

Representations are used extensively in mathematics and translation ability is highly correlated with
success in mathematics education. The authors investigate the translation ability of university
students as far as the concept of function is concerned. The research focuses on the relationship
between success in, solving direct translation tasks and success in solving problems by articulating
different representations of the concept of function. Furthermore, it examines the relationship
between student performance and the nature of the representation included in the translation task.
The ability to pass from one representation to another was associated with success in problem
solving. These results indicate that translation ability should be considered as an important factor
in problem solving. Percentages are lower when an iconic representation is included in the
translation task. This could be partly attributed to the holistic nature of iconic representations and
to the way the concept of function is taught at secondary schools.

Introduction
Translation ability refers to the psychological processes involved in going from one
mode of representation to another, for example from an equation to a graph (Janvier,
1987). Most researchers agree that translation ability is very important for the learning
of mathematics and for problem solving (Dufour-Janvier, Bednarz, & Belanger, 1987;
Even, 1998; Hitt, 1998; Janvier, 1987; Lesh, Behr, & Post, 1987a, 1987b).
Mathematics teaching, school textbooks, and other teaching materials in mathematics
submit children to a wide variety of representations. Understanding an idea entails:

1. the ability to recognise an idea, which is embedded in a variety of qualitatively

different representational systems;

*Corresponding author. Department of Education, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus. E mail:

gagatsis@ucy.ac.cy.
ISSN 0144±3410(print)/ISSN 1469±046X (online)/04/050645-13
ã 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/0144341042000262953
 646 A. Gagatsis and M. Shiakalli

2. the ability to manipulate the idea ¯exibly within given representational systems;
and
3. the ability to translate the idea from one system to another accurately (Lesh et al.,
1987b).

A central goal of mathematics teaching is thus taken to be enabling students to pass

from one representation to another without falling into contradictions (Hitt, 1998;
Janvier, 1987). The present study investigates the translation ability of university
students as far as the concept of function is concerned. It clari®es the relationship
between translation ability and problem solving by identifying direct translation tasks
using different representations of the concept of function ± the verbal, the graphical,
and the algebraic ± and showing that the ability to pass from one representation to
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another is related to success in solving problems which call for the coherent
articulation of different representations of the concept of function.

Representations, Translation Ability, and Mathematical Problem Solving

There is extensive research in mathematics education showing a correlation between
translation ability and mathematical problem solving (Cifarelli, 1998; Duval, 1987,
1993; Gagatsis, Michaelidou, & Shiakalli, 2000; Hitt, 1998; Janvier, 1987; Kaput,
1985, 1987a, 1987b, Lesh et al., 1987a; 1987b; National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics, NCTM, 2000; Owens & Clements, 1998). According to the Principals
and Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) translation ability is crucial for
the learning of mathematical concepts and problem solving.
Duval (1987, 1993) de®nes the notion of natural interpretation as understanding
the meaning of a concept and identifying equivalent meanings of different represen-
tations of the same concept. This activity enables students to articulate all the
properties, information, and formulations of the problem situation. This interpret-
ation can be prevented by lack of semantic congruence (Duval, 1987) between the
representations involved in the problem. When the equivalence of meaning between
two representations is not evident, the passage from the one to the other becomes
more dif®cult. These translation dif®culties are related to dif®culties in mathematical
problem solving (Gagatsis 1997; Janvier, 1987; Lesh et al., 1987a, 1987b).
Most textbooks today make use of a wide variety of representations in order to
promote understanding. The use of symbolism in mathematics thinking is funda-
mental. However, particular uses of symbolism ± the translation processes ± appear to
be overlooked (Janvier, 1987).
A translation involves two modes of representation ± the source (initial represen-
tation) and the target (®nal representation) (Janvier, 1987). For the modes equation
and graph there are two translations ± from the graph to the equation and from the
equation to the graph. As Janvier points out, to achieve directly and correctly a given
translation one has to select and use those elements of the source which are necessary
for the target. Research suggests that translation ability is best developed when
 Translation Ability and Problem Solving 647

students are asked to perform translations both from the source to the target and from
the target to the source (Janvier, 1987).
Lesh et al. (1987b) emphasize that the distinct types of representation systems are
important in their own right, but translations among them and transformations within
them are also important. They found that translation disabilities are signi®cant factors
in¯uencing both mathematical learning and problem solving performance and that
strengthening or remediating these abilities facilitates the acquisition and use of
elementary mathematical ideas. To diagnose a student's learning dif®culties or to
identify instructional opportunities, teachers can generate a variety of useful questions
by presenting an idea in one representational mode and asking the student to
illustrate, describe, or represent the same idea in another mode.
Lesh et al. (1987a) give an example illustrating some of the structural character-
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istics of students' representational capabilities related to proportional reasoning and

rational numbers understanding. They also describe some of the dif®culties students
frequently experience with different kinds of representational translations. They
found that:

1. tranlations to pictures are easier than translations from pictures;

2. translations involving written language are easier than translations involving
written symbols; and
3. the easiest translations are those than only require a student to read a fraction or
ratio in two different forms.

Lesh et al. (1987a) have identi®ed a number of relationships between students'

rational number understanding and the ability to perform translations among and
transformations within various representational systems. They found that the
characteristics of particular representational systems, in which the mathematical
structures are embedded, contribute to item dif®culty.
Hegarty and Kozhevnikov (1999) distinguished two types of visual±spatial
representations: schematic representations that encode the spatial relations described
in a problem and pictorial representations that encode the visual appearance of the
objects described in the problem. They found that use of schematic spatial
representations was associated with success in mathematical problem solving,
whereas use of pictorial representations was negatively correlated with success.
Despite the fact that translation processes are related to success in problem solving,
the teaching of translation strategies appears to be overlooked in mathematics
education (Janvier, 1987; Lesh et al., 1987a, 1987b).

The Concept of Function

Representations are an inherent part of mathematics. Certain representations are so
closely associated to a concept, for example a function and its graph, that it is hard to
see how the concept can be conceived without them. The concept of function is of
fundamental importance to the learning of mathematics (Eisenberg, 1998; Even,
 648 A. Gagatsis and M. Shiakalli

1998; Hitt, 1998; Kalchman & Case, 1998). There is general agreement among
mathematics educators that the topic of functions is one of the most important that
students encounter in their secondary and collegiate years (Eisenberg, 1992;
Kalchman & Case, 1998).
The concept of function admits a variety of representations. Each representation of
the concept offers information about particular aspects of the concept without being
able to describe it completely. Different external representations of the concept
complete each other.
Hitt (1998) identi®es the following ®ve levels in the construction of the concept of
function:

1. incoherent mixture of different representations of the concept;

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2. identi®cation of different representations of the concept;

3. translation with preservation of meaning from one system of representation to
another;
4. coherent articulation between two systems of representation; and
5. coherent articulation of different systems of representation in the solution of a
problem.

This indicates that the ability to solve problems (Level 5) entails the ability to translate
with preservation of meaning from one system of representation to another (Level 3).
Secondary school students, university students of mathematics and physics, and
mathematics teachers face dif®culties in passing from one representation of the
concept of function to another (Artigue, 1992; Hitt, 1998; Kaldrimidou & Ikonomou,
1992; Kerslake, 1986).
Mathematics students, future mathematics teachers, avoid certain modes of
representation of the concept of function ± the graphical representation ± while
preferring others ± the algebraic expression (Artigue, 1992; Hitt, 1998). Kaldrimidou
and Ikonomou (1992) point out that the attitude of students is determined by the
attitude of secondary school teachers of mathematics. Textbooks and secondary
school teachers in Greece, for instance, tend to promote the use of algebraic
expressions, while undermining the use of graphs. The usual translation task which
students are asked to perform involves the sketching of a graph based on a given
algebraic expression. Secondary school students are seldom asked to produce the
algebraic expression based on the graph or to write the corresponding verbal
expression of an algebraic expression and vice versa.
The present study examines for the ®rst time the translation ability of university
students in Cyprus as far as the concept of function is concerned. Previous studies
examined translation ability from the statement of the problem to the algebraic
expression and the graph, or translation ability from one mode of representation to
another. This study includes direct translation tasks as well as problems which call for
the coherent articulation of different representations of the concept of function, in
order to identify the relationship between translation ability and problem solving
ability.
 Translation Ability and Problem Solving 649

The focus of this research is to identify the translation ability of university students
and to show how translation ability affects mathematical problem solving. The ®rst
hypothesis is that ability to solve direct translation tasks from one representation of the
concept of function to another is associated with better performance in problem
solving, because understanding the concept implies coherent articulation of the
different representations which come into play during problem solving. Second, it is
hypothesized that the performance of the students alters according to the nature of the
external representation included in the translation task.

Method
Participants
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In all, 195 university students from the department of education of the University of
Cyprus took part in this study.

Materials
Two tests were administered to the students (Test A and Test B). Each test consists of
six direct translation tasks from one representation of the concept of function to
another, a table, and two word problems composed speci®cally for the study. The six
direct translation tasks are identical in both tests. The only difference is the
representation, which acts as the source. In Test A, the six tasks are expressed in
verbal form and the students were asked to pass from the verbal representation of a
function to the corresponding graphical and algebraic representation. In Test B, the six
tasks are in graphical form and the students were asked to pass from the graphical
representation to the corresponding verbal and algebraic representation. At the
beginning of each test it is mentioned that a piece of information in mathematics can be
expressed in three ways: verbally, graphically, and algebraically. A speci®c example is
given, the graph and corresponding verbal and algebraic expression of the function x=2.
The six direct translation tasks expressed algebraically are the following:
1. x=5
2. y=3x
3. y=3x + 2
4. y= { 2x, x>1
21, x < 21
5. xy=1, x ¹ 0
6. y=x2
Tasks 1, 2, and 3 represent lines. Task 4 represents a non-continuous line de®ned
partially whereas Tasks 5 and 6 represent curves.
The tasks, including tables and the word problems, are not the same in the two
tests. In both tables the algebraic expression is of the form y=ax + c. The students
were asked to complete the table and to sketch the graph. For the word problems, the
 650 A. Gagatsis and M. Shiakalli

students were asked to read the problem, write the algebraic expression, and sketch
the graph. The algebraic expression included in the ®rst set of two problems is of the
form y=x2, whereas the expression included in the other two problems is of the form
xy=c, x¹0.

Procedure
The tests were administered in two group sessions in which students were tested
individually. In the group sessions, all students were tested at once in the classroom.
The second test was administered a week later. Duval (1987, 1993) and Gagatsis et al.
(2000) used the same procedure.
As far as the direct translation tasks are concerned, the given task is a speci®c
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representation of a function. This is the source representation. In Test A, the source

representation is verbal. The students were asked to sketch the graph and write the
algebraic expression which correspond to the source representation. The graphical
and the algebraic are the target representations. In Test B, the source representation is
graphical. The students were asked to write the verbal and algebraic representations
corresponding to the source representation.
The six direct translation tasks are followed by the tasks involving a table of values
and two word problems. The students were asked to complete the missing values in
the table, and to write the algebraic expression which governs the completion of the
table. The students were asked to read the word problems carefully and then write the
algebraic expression and sketch the graph. The functions included in the four
problems are the same as the functions used in the direct translation tasks (Tasks 5
and 6). The intention is to identify the relationship between translation ability and
problem solving.

Scoring of Tests
The direct translation tasks were given a score of 1 if the representation produced by
the students was the one corresponding to the source representation. A score of 0 was
given to wrong answers or no answer.
The tasks concerning the table with the missing values were given a score of 1 for
correct completion of the table and a score of 0 for wrong or incomplete answers. For
the sketching of the graph, a score of 1 was given for a correct graph, 0.66 for a graph
with the wrong domain of values, 0.33 for plotting points without joining them, and a
score of 0 was given for wrong graphs or no answer.
As far as the word problems are concerned a score of 1 was given for the correct
algebraic equation and a score of 0 was given for wrong answers or no answers. The
sketching of the graph was scored in the way described above.

Data Analysis
SPSS statistical analysis was carried out. The technique of linear regression was
 Translation Ability and Problem Solving 651
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Figure 1. Linear Regression Model

applied to the data in order to identify the relationship between translation ability and
problem solving ability. Linear regression estimates the correlation between a set of
independent variables and a dependent variable, and the variance of the dependent
variable which is explained by the independent variables. In the present study there
were two independent variables: the ability to pass from the verbal representation to
the graphical and the algebraic, and the ability to pass from the graphical
representation to the verbal and the algebraic. The dependent variable was the
ability to solve problems by articulating different representations of functions.
Percentages concerning the performance of the students on different translation tasks
were also estimated.
The implicative method of data analysis developed by R. Gras was also used.
According to Gras (1995), the method is appropriate for collecting and analysing data
in order to reinforce or refute hypotheses and draw conclusions. This method
classi®es and relates factors. The implicative method gives the implicative graph,
which presents the implicative relations among all variables. The implications are
valid at a level of signi®cance of 99% or 95%. The implication Task 1 ® Task 2
indicates that success at Task 1 entails success at Task 2, whereas failure at Task 2
entails failure at Task 1 for 99% of the cases.

Results
First, we consider the relationship between problem solving and translation ability.
According to the model produced by linear regression (Figure 1) there is correlation
between translation ability and problem solving ability. According to the signi®cance
 652 A. Gagatsis and M. Shiakalli
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Figure 2. The implicative diagram of the variables

level (< 0.05), the independent variables explain 53% of the variance of the dependent
variable.
Figure 2 presents the relationships between all tasks ± translation tasks and
problems. It is evident that at a signi®cance level of 95% (< 0.05) Tasks 5 and 6,
which are translation tasks involving a nonlinear function, are not related to the
problems which include the same function (Tasks 9.1, 9.2). In a similar way there is
no relation between Tasks 2, 3, and 4, which are translation tasks involving linear
functions, and the problems which include the corresponding functions (Tasks 8.1,
8.2). In general, translation tasks are not related to the problem solving tasks.
We now consider the relationship between the performance of the students and the
nature of the representation in the translation task. According to Figure 2, there is no
important connection among translation tasks from the verbal to the graphical and the
algebraic representation (tasks included in Test A) and translation tasks from the
graphical to the verbal and algebraic representation. There is an area of curves, which
includes translation tasks of nonlinear functions ± Tasks 51b, 52b, 61b, and 62b.
There is also an area of lines, which includes translation tasks of linear functions ±
Tasks 21b, 22b, 31b, 32b, 41b, and 42b. It is evident that there is no relationship
between the two different representations of the concept of function ± the verbal and
the graphical. The students conceive the two representations of the same concept ±
the verbal and the graphical ± as two different tasks and not as different means of
representing the same idea. This indicates that they are unable to recognize an idea
embedded in a variety of qualitatively different representational systems and as a
result they do not understand this idea.
 Translation Ability and Problem Solving 653

Table 1 Success percentages at direct translation tasks

Task Translation Percentage (%)

1 Verbal±graphical 98.5
Verbal±algebraic 99.0
Graphical±verbal 97.4
Graphical±algebraic 99.0
2 Verbal±graphical 62.1
Verbal±algebraic 86.2
Graphical±verbal 61.0
Graphical±algebraic 64.6
3 Verbal±graphical 57.4
Verbal±algebraic 88.7
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Graphical±verbal 44.1
Graphical±algebraic 49.7
4 Verbal±graphical 41.5
Verbal±algebraic 73.8
Graphical±verbal 31.8
Graphical±algebraic 34.4
5 Verbal±graphical 39.5
Verbal±algebraic 75.4
Graphical±verbal 46.7
Graphical±algebraic 49.7
6 Verbal±graphical 59.5
Verbal±algebraic 93.3
Graphical±verbal 50.3
Graphical±algebraic 58.5

According to Figure 2, success in solving translation tasks from the verbal to the
graphical representation always entails success in solving translation tasks from the
verbal to the algebraic representation. In a similar way, success in solving translation
tasks from the graphical to the verbal always entails success in solving translation tasks
from the graphical to the algebraic representation. This result is typical because the
usual course followed by solvers is to pass from the verbal expression to the algebraic
and then to the graphical. The same is true for passage from the graphical
representation to the algebraic and the verbal.
Table 1 presents the percentages of success in direct translation tasks. It is evident
that the percentages are lower whenever the graphical representation is involved in the
translation procedure. It is also evident that the percentages are different for tasks
where the source representation (initial representation) remains the same and the
target representation (®nal representation) is altered. The percentages are lower in
translation tasks from the graphical to the verbal representation than in translation
tasks from the graphical to the algebraic representation. Similarly, percentages for
translation tasks from the verbal to the graphical representation are lower than
percentages for translation tasks from the verbal to the algebraic representation.
 654 A. Gagatsis and M. Shiakalli

The translation from the verbal to the algebraic representation is the easiest since it
appears to have the highest percentages of success. This might be due to the fact that
during the translation procedures taking place, the information is being transferred
linearly as a sequence of sentences. For example, y=3x is the corresponding algebraic
representation for the verbal expression ``the set of points for which the y co-ordinate
is three times the x co-ordinate''.

Discussion
In this study, we made a distinction between three types of representation of the
concept of function used in mathematical problem solving ± the verbal, the graphical,
and the algebraic. We showed that ability to translate from one representation of the
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concept of function to another is related to problem solving success. This relation,

however, cannot be expressed as an implication occurring from the implicative graph.
Consequently, one cannot claim that students who are able to solve successfully a
translation task will be successful in problem solving. In the same way one cannot
claim that students who fail to solve problems will surely fail in solving direct
translation tasks. This result indicates that there are many factors involved in problem
solving. Translation ability can be reliably classi®ed as one of these factors. The
relationship between translation ability and problem solving ability cannot be
considered implicative due to the fact that success in problem solving is not solely
in¯uenced by translation ability, but by a majority of interacting factors. These factors
explain the remaining 47% of the dependent variable of problem solving ability.
These results are in agreement with previous studies (Gagatsis et al., 2000; Hitt,
1998; Janvier, 1987), according to which ability to translate from one representation
of the concept of function to another is an essential prerequisite for the coherent
articulation of several representations involved in the problem solving procedure.
There is no signi®cant relationship between the graphical and verbal representa-
tions of the concept. Students do not realise that the graphical and the verbal are
different modes representing the same concept. Students act as if they are different
tasks and not different means of representing the concept of function. This fact
indicates that they do not have a complete and coherent cognitive structure for the
concept of function. Understanding the concept of function ± indeed any concept ±
entails the ability to recognize coherently at least two different representations of the
concept and pass from the one to the other (Duval, 1987, 1993; Gagatsis et al. 2000;
Hitt, 1998). It is evident that university students face dif®culties in handling the
different representations of the concept of function and in passing from one
representation to another. Research results indicate that lack of ability to translate
from one representation of the concept of function to another poses dif®culties for
high school students, university students of mathematics and physics, and teachers of
mathematics (Artigue, 1992; Even, 1998; Gagatsis, 1997; Hitt, 1998; Kaldrimidou &
Ikonomou, 1992; Kerslake, 1986).
In this study we also examined the relationship between the performance of the
students and the nature of the representation included in the translation task. It is
 Translation Ability and Problem Solving 655

evident that one cannot claim semantic congruence (Duval, 1987, 1993) between the
different representations ± graphical, verbal, and algebraic. The representations
would be semantically congruent if success percentages were equal at translation tasks
from the graphical to the verbal representation and from the graphical to the algebraic
representation. The same is true for translation tasks from the verbal to the graphical
and from the verbal to the algebraic. According to the results such equivalence does
not exist. It is dif®cult to say that two representations of the concept of function are
semantically congruent due to the fact that each representation is never equivalent to
another. On the contrary, each representation offers information for some aspects of
the concept.
According to the results of the present study, it is evident that whenever the
graphical representation is involved in the translation task the percentages of success
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are lower. Kaldrimidou and Ikonomou (1992) point out that Greek students and
mathematics teachers avoid using and interpreting graphical representations and
prefer using algebraic representations. Some possible reasons for this negative attitude
of students towards iconic representations are:
d cognitive reasons, related to the dif®culties of a picture being used as a means of
representing information;
d reasons concerning the epistemology of the mathematical society and the school
textbooks; and
d sentimental reasons related to the stress and the uncertainty that students feel each
time they have to deal with iconic representations.

Our research shows that ability to translate from one representation of the concept
of function to another promotes problem solving success. Instruction should
encourage students to perform simple translations from one representation of the
concept of function to another and to use translation strategies. This will foster their
problem solving ability. Furthermore, instruction should include all modes of
representation in the translation tasks because each representation has its own
characteristics and poses different challenges for students.

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Owens, K. D., & Clements M. A. (1998). Representations in spatial problem solving in the
classroom. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 17, 197±218.
 Translation Ability and Problem Solving 657

Appendix:
The Mathematical Problems Included in the Tests
1. Bank ``Deposit'' offers an interest of 8% and each year gives a check of £50 to each depositor.
Bank ``Savings'' offers an interest of 7% and each year gives a check of £100 to each depositor.

(a) Write the algebraic expression, which relates the total amount of money at the end
of each year to the initial amount of money, for each of the two banks.
(b) Sketch the graph for each of the two relations.
2. John draws triangles with a constant area of 15 cm2.

(a) Express the length of the base of each triangle in relation to its height.
(b) Sketch the graph.
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3. A restaurant spends £5000 as yearly expenses and £2 as expenses for each customer. If the
charge per person is £10:

(a) Express the yearly pro®t of the restaurant in relation to the number of customers.
(b) Sketch the graph.
4. Mr. Nikos inherited a square ®eld. Mr. George has a square ®eld with an area twice as the area
of Mr. Niko's ®eld.

(a) Express the area of Mr. George's ®eld in relation to the length of Mr. Niko's ®eld.
(b) Sketch the graph.
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