Unit 1 

Master Planning 
Objectives 

After completing this unit, students will be aware of the following topics:
◢ Infrastructures and Facilities at the Airport 
◢ Purpose of Master Plan and Inputs Required  

Introduction

Aerodrome or airport is de ned as ‘a de ned area on land or  water (including any buildings,
installations and equipment)  intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, 
departure and surface movement of aircraft’. 
Planning for a green eld airport starts with the identi cation  of the required length and width
of the land, based on some  preliminary estimate of land requirement. Regulatory  requirement
of the Air eld usually takes precedence over  other infrastructure requirements. The
topography of the  land and planned development in and around the proposed  site is an
important consideration. Preliminary obstacle  survey ensuring no major limitations such as
connectivity to  the city by means of road or rail, existing airports close to the  proposed site,
sensitive or protected installation like defence  installation nearby, are some of the factors
which are required  to be examined and discussed with appropriate authorities.  A preliminary
environment impact study will also be useful. 
Despite having a master plan, a brown eld airport that  requires additional expansion to its
infrastructure would  require a revisit of the present master plan and examination  of changes
based on the current technology, regulations or  any other learning during operations.

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 Master Plan 
Master planning for an airport will be prepared based on the following inputs into the process: 
• Vision for the airport 
• Objectives and goals of the project 
• Existing facilities and details of these, if it is a brown  eld airport 
• Passenger and Cargo Tra c Forecast on a long-term  basis 
• Demand Capacity analysis of facility/infrastructure  requirement based on preliminary
evaluation- using  thumb rules or bench marking with other airports 
• Business plan and non-aeronautical assets to be included 
• Implementation phasing based on the ultimate facility/ infrastructure requirement based on
tra c forecast 

Airport planning is a process that considers and integrates  the two aspects of aircraft
operations and handling cargo or  passenger. 
While locating these facilities, planning shall also include  the services that are required to be
performed for aircraft,  passenger or cargo handling. For example, apron and terminal  building
are to be co-located in a way that passengers can  board the aircraft through passenger
boarding bridges and  if it is a remote parking close to the terminal for quick turn  round of the
aircraft. Similarly, the terminal building process  which include baggage or passenger screening
for security  purposes, passport control, customs etc. require proper  spatial planning and
correct alignment for smooth passenger  ow. Another example is the apron planning that
includes the  fuel hydrant pits to be located for aviation refueling services  and other services

like Ground Power Unit (GPU) and Pre Conditioned Air (PCA) for the aircraft parked in the
apron.

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Planning shall also include both aviation related and non aviation related facilities.  
ICAO de nes airport master plan as that which presents the  planner’s conception of the
ultimate development of a speci c  airport. It e ectively presents the research and logic from 
which the plan was evolved and artfully displays the plan  in a graphic and written report.
Master plans are applied to  the modernisation and expansion of existing airports and to  the
construction of new airports, regardless of their size or  functional roles. 

Master planning exercise is to primarily identify the ideal  location for various aviation related
facilities that are required  for aircraft movement, passenger and Cargo handling,  facilities
related to safety and other support facilities. The  non-aviation related facilities like hotels,
convention centre  will also need to be in the master plan. Certain non-aviation  related facilities
can be planned for use both by airport  users and non-airport users if appropriately located.
Master  planning exercise involves consultation with all the airport  stakeholders from airlines to
Regulatory Authorities and  Government agencies like immigration, customs, security  etc. 

Airport Site Investigations The intent of this guidance is to clarify the required content of Airport
Site Studies. We are providing this guidance for sponsors and consultants working on
establishing new airport sites or seeking inclusion of an existing airport in the National Plan of
Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS). Policy on Site Approval Site approval by the FAA is

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 required for all locations as a prerequisite to receiving FAA funding. The site study will need to
be updated for current standards at locations where a sponsor has previously received site
approval based on obsolete standards or where the site was approved for a lower classi cation
such as a VFR, The Airport Improvement Program (AIP) Handbook (Order 5100.38) states in
Appendix F that the Region (ADO) must not issue a grant for any work beyond the feasibility
study unless the following criteria have been met:

1. The sponsor has completed the feasibility

study.

2. The Region (ADO) has concurred that the feasibility study supports the replacement airport:

3. The Region (ADO) has obtained APP-400 concurrence and APP-1 approval prior to APP400
adding the airport to the NPIAS.

4. “...Planning projects that include site selection...normally require a tentative approval of the
site before proceeding with subsequent elements.” The sponsor should not make a site
selection endorsement until considering: 1. The airspace determination report 2. Site utility 3.
Preliminary environmental ndings 4. Public hearing testimony

5. Other pertinent factors Site Selection Report Requirements The site selection report should
contain detailed information in each of the above areas. Appendix E of FAA Advisory Circular
150/5070-6 contains a general overview of these requirements. The site selection report is a
narrative report that responds to all applicable evaluation factors. Refer to AIP-541 for
applicable evaluation factors. Aeronautical Requirements First and foremost, any proposed site
must be acceptable from an aeronautical perspective. Sponsors should not give further
consideration to any sites that are not acceptable per the report. Preliminary screening should
be based upon Part 77 requirements, review of topographic maps in relation to topography and
obstructions, visits on the ground to the proposed sites, and over ight of the proposed sites
by the Flight Procedures Branch of the FAA. Environmental Requirements The site selection
report should contain information on potential environmental impacts such as impacts to
farmland, wetlands, historic properties, 4(f) properties, and forest lands as well as necessary
relocations. Sponsors should provide such information for each of the proposed sites. The
report should also contain preliminary information about any known or suspected endangered
species on any of the proposed sites. This information is preliminary in nature and is primarily
for screening the proposed sites for potential environmental impact. 09/01/2020 Central Region
Airports Division AIP Sponsor Guide - 500 500-10 The recommended site will require a detailed
environmental assessment after the FAA has given the recommended site tentative approval.
The FAA must issue a FONSI or proceed with an EIS before the FAA can provide nal approval
of the recommended site in accordance with FAA Order 5050.4 and Order 1050.1. Financial
Evaluation The site selection report must contain su cient information to make an informed
decision concerning the relative development costs of each of the proposed sites. This should
include such items as land costs, utility extension costs, access costs, obstruction removal
costs, and construction estimates. AIP funding for new airports is not guaranteed and the
nancial evaluation must show the sponsor is capable of completing the new airport even if
AIP funding becomes unavailable. Evaluation of sites and Recommendation The Sponsor shall
evaluate the identi ed sites against the above criteria. Once this analysis has occurred, the

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 sponsor should narrow the list to no more than three sites with one of the sites being the
sponsors recommend site. This analysis should clearly set forth the reasoning for discarding
sites as well as the reasons for recommending the preferred site. If other modes of
transportation are a ected, i.e. requiring a road to be closed or relocated, initial discussion with

the authority having jurisdiction must be done to determine if the proposed changes will be
allowed. Public Involvement Public involvement is critical to the successful outcome to the site
selection process, and an opportunity for a public hearing is required during the environmental
assessment process. Early involvement of the public is essential to determine the publics’
views on important issues such as safety, environmental impacts, and opinion of potential
users of the airport. We strongly suggest a public hearing before recommendation of the
preferred site to the FAA. Coordination Coordination of the recommended site must occur with
other divisions of the FAA and other units of government (such as the state aeronautics agency,
local governments, and highway authorities) before FAA can approve the site. The Airports
Division will request a ight check by the Flight Standards Division for the three candidate sites
(including the preferred site). Approval of an Airport Site The FAA will notify the proponent of a
proposed site as to whether the recommended site will receive preliminary approval or
disapproval after evaluation of all pertinent information and resulting information from the
coordination with other a ected agencies. Detailed Site Planning The detailed site planning
(included in a master plan or ALP report) may not occur until the site has received preliminary
approval by the FAA. The preparation of the nal ALP may also not occur until the site has
received preliminary approval. Preliminary site planning is necessary to determine the relative
extent the proposed development will have on the proposed site. Such preliminary site
information would include wind data, a forecast, identi cation of the critical aircraft, runway
dimensions, type of approach needed (precision, non-precision, visual), total acreage required,
and dimensions of the site needed.

Evaluation Factors for Airport Site Investigations

- Location 1. Reason for site investigation - (Statement of Need) including who proposed the
airport, is it a local, regional or national need. 2. Names, addresses, and business of local
parties interested, including any planning and aeronautical organizations. 3. Conformity with
other plans. Is the proposed airport shown in the NPIAS? Is it shown in the state system
plan? Is it shown in local planning documents? Does the proposed site conform to the
zoning? Do a ected local governments agree with the need and the proposed site? 4.
Driving time and distance to other airports from the proposed site (within 45 miles). 5. Size
and type of airport presently required (include critical aircraft and Airport Reference code);
ultimate size and type required. (Refer to NPIAS and state system plan). 6. Relationship of
airport to area proposed to be served. Maps including a vicinity map showing locations of
candidate site, USGS quadrangle map(s) showing proposed sites, and Aeronautical chart
with proposed sites.

- Airport Site Features 1. General topographic features of vicinity. 2. Meteorological

conditions (Mean Daily Maximum temperature, at least one year of wind data for location). 3.
Larger scale drawing of each site including topography. (sheet dimensions are
recommended to not exceed 11 “ by 17” with a scale of between 1” = 2,000’ and 1” =
5,000’).

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 - Analysis of Each Site 1. Approximate runway end coordinates and elevations. 2. Section,
township, range. 3. Wind rose data. 4. Primary runway approach end. 5. Proposed type of
approach to each runway end (Visual, Non precision, Precision). 6. Glide angle available for
each approach after obstructions have been cleared. 7. List of obstructions that must be
cleared for each runway end. 8. Existing zoning and zoning needed for airport (include name
of jurisdiction having zoning authority). 9. Availability of utilities - electricity, gas, telephone,

- water and sewer. 10. Access road availability and travel time to nearest community. 11.
Potential Environmental Impacts

- Engineering and Construction Factors 1. General geological features a ecting soil and
foundation conditions. 2. Types of soil for foundations and drainage. 3. Clearing
requirements including fences, trees, etc. Central Region Airports Division 09/01/2020 AIP
Sponsor Guide - 500 500-13 4. Grading factors - light or heavy rock, need to remove
adverse materials. 5. Natural drainage courses of site. 6. Drainage improvements needed for
airport construction. 7. General pavement design information (i.e. estimates of excavation
and ll, sub base volume and thickness, pavement thickness, type and dimensions). 8. Will
the airport be lighted?

- Economic/Financial Feasibility for Each Site 1. Total estimated development cost. 2.

Estimated capital improvement plan including federal and local share of costs.

Zoning Around Airports

Zoning Overview When an airport sponsor (owner) accepts an AIP grant the sponsor agrees to
the following condition (assurance) as a condition in accepting that grant. Compatible land
Use: It (the airport owner) will take appropriate action, including the adoption of zoning laws, to
the extent reasonable, to restrict the use of land adjacent to or in the immediate vicinity of the
airport to activities and purposes compatible with normal airport operations, including landing
and takeo of aircraft. In addition, if the project is for noise compatibility program
implementation, it will not cause or permit any change in land use, within its jurisdiction, that
will reduce its compatibility, with respect to the airport, of the noise compatibility measures
upon which federal funds have been expended. The objective of zoning land on and around the
airport is to assure that future uses of the land are compatible with airport operations to protect
and preserve the airport and the public investment in the airport. Zoning strives to prevent the
following incompatible uses:

• Residential and other noise sensitive uses.

• Congregations of people in approach and departure areas to protect people and property on
the ground.

• Man-made and natural structures that can interfere with ight.

• Uses which may be a ected by vibration or fumes from aircraft operations.

• Uses of land on the airport that interfere with areas needed for aviation related activities.
Proper zoning of land on and around the airport can prevent the need to acquire land in fee
or easement to protect the airport. (As zoning law is individual to each state, Sponsors must
refer to state statutes to determine the extent of zoning authority.) However, typical state

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 aeronautical statutes generally provide greater zoning latitude for airports. You may need to
consult an attorney for a legal determination of the zoning authority available in the jurisdiction
of your airport may be necessary. Airport Layout Plan The rst step in airport zoning is to
develop a current Airport Layout Plan (ALP) for your airport. The ALP depicts land that the
airport should own in fee as well as land for which easements may be necessary.

The airspace drawings show obstructions to navigation and indicate areas that an airport
owner may need to regulate in order to prevent or remove such obstructions. The airport owner
should protect Part 77 imaginary surfaces through height limitations on development both on

and around the airport and especially in the approach areas and departure areas of the
runways. The FAA has published Advisory Circular AC 150/5190-4 “A Model Zoning Ordinance
to Limit the Height of Objects Around Airports” for this purpose. The ALP may be adopted by
reference and used to limit the height of objects that would interfere with airport usage. Such
adoption needs to be coordinated with local zoning authorities such as the city or county of
jurisdiction. Close coordination with the county or city planning departments is essential for
successful implementation of airport zoning.

Zoning for Incompatible Land Uses Zoning solely to limit the height of objects around the
airport will not be su cient to prevent the construction of incompatible uses such as housing
or uses that attract congregations of people in the approach areas. To control these types of
uses, exclusionary zoning is necessary to prevent incompatible uses from occurring. We have
also developed guidance on what uses the FAA Central Region Airports Division 09/01/2020
AIP Sponsor Guide - 500 500-19 considers incompatible with airports. This guidance is
contained in the Advisory Circular AC 150/5020-1”Noise Control and Compatibility Planning for
Airports”. Zoning Authority The airport owner has an obligation (due to the grant assurance) to
request that the zoning authority enact zoning restricts su cient to protect the airport. Where
the zoning authority and the airport owner are the same it is reasonable to expect that the
jurisdiction will enact the appropriate zoning. Good faith e orts to enact appropriate zoning
should include a written request from the airport owner to the zoning authority. Where the
zoning authority refuses to enact appropriate zoning to protect the airport, the airport authority
must be prepared to acquire the necessary control of land, especially in the approach areas, to
ensure right of ight. Such acquisition is clearly more expensive than appropriate zoning.
Failure to properly zone property creates the potential for con icts with adjacent land uses that
not only can cause expensive legal fees but can also endanger the public and users of the
airport. The FAA encourages appropriate zoning and planning to prevent encroachment by
incompatible uses around the airport that can ultimately cause an airport to close. Various
States and other public organizations have developed and implemented model airport zoning
ordinances. Airport owner/operators may consider referring to these models as development
guide for creating their own zoning ordinance.

- Apron Design The basic design of airport aprons includes application of FAA airport
standards, e ective design considerations and AIP eligibility criteria. The primary
considerations for apron design are:

• Apron Type (Terminal, Transient, Fueling, Based Aircraft and Holding)

• Tie down Layout

• Based Aircraft

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 Itinerant Aircraft Other Considerations include the
following:
• Spacing of tie downs need to match size of AC that utilize airport

• Wind orientation, tie downs into wind when possible

• Design Group considerations APRON DESIGN ELEMENTS Taxiway

• A de ned path established for the taxiing of aircraft from one part of airport to another.

• Assume a design speed of 20 mph Taxilane

• Portion of the aircraft parking area used for access between taxiways and aircraft parking
positions

• Lower speeds allow for reduced safety area and object free areas

• Taxilanes are located outside of the movement area

• Best practice is to locate taxilanes on edge of apron Taxiway/Taxilane Object Frees Area

• An area on the ground centered on the taxiway and taxilane that is provided to enhance the
safety of aircraft operations by limited objects not xed by function (e.g. taxiway lights)

• OFA Restrictions include service vehicle roads, parked aircraft, above ground objects not
xed by function.

• Vehicles may operate within an object free area but must yield to operating aircraft. APRON
DESIGN Locating Taxiways and Taxilanes

• Use ultimate separation standards

• Leave room for potential growth of apron

• Provide access to apron, FBO and Hangars

• Aircraft parking areas shall be located outside of taxiway and taxilane object free areas
Dimensional Standards

• For aircraft categories A and B maximum grade is 2%

• For aircraft categories C & D, maximum grade is 1% Maximum Longitudinal Grade For
Taxiways

• For aircraft categories A and B maximum longitudinal grade is 2%

• For aircraft categories C & D, maximum longitudinal grade is 1.5% Grade Changes for
Taxiways

• The maximum permissible change in grade is 3%

• A vertical curve shall be incorporated between changes. The length of vertical curve shall be
100’ for each 1% change in grade HANGAR CONSIDERATIONS Layout of Hangars

• Best use of space is typically perpendicular or parallel to runway.

• Separate locations for corporate (box) hangars and T-hangars because their ingress/egress
requirements are di erent.

• Provide for potential expansion of hangars

• Consider prevailing winds, i.e. avoid orientations that result in a north facing hangar doors.
Locate T-hangars (typically house lower activity aircraft) away from the general apron area.
Locate corporate hangars (higher activity users) closer to the general apron area AIP
ELIGIBILITY OF APRONS Eligible Areas

• FAA Order 5100.38 states “The construction, alteration, and reconstruction of public use
apron areas are eligible”.

• Predominantly exclusive use areas are not eligible.

• Eligibility of Taxiways and Taxilanes follow the same criteria as that of aprons, they must be
public use pavements. Ineligible Areas and Items

• Exclusive use areas - Private use areas, no services for general public

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 • Pavement within the limits from the edge of the object free area to the face of a structure or
object. Typically 50 feet from face of structure.

• Private use structures such as aircraft manufacturer structures. Size Considerations for AIP
Apron Apron for Transient Aircraft

• Parking area sized for 50% of busy day itinerant aircraft

• Busy day = 10% more than average day in busiest month

• Allow 360 square yards per aircraft (not including taxiway/taxilane area)

• Allow 10% for growth

• Allow 300 square yards per based aircraft (not including taxiway/taxilane area)

• Tailored to meet needs of speci c based aircraft MARKING OF APRON

• Taxiway/Taxilane centerline must protect the object free area of the class of aircraft taxiing
on the centerline.

• Parked aircraft and other objects shall not present a wing tip con ict for taxiing aircraft.

Review:

 
1. ______ de nes airport master plan as that which  presents the planner’s conception of the
ultimate  development of a speci c airport.  
2 Airport planning is a process that considers and  integrates the two aspects of _______
operations and  handling cargo or passenger. 
3 PCA stands for ________ 

Facilities or infrastructure to be incorporated in the master

plan are: 

• Airside:  
• Air eld pavements: runway(s), taxiways parallel  taxiway(s), entry/exit taxiway(s), Rapid Exit 
Taxiway(s) (RET) and apron including roads to the  front and back of the aircraft parking
positions.

• Perimeter road 
• Storm water drains 
• Perimeter fence (Security fence) 
• Communication, Navigation & Surveillance System  (CNS) - Instrument landing system,
DVOR, VHF  etc. 
• Equipment for Meteorological Services 
• Air eld Ground Lighting System (AGL) for air eld  pavements 
• Power supply substations for all the airside  infrastructures and facilities 
• Ground handling equipment workshops 
• Airlines engineering workshops 
• Maintenance workshops and stores 
• Ground support vehicle workshops 
• Rescue and Fire Fighting (RFF) stations or re stations 

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 • In the interface between airside and city side:

• Passenger terminal building(s) 

• Cargo terminal building 
• Aircraft MRO (Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul)

• Land side: 
• Car parks : surface / multilevel 
• Main access road and approach roads to all the  facilities PTB, Cargo etc. 
• Cargo warehouse 
• Airport main utility systems – power, water and  sewage treatment plants 
• Commercial development; o ces, hotels, convention 

centre etc. 
• Housing for sta  
• O ces for airlines, airport administration, customs,  immigration, security etc. 
• Hotels, convention centres, logistic centres, SEZs.

• Either on airside or landside: 

• The Airport Surveillance Radar and Secondary  Surveillance Radar (ASR/MSSR) 
• The Air Routes Surveillance Radar (ARSR) 
• The Air Tra c Control Tower (ATC) and technical  building 
• Aviation fuel storage 
• In ight catering facility 
• The master plan is prepared in order to ensure that: 
• The facilities are sized to handle the ultimate  forecasted tra c  
• The entire land parcel for the airport is optimally utilised  
• The facilities are located in the phased development  to ensure these do not require
relocation. 
• The facilities can be built in phases where possible/ feasible. The impact due to expansion/
development  is minimum with least abortive work and operational  hindrance.  
• Environmental restrictions, if any, in locating the  facilities are considered (in one airport the
ECC  mentioned that certain aviation related facilities  are prohibited in some part of the land
parcel). 
• Obstacle limitation surfaces around the airport are  considered while locating the runway. If
there are  structures which penetrate the Obstacle Limitation  Surfaces (OLS) the runway
location has to be reviewed. If runway relocation is not possible, the  possibility of removal of
such structures is to be  evaluated. If such structures cannot be removed,  the height
reduction should be evaluated. If neither  the removal nor reducing the height of the structure 
is possible, then the MP will identify the mitigation  measures or operational restrictions due
to these  obstacles. Such operational restrictions acceptability  is required to be examined
and documented in the  Master Plan. 
• Regulatory guidelines like a minimum distance  from the terminal to locate the car park
spaces are  considered. 
• CNS equipment are located without infringing the  sensitive and critical areas (these are
de ned areas  depending on the equipment) to avoid any e ect on  the performance of the
equipment.  
• Facilities that are required for each phase of the  development from initial phase to ultimate
phase  are considered. 

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 • Airside development planning complies with  Annex-14, since it precedes the planning of
other  facilities. 
• Master plan and business plan is synchronized. 
• For a green eld airport development, a phase wise  development of the facilities is required
from the ultimate  master plan. The number of phases can be determined based  on the
tra c forecast for a speci c time period. Airport  facilities are sized in a way to cater for the
anticipated or  forecasted tra c in the rst 10 years and subsequent phases  can be between
5 to 10 years. Proper planning will ensure  exibility in expanding these facilities and cater for
phased  development aligned with the tra c growth. Similar to the  aviation related facilities
based on tra c forecast, the non aviation related facilities on city side like hotels etc. will be 
taken up for implementation based on the business forecast.


For a brown eld airport development, the available master  plan is to be reviewed to ensure
this meets the present  scenario. In the case of no available master plan, one will  have to be
prepared before any expansion of the existing  facilities. 
The master plans are normally reviewed once in 5 years  to incorporate any changes that are
required based on the  consultations with the stakeholders and the airport’s own  experience. 

The steps for identi cation of facilities and infrastructures  that are to be incorporated in the
ultimate master plan for a  speci c airport based on airport’s vision, objectives and goals: 

1. Tra c forecast carried out with the tra c projection  in terms of origin-destination
passengers, transfer  passengers, domestic- international split. The tra c  forecast will also
include the aircraft eet mix and  number of Air Tra c Movement (ATM). Normally,  when
the forecast is done for a green eld airport the  passenger numbers and ATM numbers will
be on annual  basis and forecast horizon of 30-50 years. From the  annual numbers,
particularly the hourly peak tra c  anticipated will have to be worked out, as the sizing  of
many facilities depend on peak passenger and ATM  numbers. In the case of brown eld
airport, the forecast  will be similar to green eld airport and the current peak  hour tra c
available can be utilised as a basis for future  peak tra c. 

2. Determine the air eld infrastructure requirement viz.

• Runway length, width and number of runways • Number of Parallel taxiways 

• Number of exit and entry taxiways between runway  and parallel taxiway including Rapid Exit
Taxiways  (RET) 
• Number of aprons stands required (depends on peak  hour tra c and bu er capacity)

• Storm water drains 

• Air eld Ground Lighting (AGL) system requirement,  speci cally the approach lighting
requirement 
• Communication, Navigation & Surveillance (CNS)  systems that are required and their
location 
• Appropriate location of ATC tower and its height 
• Location of Rescue and Fire Fighting (RFF) Stations  (Fire Stations) 

3. Location of Passenger terminal building, the shape  and the ultimate foot print required to
meet the tra c  forecast. 

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 4. Location of cargo terminal building, the ultimate foot  print required to meet the tra c
forecast. Identify the  cargo apron requirement based on freighter only aircraft  movements. 

5. Aviation fuel storage tank farm location, size and  associated buildings.  

6. Vehicle Parking on city side–surface (or multi-level  building) and number of vehicle slots and
location 

7. Certain facilities like catering building, utilities building,  commercial development have lot of
exibility and options  for locations, but the area requirement for these are to be  estimated and
appropriately located, which will cater for  the ultimate tra c projection with phased
development. 

Example of Master Plan 

Singapore Changi Airport

Terminal 5 and runway 3 and associated facilities are under  implementation. Present capacity
of the terminal buildings  is around 85 million per annum and the terminal 5 itself  can handle
60 million annual passengers to be developed in  phases.

Figure 1: Revised Concept Plan for Changi East 

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 Review:

 
1. RFF stands for _______ 
2. OLS stands for _______ 
3. RET stands for _______ 
4. The master plans are normally reviewed once in _____ years to incorporate any changes. 

Summary 

Planning for a green eld airport starts with the identi cation  of the required length and width
of the land, based on some  preliminary estimate of land requirement. Regulatory  requirement
of the Air eld usually takes precedence over  other infrastructure requirements. The location
and height  of all the proposed buildings on airside and landside should  comply with the
requirement speci ed in Obstacle Limitation  Surfaces (OLS). Proper planning will ensure
exibility in  expanding these facilities and cater for phased development aligned with the

tra c growth. 

Questions for Discussion 

1. List the steps for identi cation of facilities and  infrastructures that are to be incorporated in
the  ultimate master plan for a speci c airport based on  airport’s vision, objectives and goals. 
2. What are the facilities or infrastructure to be incorporated  in the master plan? 
3. With the help of an example explain master plan.

4. Brie y de ne ICAO. 
5. Master planning for an airport will be prepared based  what inputs into the process?

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 Unit 2 
Air eld Infrastructure 
Objectives 

After completing this unit, students will be aware of the following topics:

◢ Cross Sectional Geometry of Runway and Taxiway 

◢ Separation Distances between Runways and between Runway &  Taxiway 
◢ Determination of Runway Length with Illustration 
◢ Siting Criteria for Fire Stations, Fuel Storage Facility etc.

◢ Annex 14 SARPs Proposed Changes those Pertains to Master Planning 

Introduction 

The minimum eld length required for take-o at maximum  certi cated take-o mass, sea
level, standard atmospheric  conditions, still air and zero runway slope, as shown in  the
appropriate aeroplane ight manual prescribed by the  certi cating authority or equivalent data
from the aeroplane  manufacturer. This is called aeroplane reference eld length.  In this unit
you will study about the air eld infrastructure. 

Reference Code
 
Aerodrome planning and design is based on the what is  called as ‘aerodrome reference code’.
Using the aerodrome  reference code, air eld infrastructure requirement in terms  of
speci cations, for example minimum width of runway  pavement, can be easily determined for
di erent aircraft  models or types of aircrafts. While planning for the airport,  it would be easier
if aircrafts are grouped together based on  similar aeroplane characteristics so avoid
determination of  individual aeroplane requirements. 
The code is based on two elements. Element 1 is a number  whereas element 2 is a letter.
Element 1 of the code has 4  numerals (1 to 4) and element 2 has 6 letters (A to F). For 
example, reference code 3C. Table 1 shows the reference code  classi cations based on the
above details. 
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 Table 1: Reference Code Classi cation 

Code Element 1 Code Element  2

Code   Aeroplan Code   Wing Span (4) Outer Main  

Number   Reference   Letter  (3) Gear Wheel  
(1) Field Length  (2) Span ** (5)

1 Less than   A Up to but not  including

Up to but15 
not  
m
800m including 4.5 m

2 800 m up   B 15 m up   4.5 m up to but  not including  

to but not   to but not   6m
including   including 24  m
1200 m

3 1200 m up   C 24 m up   6 m up to but  

to but not   to but not   not including  
including   including 36  m9 m
1800 m

4 1800 m and  over

D 36 m up   9 m up to but  
to but not   not including  
including 52  m 14 m

5 E 52 m up   9 m up to but  
to but not   not including  
including 65  m 14 m

F 65 m up   14 m up to but  not including  

to but not   16 m
including 80  m

Source ICAO- Annex 14 - 7th Edition 

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 Aeroplane reference eld length is the minimum eld  length required for take-o at maximum
certi cated take o mass of the aeroplane, at sea level, standard atmospheric  conditions, still
air and zero runway slope, as shown in  the appropriate aeroplane ight manual prescribed by
the  certi cating authority or equivalent data from the aeroplane  manufacturer. Depending on
the range of eld length the  numeral Code element is speci ed from 1 to 4.  
Element 2 is arrived at based on Column 4 and 5 of the  reference Code; wingspan and outer
main gear wheel span  (OMGWS) determines the element 2 of the code from A to  F. First,
identify the element code 2 based on the wing span  of the aeroplane and second check with
the outer main gear wheel span element (column 5). For example, let us take an aeroplane with
wingspan of 51mt; the element 2 of the code  for this aeroplane is D. Now assume the chosen
aeroplane’s  OMGWS is 14.1metre. Since the element 2 for this corresponds  to E (whereas as
per wingspan is code D), the aeroplane code  element 2 will be E i.e. whichever is greater, will
be element  2 for the aeroplane. In order to know what is meant by  wingspan and outer main
gear wheel span refer gure 1.) 

Figure 1: Sketch from Airbus Manual 

Reference Code for Airbus 320 Aircraft 

A 320 aeroplane has a eld length requirement of 2533  m, which means the element 1 i.e.
code numeral is 4 and  wingspan is 34.1 means the element code 2 is C and the outer  main
gear wheel span of 8.97 also is C. Hence the Aeroplane  reference code for A 320 aeroplane is
4C. If an aerodrome is  designed to operate up to Code 4C aeroplanes, the aerodrome 
reference code is code 4C. Similarly, an aerodrome capable of  operation of an Aeroplane with
Code 4F i.e. Airbus 380 will  be designated as 4F i.e. aircrafts which require eld length  of
more than 1800 m and wing span up to 79.99 m (80m not  included) with outer main gear
wheel span of the aircraft up  to17.99 m.  

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 Similarly, aerodrome reference code of 4E can operate  aeroplanes up to Code 4E i.e. aircrafts
which require eld 

length of more than 1800 m and with wingspan up to 64.99m  (65 not included) and outer main
gear wheel span of the  aircraft up to13.99 m. 
For example, Delhi airport Reference Code is 4F, Hyderabad  is 4F, Bengaluru 4E and Mumbai
4F. An example of using  the Reference Code for planning is the minimum width of the  runway
is as below:  
Aerodrome whose reference code is either 4C or 4D or 4E  require a runway width of 45 m
whereas for 4F aerodrome,  the runway width required is 60m. Table below may be  referred for
runway width requirement for various aerodrome  reference codes. 
Table 2: Reference Code for planning 

Code   Code Letter

Number
A B C D E F

1 18 m 18 m 23 m - - -

2 23 m 23 m 30 m - - -

3 30 m 30 m 30 m 45 m - -

4 - - 45 m 45 m 45 m 60 m

Source ICAO- Annex 14 - 7th Edition 

Type of Runway Approach 
Another criterion used in the aerodrome planning is based  on the runway approach type.
Broadly there are two types  of runway approach viz. Instrument and Non-instrument.  Under
instrument runway, the sub types are; Non-Precision,  Precision approach Category I, Precision
approach Category  II and Precision approach Category III A, B, & C. 
Explanation of the types and terms used to give below (ICAO Annex14): 
• Non-instrument runway: A runway intended for  the operation of an aircraft using visual
approach  procedures or an instrument approach procedure to a  point beyond which the
approach may continue in visual  meteorological conditions. 

• Instrument runway: One of the following types of  runways intended for the operation of
aircraft using  instrument approach procedures: 

• Non-precision approach runway. A runway served    by visual aids and a non-visual aid
intended   for landing operations following an instrument   approach operation and a visibility
not less than  1000 m. Why it is a non-precision runway? Non precision approach procedure

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 is even though an  instrument approach procedure utilises only lateral  guidance but does not
utilise vertical guidance. 

• Precision approach runway, category I. A runway    served by visual aids and nonvisual
aid(s) intended  for landing operations, following an instrument  approach operation type B
with a decision height  (DH) not lower than 60 m(200 ft.) and either a  visibility not less than
800 m or a runway visual range not less than 550 m 

• Precision approach runway, category II. A runway    served by visual aids and nonvisual
aid(s) intended    for landing operations following an instrument    approach operation type B
with a decision height  (DH) lower than 60 m (200 ft.) but not lower than 30 m (100 ft.) and a
runway visual range not less than 300 m. 

• Precision approach runway, category III. A runway  served by visual aids and nonvisual
aid(s) intended for landing operations following an instrument approach operation type B and
along the surface of the runway and: 

• A- intended for operations with a decision height (DH)    lower than 30 m (100 ft.), or no
decision height and  a runway visual range not less than 175 m. 
• B- intended for operations with a decision height (DH)    lower than 15 m (50 ft.), or no
decision height and  a runway visual range less than 175 m but not less than 50 m
• C- intended for operations with no decision height  (DH) and no runway visual range
limitations. 

Precision approach procedure is an instrument approach  procedure using precision lateral and
vertical guidance with  weather minima as determined by the category of operation. 
Lateral and vertical guidance refers to the guidance provided  either by: 
• A ground-based navigation aid or 
• Computer-generated navigation data 
Instrument used for precision approach is the Instrument  Landing System, popularly known as
ILS. Non-precision  approach uses VOR. Runway Visual Range (RVR) is the  range over which
the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of  a runway can see the runway surface markings or
the lights  delineating the runway or identifying its centre line. 

Visibility 
Visibility for aeronautical purposes is: 
• the greatest distance at which a black object of suitable  dimensions, situated near the
ground, can be seen and  recognised when observed against a bright background. 
• the greatest distance at which lights in the vicinity of  1000 candelas can be seen and
identi ed against an  unlit background. 

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The system of air eld ground lights which are to be installed  in the air eld pavement will di er
depending on the type of  runway approach. More precision approach (operation during  lesser
RVR), requires more stringent application. Similarly,  ILS for instrument approach runway

requires some areas  around the ILS clear of buildings, even aircraft on taxiway.  Such
requirements are required to be determined while  planning. Most of the air eld design

parameters depend on  the reference code and type of runway approach (which is  dependent
on RVR or visibility for operations). 


Shoulder: An area adjacent to the edge of a pavement  to provide a transition between the
pavement and the    adjacent surface. Runway shoulder and taxiway shoulder    dimensions
depends on the aerodrome code. You can    refer to the sketch below to understand the
requirement. 

Threshold is the beginning of that portion of the runway  usable for landing. Threshold can be in
the extremity    of the runway i.e. runway end and threshold are at the    same location. Or the
threshold could be after the runway    end when viewed while landing. When the threshold
and    runway end are not at the same location, the threshold is    speci ed as displaced
threshold. Threshold may have to    be displaced from the end if there are some obstacles
on   the approach surface (which we will see in detail in the   Chapter OLS). The implication of
displaced threshold is   that the landing distance available for the aircraft gets   reduced to the
extent of the threshold displaced from the runway end. 

Figure 2: Threshold at the Extremity of the Runway 

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Figure 3: Displaced Threshold 
Illustration for why threshold is required to be displaced: 

Threshold is at the extremity or at runway end since the  object on approach surface does not
protrude the surface


Figure 4: Threshold at the Extremity 

Object protrudes the surface, in this case there are two  options. One is to remove or reduce
the height of the  structure. The 2nd option is to displace the threshold.  i.e. C) 

Figure 5: Object Protrudes the Surface 

Displaced threshold to avoid the object protruding the  surface. The implication is that the
landing distance  available now will be less by X mt. 

Figure 6: Displaced Threshold 

It is to note that the runway pavement between the end and  threshold (X mt in the gure
above) can be used for take o but not for landing from left towards right. Similarly, if  the
runway usage direction is right to left direction, there  is no impact due to the displaced
threshold indicated above  for both landing and take-o , assuming there is no displaced 

threshold in this direction. 

Runway strip: A de ned area including the runway  and stop way, if provided, is intended: 

 
• to reduce the risk of damage to aircraft running o   a runway; and 
• to protect the aircraft ying over it during take-o   or landing operations.  

• Runway End Safety Area (RESA): An area  symmetrical to the extended runway centre line
and  adjacent to the end of the strip primarily intended to  reduce the risk of damage to an
aeroplane undershooting  or overrunning the runway. 

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Figure 7(a) : Unintended excursion

• Dimensions of Runway Strip  

Table 3: Length of the Strip Measured from the End of the Runway or Stop Way  

Reference Code Instrument Runway Non-instrument  

Runway

1 60m 30m

2 60m 60m

3 60m 60m

4 60m 60m

Source ICAO- Annex 14 - 7th Edition 

Table 4: Width of the Strip Measured from Each Side of the Centre Line of the  Runway  

Reference Code Precision Approach  and Non- Instrument  

Non-Precision  Approach Runway
Runway

1 75m 30m

2 75m 40m

3 150m 75m

4 150m 75m

Source ICAO- Annex 14- 7th Edition 

Example- Assuming Code 4E aerodrome with instrument  approach runway of 2000m length,
the strip length would  be 2000 +60+60 = 2120 m and width would be 300 m.Note  that the
strip includes the runway pavement including its  shoulders. 
Since the purpose of the runway strip is to reduce the damage  to the aircraft in case the
aircraft veers o the runway for some  reason. Hence no objects are permitted in the runway
strip  except those required for navigation purposes or for safety.  Such objects if installed in
the strip should meet the frangibility  requirement. Similar requirement applies for RESA. 

Dimensions of Runway End Safety Area (RESA) 

Table 5: Runway Length 

Reference Code Instrument Runway Non-instrument  

Runway

1 120m 30m

2 120m 30m

3 240m 60m

4 240m 60m
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 Source ICAO- Annex 14 - 7th Edition 

RESA width is 2 times of runway width. For example- Code  4E aerodrome with a runway
length of 2000 m with RESA on  either side of runway for 240m length mean the total length of 
land requirement is 2000+60+60+240+240 = 2600m (Length  of runway + runway strip length
on either end of runway +  RESA length on either side). 

If you consider the strip width of 300 m as above, the dimension  of land requirement for one
runway is 2600mX 300m. 
If the available land length does not permit the recommended  RESA length as per the table, a
length of at least 90m for  instrument runway with an arresting system can be planned.  If less
than 90m is planned, then arresting system will be  required, subject to acceptance by DGCA.
Both the runway  strip and RESA have speci cations for grading and clearing  these areas.
Also, the maximum permissible gradient as  speci ed for these two areas are to be considered
for aircraft  safety. Runway strip surface will be prepared with adequate  strength to withstand
aircraft load so that the in case the  aircraft veers o the runway is not damaged. For RESA it 
need not be the same quality as that of strip but should be  prepared. 
The gure 7 shows runway strip with graded portion and  non-graded portion. The RESA is
marked.

Figure 7 (b) : Runway Strip 

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 Runway Longitudinal and Transverse Slope  - ICAO Annex 14 speci es the maximum
permissible slope  for runway. Cross sectional geometry of runway considering  maximum
permissible slope of runway pavement and shoulder  is shown in g below for illustrative
purpose. Permissible  longitudinal slopes are in the table. 

Figure 8: Permissible Longitudinal Slopes 

Source- ICAO- Annex 14- 7th Edition 

• Taxiway Strip  Similar to the runway strip, taxiway strip is also requiring  planning. Taxiway
strip is de ned as an area including  a taxiway intended to protect an aircraft operating on
the  taxiway and to reduce the risk of damage to an aircraft  accidentally running o the

taxiway.  Taxiway strip will also extend on either side from the taxiway  centre line (similar to
runway strip). The distance from the  taxiway centre line depends on the reference code. For
Code  E aerodrome it is 43.5 m on either side of the taxiway centre line, hence the width of the
strip including the taxiway  pavement and shoulder will be 87m. In the case of Code F, it  would
be 102m. Maximum permissible slope for the taxiway  strip is speci ed in ICAO- Annex 14 and
these are required  to be adopted for construction.  The taxiway strip should be clear of any
object similar to  runway strip.  Figure 9 shows cross-sectional view of a taxiway showing  the
permissible slope, longitudinal and transverse for the  taxiway and its shoulder. 

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Figure 9: Cross-sectional View of a Taxiway 

Source- ICAO- Annex 14- 7th Edition 

Stopway: A de ned rectangular area on the ground  at the end of take-o run available as a
suitable area  in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an  abandoned take o . 

Clearway: A de ned rectangular area on the ground  or water under the control of the
appropriate authority  selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an  aeroplane may
make a portion of its initial climb to a  speci ed height.



Stopway and clearway are not paved surfaces like  runway but this is the length available
beyond the end of the runway for purpose mentioned in the de nition. 

Declared Distances  Stopway and Clearway (though not mandated, if provided)  with the
location of the threshold at the runway extremity  or displaced have varying distances available
for aircraft  operation and therefore require to be speci cally declared.  Declared distances are
another important aspect of the  planning which provides the takeo and landing distance 
available for the aircraft. As seen previously when the  threshold is displaced, the landing
distance available will be  less than takeo distance available. Similarly, when Stopway  and/or
Clearway are included in the planning these lengths  are to be declared for operations. Let us
understand the declared distances:  Take-off Run Available (TORA): The length of runway 
declared available and suitable for the ground run of an  aero plane taking o . 

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 • Take-off Distance Available (TODA): The length of  the take-o run available plus the length of
the clearway,  if provided. • Accelerate-stop Distance Available (ASDA): The  length of the take-
o run available plus the length of the  stop way, if provided. 

• Landing Distance Available (LDA): The length of  runway, which is declared available and
suitable for, the ground run of an aeroplane landing 

You can understand the concept with the gure 10.


Figure 10: Declared Distances 

Source – ICAO- Annex 14- 7th Edition 

For the above two examples the declared distances are shown  in table 6. 

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 Table 6: Declared Distances 

Runway TORA (m) ASDA (m) TODA (m) LDA (m)

9 2000 2300 2580 1850

27 2000 2350 2350 2000

17 1800 1800 1800 1800

35 1800 1800 1800 1800

Air eld Pavement Planning and Design  

Air eld design involves location and levels primarily related  to runway, taxiway and apron and
airside drainage. 

Sites selected for aerodrome development may not always be  at. If the site is like the image
shown above, it will result  in a large volume of earthworks to level the site. This will  take
longer to develop the airport and will be uneconomical if not optimized. It is required to decide

proper orientation of  runway, the location of air eld pavements, their pro le (both  longitudinal
and transverse to be within the permissible slope)  and location of all infrastructure which result
to optimise the  earth works. Iterations with various alternatives are worked  out and then an
optimal solution is nalised. The complete air eld is to be pro led within permissible  slope so
that safe connection between air eld pavements for  aircrafts is possible.  A need arises for
developing air eld elements that meet  regulatory and operational requirements while
simultaneously  giving a cost-e ective solution. 

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 Figure 11: Air eld Design 

Review:

 
1. OMGWS stands for _________________ 

2. Air eld design involves ________________ and levels primarily related to runway, taxiway and
apron and airside drainage. 

Siting Criteria for Air eld Pavements

  
1. Runway    Runway is a largest element of the air eld. It is the interface  for an aircraft in
ight to on land. Location and orientation  of the Runway is the starting point for an air eld
and then  the pro le. Other air eld elements are designed in relation  to runway. 2. Runway
Location and Orientation These are based on the following:  

2. Wind direction: The aircrafts takeo and land against the  wind direction. In aviation
terminology it is called head    wind. Head wind requires lesser length of runway than    tail
wind. Of course, the wind direction will not always    be aligned to a speci c direction.
Identify the preferred  orientation of the runway based on the frequent wind  direction. Then

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assess the cross-wind components to the  selected runway orientation which should not be
more than  the permissible wind speed. Larger aircraft means more  cross-wind component
permissible. Permissible Cross wind  components are 37 KM/hour, 24 KM/hour and 19 KM/

hour  for reference eld length of greater than 1500m, between  1200 & 1500 m and less than
1200 m respectively. 

• Environmental conditions: For example noise pollution  to be avoided while aircraft takeo or
landing in densely  populated residential area for the approach, departure  or missed
approach track. 

• For each option of runway orientation selected, evaluate  the impact of the obstacles, if any
(using Obstacle  Limitation Surfaces), around the airport site for a certain  distance. 

• Minimum separation distances speci ed in SARPs  between two runways (for airports with
multiple  runways) and between runway & taxiway and between  taxiway and apron. 

• Topography of the site to minimise earth work if the ground  elevations vary extensively.
Runway location which  minimises the earth work considering speci cations for  permissible
longitudinal and transverse slope. 

• Usability factor of the aerodrome is not less than 95%.  (Usability factor is the percentage of
time during which  the use of a runway or system of runways is not restricted  because of the
crosswind component) 

• Current and future length (if required) of runway. 

• Impact of Existing Air Tra c, if any, close to the airport  under planning 

3. Runway Designation (numbers) 

Runway designation is determined by their heading. For  example, an airport runway 09-27 is
facing magnetic heading  90 degree at one end and 270 degree in the opposite end. 
Similarly,for example runway 14-32 means it is 140 degree  at one end and 320 degree in the
opposite end with reference 

to magnetic north. The image below which shows runway 12-30. One important  thing to note
that runway 12 is marked at 300 degree from  north and runway 30 is marked at 120 degree
from the north.  The reason being the numbers are based on compass heading.  When the
aircraft approaches as shown the compass will  show 120 degree towards SE and hence the
pilot will see the  marking as 12. Similarly, number 30 will be seen when the  aircraft is
approaching or take o in the opposite direction.  So, runway 12 is towards SE and runway 30
is towards  NW. Another example is runway 09-27. When the aircraft is  approaching east that
beginning of runway will be marked as  09 and on the opposite side 27.  The
Runway designation is 1• The magnetic heading of the pictured runway is 120o or 300o
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 Figure 12: Runway Designation 

4. Runway Length 

After identifying the appropriate runway orientation, the  next step is to work out the length of
the runway. Following  information are important to for working on runway length: 

• Maximum take-o weight of the most demanding aircraft  expected to operate through this
airport 

• Runway slope 

•   Aerodrome elevation: The elevation of the highest point  of the landing area (as per
noti cation G.S.R 751(E)  issued by Ministry of Civil Aviation, Government of  India) 

• Aerodrome reference temperature: The monthly mean  of the daily maximum temperatures
for the hottest    month of the year [the hottest month being that which    has the highest
monthly mean temperature] and not    the highest temperature recorded at the aerodrome
site.  


This temperature is averaged over a period of ve years.

Calculation of Required Runway Length

The rst step is to get the basic length (known as reference  eld length) which is required for
landing or take-o under  standard atmospheric conditions, for zero elevation, zero wind  and
zero runway slope. This basic length is selected for the  most demanding aircraft expected or
planned for operation  at the airport. 
Assuming the airport is meant for Code C aircrafts. Identify  the most demanding aircraft under
Code C for runway length  requirement or in other words consider the maximum runway  length
amongst the Code C aircrafts. The basic runway lengths  of the aircraft scan be seen in the
aeroplanes manufacturers’  technical manual for airport planning or from ICAO Doc.  
Table 7: Aircrafts Data 
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 Aircraft  Take-off  Code Reference  Field  

Wing Outer  Overall   Maximum 
Model Weight   Length   Span   Main Maximum  Length  
Tail  
(Kg) (M) (M) Gear   (M) Height  
Wheel  (M)
Span  
(M)

Airbus   68,000 3C 1789 34.1 8.9 31.5 12.9

A318- 
100

A 321-  93,500 4C 2533 34.1 8.9 44.5 12.1

200

A 320-  77,000 4C 2025 34.1 8.9 37.6 12.2

200

Boeing   68,039 4C 2550 28.9 6.4 36.4 11.2

737-400

B-777-  3,51,534 4E 3060 64.8 12.9 73.9 18.8

300ER

Source- ICAO- Doc 9981 

For planning purposes,the data from ICAO Doc can be used  and during implementation,
length is required to be worked  out based on aeroplane manufacturer’s updated technical 
manual for more accurate calculation. However, this will not  have any impact on the master
plan. 
As of date the maximum basic runway length for Code 4C  aeroplane is 2533 m. Remember
this length is based on sea level elevation, standard temperature and zero runway slope.  Let
us assume that the airport; 
• is at 150m above mean sea level (AMSL)  
• aerodrome reference temperature of 35 degree C 
• 1% (which is the maximum permissible) runway slope 
• The basic length of 2533 m is to be corrected to the actual site condition. 

• Step1: Correction for elevation AMSL- Increase the length  @ 7% per 300 m elevation. Hence
for 150 m the increase is  3.5% of 2533 and hence the runway length after correction  for
elevation is 2621 m. 
• Step 2: Correction for temperature- Increase the runway  length corrected in step 1 @ 1% for
every 1 degree by which  the aerodrome reference temperature exceeds the standard 
atmosphere for the aerodrome elevation. The standard temperature at zero elevation (MSL) is
15  degree celsius, whereas the standard temperature reduces  when the altitude increases
from zero elevation.  

Table 8: Altitude-Temperature  

Altitude (m) Temperature (celsius)

0 15

500 11.75

1000 8.50

1500 5.25

2000 2

2500 -1.25

3000 -4.5

3500 -7.75
 4000 -10.98

4500 -14.23

5000 -17.47

5500 -20.72

6000 -23.96

Source- ADM Doc 9157 Part 1 

For easy recall, 2-degree reduction for every 330 m elevation or part there-of over Mean Sea
Level can be considered. 

In this example the elevation is 150 m and hence the standard  temperature at this elevation is
approximately14degree C  whereas the aerodrome reference temperature at the site  is
35degree C. Hence the correction for the temperature  di erence between standard and actual
can be dome. The  di erence is 21-degree C. The increase in length would be 1%  for every
degree increase and hence for 21 degree increase in  temp the length increase would be 21%. 
After correction for temperature the runway length would be  2621m X 1.21 = 3172m 
Step 3: Correction for runway slope- Increase @ 10% per 1%  slope 

Runway slope is the di erence in elevation between the  runway ends expressed as a % of
total length of runway. The  maximum permissible slope is 1% which will be considered  for

planning purpose; the actual slope is usually less than  1%. With the correction for runway
slope, the runway length  required would be 3172 X 1.1 = 3490 m. 

In summary, to operate Code 4C aircraft at this site, the  minimum runway length required is
3500m (site with elevation  above MSL of 150m, aerodrome reference temperature of 35 
degree C and a runway slope of 1%.). It is important to note  that this length requirement is
considering the maximum  takeo weight of the aircraft. Not all the aircrafts operate with  the
maximum takeo weight. The selected aircraft A-321’s  maximum takeo weight is 93500 tons
for a range of 5500  KM. Hence, in order to optimise the runway length to reduce  cost or in
case of land constraint that does not permit the  runway length for maximum takeo weight,
we can always  nd out what length is permissible within the available  land. Permissible
takeo weight and runway length can be  worked out with the technical information published
by the  aeroplane manufacturers charts for the types of aircrafts.  Based on the tra c forecast,
we are able to understand the  maximum range planned from an airport.  
Landing length requirement is also to be calculated like the take-o length requirement. Width
of the runway is easy to nd out from the table shown  below depending on the aerodrome
reference Code. Code 4C  to 4E aerodrome will have 45 m runway width whereas 4F  will have
60 m width.  

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 Table 9: Width of Runway 

Code   Code Letter

Number
A B C D E F

1 18 m 18 m 23 m - - -

2 23 m 23 m 30 m - - -

3 30 m 30 m 30 m 45 m - -

4 - - 45 m 45 m 45 m 60
m

Source – ICAO-Annex14- 7th Edition 

Multiple Runways 

There are stipulations for minimum separation distances  between the runways for an
aerodrome that has more than one  runway. If the multiple runways are near parallel, the

maximum  number of ATM can be achieved. Near parallel means when the  angle of divergence
or convergence is less than 15 degrees. Purpose of multiple runway: A Single runway can only
handle  a particular number of aircraft movement in an hour. An  airport can be planned and
designed for more than the ATM  per hour. In India for example, Delhi airport has 3 runways 
(third runway was commissioned in 2008) and has planned  for one more runway, to have 4
runways. Mumbai airport  has two runways but they cross each other and hence only  one
runway can be operated at a time. Hyderabad airport  presently has one runway but the master
planning provides  for second runway. Similarly, Bengaluru airport has been  planned with two
runways.  To obtain maximum ATM capacity the separation distance  between two runways
shall be 1035 m minimum which  will enable independent parallel approaches. However, this 
minimum separation distance has limitations and is subject  to certain conditions. Normally
separation distance more than  1500m is considered, provided su cient land is available.


However, it should be noted that maximum ATM through a  runway depends on many factors
like runway occupancy time  by the arriving aircraft (how quickly it can exit the runway),  aircraft
Code, Aircraft eet mix, ATM / CNS technology, ATM  procedures, airspace limitations etc. This
will be explained  when the capacity is being discussed 

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 The exact location of the runways will depend on  • Parallel taxiway – one or multiple 
• Location of additional runways 
• Obstacle limitation surface evaluation- within and  outside the airport boundary 
Minimum separation distances between the runways for  various operating conditions are as
below (Source ICAO- Airport  Planning Manual): 

1. If the airport is being operated under Visual Metrological  Conditions, visual runway
approach without the aid  of instruments and lights, the minimum separation  distance is
210 m. See gures 13-17 

Figure 13: Minimum Separation Distances between the Runways (A) 

2. For instrument approach runways with independent  parallel operations, no constraint of

separation distances  between the aircrafts, the minimum separation distance  between the
runways is 1035 m. 

 Figure 14: Minimum Separation Distances between the Runways (B)  

Figure 15: Minimum Separation Distances between the Runway

3. For instrument approach runways with dependent  parallel approaches, the minimum
separation distance  between runways is 915 m. You can see the minimum  separation
distance between the aircrafts approaching  the two runways and hence this is called
dependent parallel approach.
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 4. For instrument approach runways with segregated  parallel operations, where one runway is
used for  arrivals and the second runway is used for departures,  the separation distance
between runways is 760 m when the thresholds are even for both the runways.  If the runways
are staggered as below, the separation distance  can be reduced as shown below. For every
150m the thresholds are staggered, the separation  distance can be reduced by 30 m.  

Figure 16: Minimum Separation Distances between the Runways (D)

Figure 17: Minimum Separation Distances between the Runways (E)

Taxiways 

Next air eld component is the taxiway. Taxiway is de ned  as ‘A de ned path on a land
aerodrome established for the  taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link between one 
part of the aerodrome and another’.  
• Parallel taxiway is constructed parallel to the runway  with a separation distance between
runway and taxiway  as per the ICAO SARPs.  

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Table 10: Distance between Instrument Runway and Parallel Taxiway  (All dimensions in m) 

Code Letter Code 1 Code 2 Code 3 Code 4

A 82.5 82.5

B 87 87

C 168

D 176 176

E 182.5

F 190

Source – ICAO-Annex14- 7th Edition 

Table 11: Distance between Non-instrument Runway and Parallel Taxiway  (All dimensions in
m) 

Code Letter Code 1 Code 2 Code 3 Code 4

A 37.5 47.5

B 42 42

C 93

D 101 101

E 107.5

F 115

Source – ICAO-Annex14- 7th Edition 

Parallel taxiway facilitates reduced runway occupancy  time by a landing aircraft, while for
departing aircrafts, it  facilitates lining up before takeo . Whether parallel taxiway  is required or
not, the number of parallel taxiways (could be  more than one) depends on the peak ATM
numbers planned  for the airport.



Minimum distance between runway and taxiway is 182.5 m  for Code E aircraft. If the plan is to
bypass the aircraft parked  in the runway, holding position by another aircraft through  the
parallel taxiway, this is increased based on the maximum  length of aircraft to be held on the
runway holding position and  the distance to be maintained between taxiway centre line to  the
aircraft tail end (shown as 57.5m). The dimensions shown  are for illustration purpose and
considering these dimensions  the separation distance between runway and taxiway has to  be
225 m against minimum distance of 182.5m. 

Figure 18: Minimum Distance between Runway and Taxiway

What is runway holding position? It is a position on the  intersection between runway and
taxiway as shown in g  above. At this location, the aircraft or vehicle will have to  stop, hold
and take clearance from the air tra c controller  for entering the runway.   Minimum distance
from the runway centre line to runway  holding position is dependent on the type of runway
and  reference code. See the table below 

Table 12: Runway Holding Position 

Code Number

Type of Runway 1 2 3 4

Non- Instrument 30m 40m 75m 75m

Non-Precision approach 40m 40m 75m 75m

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 Precision Approach category I 60m 60m 90m 90m

Precision Approach category II and III 90m 90m

Take- off Runway 30m 40m 75m 75m

Source- ICAO-Annex14- 7th Edition


• Entry/exit taxiway including RET- Connection between  runway and parallel taxiway (to apron
if there is no parallel  taxiway) is through these taxiways. Rapid exit taxiway  (RET) allows the

aircraft to exit the runway at high speed  after landing whereas an aircraft exiting from runway 
through a normal exit taxiway will have to reduce its speed  and thus occupies the runway for
more time. Number and  location of such connecting taxiways depend on the peak  hour ATM
to be handled and the aircraft eet mix.  

• Apron taxiway is a portion of a taxiway system located  on an apron and intended to provide
a through taxi route  across the apron.  Aircraft stand taxi lane is a portion of an apron 
designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access  to aircraft stands only. These are
aircraft routes to only  access the parking positions and do not have thorough  way to
r u n w a y, a s o n e o r t w o s i d e s o f t h e a p r o n a r e w i t h a i r c r a f t s t a n d .
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Figure 19/ 20: Aircraft Routes to the Parking 

Figure 21: Apron Taxiwa

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Minimum

distances between taxiway to taxiway, taxiway to  object, taxi lane to taxi lane and taxi lane to
object are speci ed  in ICAO Annex 14.  

Table 13: Dimensions based on the Aerodrome Reference Code Letter 

Code   Taxiway   Taxiway   Aircraft   Aircraft  

Letter Centreline   Centreline
to Taxiway   to Object(Q)
Centreline(P)
Taxilane   Taxilane  
Centreline   Centreline 
to Aircraft   to Object(S)
Taxilane  
Centreline (R)

A 23 15.5 19.5 12

B 32 20 28.5 16.5

C 44 26 40.5 22.5
 

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 D 63 37 59.5 33.5

E 76 43.5 72.5 40

F 91 51 87.5 47.5

(All dimensions in mt).  

Source- ICAO-Annex 14- 7th Edition 

See the drawing below illustrating these separation distances

Figure 22: Separation Distances


Apron
 

A de ned area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate  aircraft for purposes of

loading or unloading passengers, mail  or cargo, fueling, parking or maintenance. Within the
apron  is the aircraft stand which is a designated area on an apron  intended to be used for
parking an aircraft. 
Apron dimension is decided considering maximum number of  aircraft stands that are required
at one time and Reference  Code of aeroplanes during that period. Number of aircraft  stands

required is calculated using one of the thumb rules as  below: (these are only indicative, may
vary depending on the  airport) 

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 • If peak ATM numbers are not available, annual  throughput passenger numbers in million
passengers  multiplied by 3. For an airport with a capacity of 25  million passengers per
annum (mppa), number of aircraft  stand required for master planning purpose is 75. 

• Number of peak arriving aircraft in one hour (A)  multiplied by turnaround time in hours (T)
multiplied  by the utilisation factor (U) of apron. If peak arriving  aircraft numbers are not
available, multiply 0.7 with  the peak ATM numbers. Add number of bu er stands  required
and for overnight parking 

• Each stand is utilised for 7-8 aircraft movement in 24  hours’ time period. If there are 350
movements in 24  hours, aircraft stand required is between 45 and 50. 
The length of the apron is decided based on number of aircrafts  to be parked at one time, the
reference code of the aircrafts  (basically maximum wingspan of aircraft) and the speci ed 
minimum clearances required between aircrafts guided by  reference code. Whereas the depth
of the apron is decided  based on the maximum length of the aircraft that needs to  be parked
plus the apron taxiway plus the tail of stand road  if required and separation distance between
these elements. 



Review:

1. ___________is a portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide a

through taxi route across the apron. 

2. The length of the apron is decided based on number  of aircrafts to be parked at

____________ time. 

3. ___________ is a portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide a

through taxi  route across the apron. 

• Code E Apron: apron con guration as MARS stand:  With Multiple Apron Ramp System
(MARS) con guration,  the apron is more e cient by providing exibility to park  either one
wide body aircraft (say Code E or F) or two narrow  body aircrafts (Code C). See gure above.
The width of the  MARS stand is 80m against 65 m for Code E only stand.  With 65m stand
width only one Code E or one Code C can be  parked whereas with a width of 80m MARS
the exibility is  increased to park either one Code E or two Code C. Since Code  E aircrafts
require two Passenger Boarding Bridges (PBB),  (one for front door and the second one for
middle door), MARS  stand when parked with two Code C aircraft can utilise the  two PBBs
one each for these two aircrafts. 

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 Figure 23: Apron Ramp System 

• The minimum separation distance between aeroplanes,  called wing tip clearance, are based
on reference code of the  aeroplanes.

• For Codes A and B, it is 3 m, for Code C it is 4.5 m and for Code D, E, F it is 7.5 m. 

• Code C apron 

Figure 24: Code C Apron

The depth of the apron will have to be su cient to maintain  maximum permissible slope of
xed-link bridge from the PTB  to PBB node and node to aircraft with PBB.  

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Figure 25: Fixed-link Bridge

• Node Position of PBB considering extended and retracted  lengths (to ensure clearance for
home position of PBB  with aircraft) 

• Revalidate the Stand Dimension in relation to height  of xed ramp house which will provide
the required  clearance between xed walkway and the vehicular lane  

• Also check the PBB docking with the intended aircraft  with their door heights to ensure
recommended slope of PBB. Consider the slope of apron as well • Recommended Maximum
Slope of PBB is 12.5% 

• Apron dimensions are based on number of aircrafts and width  of these aircrafts (aeroplane
reference code) to be parked at  one time. These numbers can be worked out based on the 
following:

• Peak hour Aircraft stand demand 

• Turn-around time of the aircrafts 
• Fleet mix at the Airport 
• Contact / Remote stand requirements  
• Night Parking 
• Additional requirements like GA, bu er capacity fortechnical snag 
• Ground handling equipment parking/storage 
• Clearances between aircrafts and object if any. 
• Ability to dock PBB within permissible slope Having located the runway, taxiway and apron,
the horizontal  dimensions as a summary of air eld infrastructure.

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Planning for Air eld Ground Lighting  (AGL) System  

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 Table 15: AGL System Requirements Depending on Type of Runway Approach  

Stop   May be   Required Required For RVR  

bars at   provided at  less than  
Runway   visibility   550m.
holding   conditions  
position greater  
than 550 m 
to prevent  
runway  
incursion

Stop bars  at Inter  When it  

mediate   is desired  to
holding   supplement 
position markings 
and  
hotspots  
identified

Inter  Recomm  Required Required If stops  

mediate   ended to   bars not  
Holding   have in provided  
Position   CAT  I also and for  
Lights RVR less  
than 350m

Runway   Recom  Required Required Required  

Guard   mended for  for RVR  
Lights all weather  between  
conditions   550m to  
during day   1200m  
and night   when the 
to prevent   traffic  
runway   density is 
incursion heavy

 Runway   Required Required Required Required

turn pad  
lights

Taxiway   Taxiways
edge lights intended  
for use  
at night  
on all  
taxiways  
where  
centre  
line lights
are not  
provided

Touch   Required Required

Down  
Zone  
lights

Contd...

Rapid Exit  Taxiway   Recomm Required Required RVR less  

Indicator  Lights ended where than 350m
the traffic  
density is  
heavy

Taxiway   Required Required TCL  

Centre   required  
line lights for RVR  
less than  
350m. 
For RVR  
greater  
than 350m  TCL not  
required  
where  
the traffic  density is  lig
as a  
part of  
ASMCG

stopway   Required if  stopway

Required
is  provided
if  stopway
Required
is   If  stopway
Required
is If 
provided
stopway is  provided
lights provided

Threshold  ident 
Required   Required   Required   Required  
ification   when   where   where   where  
lights additional  threshold 
threshold  
consp  threshold   threshold  
icuity is   is displaced  from
is displaced 
the   from
is displaced 
the   from the  
necessary,  and  
extremity extremity extremity
threshold  is  
displaced

No entry   Required Required Required No entry  

bar lights bar lights  to be  
provided  
on exit  
only  
taxiways  
to prevent  runway  
incursion

Threshold  lights
Required Required Required Required
 


Threshold  wing
Required  
bar   Mandatory  forMandatory
displaced  threshold  
Mandatory  for  
lights when   shall be   for displaced   displaced  
threshold provided   threshold   threshold  
is   when   shall be   shall be  
displaced additional   provided   provided  
conspicuity  is when  
considered  desirable
when  
additional additional  
conspicuity conspicuity  is  
is considered  considered  desirable
desirable

From the land requirement for planning perspective, only  approach light con guration and the
land required are to be  considered and evaluated for its implementation. Approach  lights
commence from the threshold and extend towards the  approach for a speci ed length as
described here. There are  two types- Simple pattern and Full pattern; Simple pattern  is
required for instrument runway but non-precision. 

Figure 27: Con guration Requirement 

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 If the threshold at the runway extremity (not displaced) is  beyond the threshold toward the
approach 420 m length X  50 M, land is required for installing the approach lights. All  these 17
lights will be elevated. 
If the threshold is displaced by about 250m, then the lights 
that start from threshold to 250m distance will be installed  in the runway pavement and these
xtures are called as in pavement xtures and the remaining lights beyond 250m  will be
elevated. 

For precision approach Cat I, full pattern system is required  to be planned.  

If the threshold at the runway extremity (not displaced)  is beyond the threshold towards the
approach, the system  extends for a length of 900 m with 5 cross bars of varying  length as

shown in the gure with maximum cross bar length  of 52.5m. The total number of light xtures
for this pattern  is 120 numbers. Land requirement is app 1000 m in length  from threshold for a
width of 60m. 

Similar to simple pattern if the threshold and runway  extremity are at the same location all
these lights will be  elevated. If the threshold is displaced, in-pavement xtures  will be required
from the threshold to runway end and  elevated xtures beyond the runway end. 
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 The ground level beyond the threshold for the installation of  the lights are to be surveyed and if
there are levels beyond  permissible limits as speci ed in ICAO-SARPs, these elevated  xtures
will be installed over poles which are required to be  frangible.

Figure 28: Runway visual range 

For Cat II and III the con guration / pattern of lights up to  300 m from threshold is the same as
Cat I con guration. In  addition to this, side row lights. This is shown in the gure 29  and does
not require any additional land over Cat I system. 



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Figure 29: Picture of Lightening System 

Figure 29 shows the view of Cat III lighting system showing  runway edge, centre line, touch
down zone, threshold,  approach lights including supplementary lights, PAPI 

Rescue and Firefighting (RFF) Stations

(Also Known as Aircraft Rescue and Fire ghting- ARFF) 
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 The principal objective of a rescue and re ghting service  (extracted from ICAO doc) is to save
lives in the event of an  aircraft accident or incident occurring at, or in the immediate  vicinity of
an aerodrome. The rescue and re ghting service  is provided to create and maintain
survivable conditions, to  provide egress routes for occupants, and to initiate the rescue  of
those occupants unable to make their escape without  direct aid. The rescue may require the
use of equipment and  personnel other than those assessed primarily for rescue and 

re ghting purposes. The most important factors bearing  on e ective rescue in a survivable
aircraft accident are: the  training received, the e ectiveness of the equipment, and the  speed
with which personnel and equipment designated for  rescue and re ghting purposes can be
put into use. 
In order to meet the above objectives, during the master  planning two criteria needs to be
evaluated viz. re station  location and the numbers (1 or more than 1).The basis for the  two
criteria is to comply with the response time as speci ed  in ICAO- Annex 14 SARPs. Let us
understand the de nition  of the response time and the time period.

Response Time of RFF (ICAO- SARPs)

Response time is considered to be the time between the initial  call to the rescue and
re ghting service, and the time when  the rst responding vehicle(s) is (are) in position to
apply  foam at a rate of at least 50 per cent of the speci ed discharge  rate. 

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 The response time as per SARPs are: 

Standard  

• The operational objective of the rescue and re ghting  service shall be to achieve a
response time not exceeding  three minutes to any point of each operational runway, in 
optimum visibility and surface conditions.  

Recommendation 

• The operational objective of the rescue and re ghting  service should be to achieve a
response time not exceeding two  minutes to any point of each operational runway, in
optimum  visibility and surface conditions. The operational objective of  the rescue ghting
service should be to achieve a response  time not exceeding three minutes to any other part
of the  movement area, in optimum visibility and surface conditions.  If the above response
time is to be achieved, the re station  is to be located appropriately in the air eld. Depending
on  the length of the runway, airport may require more than one  re station in order to
achieve the response time as speci ed  above.  During the master planning stage, the
location and number  of re stations are determined based on calculations for the  time that
the re vehicles will take to reach the ends of the  runway with speci ed acceleration and
speed of the vehicle.  Normally response time as per Standard, which is more  stringent, is
considered while preparing the master plan. The criteria for the siting the re stations are: 

• Location to ensure that recommended response time is  achievable 

• Instant access to movement area from the re station

• Direct access to the runway, minimum number of turns

• To be located on apron side to avoid crossing of runway

• Dealing with building res is a secondary requirement 

• Ability to reach stand by locations without delay 
• From the re station watch room ensure clear view of movement area 
• Height of the re station does not infringe any of OLS  
The area requirement of the re stations depends on the  number of vehicles to be parked, the
o ce and sta areas,  watch tower, storage of the extinguishing agent and, rescue  equipment.
This is not a signi cant area requirement from  the master planning point of view. 

Aviation Fuel Storage Facility 

The facility is located as close to the aircraft apron as practical  while consideration given to
clearance of obstacle limitation  surfaces (OLS). For enhanced safety, the facility shall not be 
within the approach or take o climb surface even if they clear  the surfaces. Also, the facility
adjacent to these surfaces shall  be avoided as an abundant precaution for safety. Usually, a 
safety distance of 100 m to any installation is maintained. 
Codes and regulations of mass fuel storage should be complied  with, as per local regulations.
Wind direction and the e ect of  fuel vapours travelling outside the airport and the e ect on 
communities shall also be evaluated. 
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The size of the facility depends on the aircraft eet mix and  refueling requirement by the
airlines per day and the number  of days of storage considering the fuel sourcing from fuel 
suppliers. It is important to consider the approach from the  city to the fuel storage tanks by
fuel trucks and assignment  of an area for parking these vehicles. On the airside, road  network
from the fuel facility to the apron shall also be  worked out, when fuel bowsers are to be used
in case the fuel  hydrant system is non-operational for any reason.

Isolated Aircraft Parking Position

It is an aircraft parking area where an aircraft which is  required to be isolated from the main
apron stands for reasons  such as bomb threat, hijacking, unlawful interference or as a 
precautionary measure for it to be isolated. 

The siting criteria are: 

• At least 100m from parking positions, buildings and  public areas. 
• Not over underground utilities such as gas, aviation fuel,  electrical and communication
cables. 
• Parked Aircraft tail shall clear the OLS (see next chapter  for details). 

Master plan should also include the following:  

• Service roads   Minimum width of apron service roads is 10 mt., while other  interconnecting
roads to buildings can be 7m. The road along  the perimeter of the airport for inspection is
usually 4 m. Maintenance workshops for Ground Support equipment is to  be located close
to the apron without a ecting expansion plans  and connected to the apron with a road. Land
requirement is  not very high. Also, some major repairs can be carried out  with workshops
outside the airport.  In- ight Catering facility is normally established by the  specialist rms
and the facility can be either in airside or  airside. The catering vehicle movement route is
required  to be identi ed to reach the apron and catered for with a  road. Catering trucks
coming into the airside from landside  requires inspection by Aviation Security personnel
before  they enter the airport.  Security Gates at appropriate locations and numbers that  are
required at the landside – airside interface fence with  a building to accommodate equipment
for checking the  personnel, their hand bags and the vehicle before they enter  the airside.
Boom barriers and bollards are installed at these  gates. 

• MRO {Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (aeroplanes)}  hangars and the facility depend on
the aircraft (aeroplane  code) to be serviced and number of aircrafts to be parked  at the same
time in the hangar. The business plan  prepared for the airport will identify the viability of  this
facility and usually the airport earmarks an area  for setting up this facility. These are
implemented by  specialist rms in MRO like M/S Lufthansa Technik.  Location consideration
includes the noise generated due  to engine run up and height at this location should not 
infringe on the OLS. 
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 Check your Progress 

 
1. _______ is normally established by the specialist  rms and the facility can be either in airside
or  airside. 
2. _______ is an aircraft parking area where an aircraft  which is required to be isolated from the
main apron  stands for reasons such as bomb threat, hijacking and  unlawful interference or as
a precautionary measure  for it to be isolated. 

3. ____ Direction and the e ect of fuel vapors travelling  outside the airport and the e ect on
communities  shall also be evaluated. 

Summary

 
Aviation has been one of the most rapidly growing global  industries where service and
technology bring together people,  cultures and businesses of all parts of the world.
Weathering  crises, it has proven exibility besides being future proof  and has become the
most sought after and inevitable means  of transport. Air eld design involves location and
levels  primarily related to runway, taxiway and apron and airside  drainage.

Sites selected for aerodrome development may not always be  at. If the site is like the image
shown above, it will result in  a large volume of earthworks to level the site. This will take 
longer to develop the airport and will be uneconomical if not  optimised. 

Questions for Discussion 

1. De ne MRO. 
2. What is isolated aircraft parking position? 
3. What should a master plan include? 
4. Brie y explain the aviation fuel storage facility. 
5. What is the role of RFF? 
6. Brie y explain apron. 
7. What are minimum separation distances between the  runways for various operating
conditions? 
8. Discuss the type of runway approaches.
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 Unit 3 
Obstacle Limitation Surfaces
(OLS) 
Objectives

  

After completing this unit, students will be aware of the following topics:

◢ De nition and Purposes of Various Surfaces 

◢ Dimensions of Various Surfaces 
◢ Applicability of Surfaces 

Introduction 

All xed (whether temporary or permanent) and mobile  objects, or parts thereof, that 
• are located on an area intended for the surface movement  of aircraft; or 
• extend above a de ned surface intended to protect  aircraft in ight; or  
• stand outside those de ned surfaces and that have been  assessed as being a hazard for air
navigation. 
The Obstacle limitation surfaces are imaginary surfaces  associated with runway surfaces that
de ne the limits of  the aerodrome airspace above which an object becomes an  obstacle to
aircraft operations. These surfaces are imaginary  and each one is speci ed in terms of
distance from the runway  and permissible height within these surfaces beyond which  the
object will be treated as an obstacle 
The e ective utilisation of an aerodrome depends on the  structures inside as well as outside
the airport boundary,  which may be either already constructed or exist naturally  like a hillock.
Such structures, if they cannot be removed  or reduced in height are allowed to exist and may
impose  limitations for the aircraft operations like displacement of  threshold which result in
reduced landing length for the  aircraft.

Certain areas of the local air space must be regarded as integral  parts of the aerodrome
environment. This is to ensure safe  and e cient use of the aerodrome. The signi cance of any 
existing or proposed object within the aerodrome boundary  or in the vicinity of the aerodrome
is assessed with respect to  the following surfaces: 
• Obstacle Limitation Surfaces (OLS) 
• Surfaces prescribed in the Procedures for Air Navigation  Services-Aircraft Operations
(PANS-OPS). In addition to the above, the location of the CNS equipment  may also restrict
the location and/or height of the objects to  ensure their satisfactory performance. The broad
purpose of  the OLS, as speci ed in ICAO- Airport Services Manual, is to  de ne the volume

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 of airspace that should be ideally kept free  from obstacles in order to minimise the threats to
an aircraft. 

The following are the imaginary surfaces: 

• Outer Horizontal Surface 
• Conical Surface 
• Inner Horizontal Surface 
• Approach Surface 
• Transitional Surface 
• Take-o Climb Surface 
• Inner Transitional Surface 
• Balked Landing Surface 
• Inner Approach Surface 

Shape and extent of the surface from the runway, slope,  permissible height and datum
elevation from which the  height permissible will be calculated, varies for the surfaces  and
these are described in the subsequent paragraphs. It also  helps to understand how the
surface e ects ight operations.  Another important aspect is that the slope and dimensions 
depend on: 


1. AERODROME REFERENCE CODE 

2. TYPE OF RUNWAY – WHETHER NON-INSTRUMENT OR NON PRECISION OR PRECISION 

 
The aforementioned surfaces are established for an aerodrome  by not only considering the
existing layout but also the  ultimate master plan. Thus, any developments in and around  the
aerodrome should be controlled so as not to turn out to be  an obstacle when the expansion of
the aerodrome is taken up  in the future. 
These surfaces are established to act as a safety cover for the  aircraft in the event of any
unusual situations like missed  approach, engine failure, tire burst etc. 
If it is found to be impracticable to remove the obstacle, it  may continue with appropriate
lighting or marking scheme  or both. The aircraft operations in the aerodrome will have 
restrictions because of the increased probability of threat to  the aircraft safety. For this
purpose, Annex 14 recommends  aeronautical study the be carried out, called as collision risk 
model, to ascertain the probability of collision and the impact  on operations. 
Development even outside the OLS is governed by the height  limit set by the appropriate
authority. Similar to the above,  an aeronautical study may have to be conducted, to ascertain 
the e ect on operation due to construction of the structure. 
Obstacle Limitation Surfaces  

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INNER HORIZONTAL SURFACE 

Inner Horizontal Surface (IHS) is to protect airspace for visual  circling prior to landing, possibly
after a descent through the  clouds. Inner horizontal surface is the horizontal plane above  an
aerodrome and in its vicinity. 
It represents the level above which consideration needs to  be given to the control of new
obstacles and the removal  or marking of existing obstacles to ensure safe visual  maneuvering
of aeroplanes in the vicinity of aerodromes.

The height of the inner horizontal surface which is 45 m shall be  measured above an elevation
datum established for such purpose.  

Figure 1: Inner Horizontal Surface

 You can see the shape and extent of the surface with reference  to the runway. Within this
de ned area no structures shall  protrude more than 45m from the datum elevation, subject to 
such structures comply with the height restrictions of other OLS.

Transitional Surface 

A complex surface along the side of the runway strip and part  of the side of the approach
surface, that slopes upwards and  outwards up to the inner horizontal surface. 

Figure 2: Transitional Surface


Figure 3: Aerodrome Safeguarding – The Transitional Surfac

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 Datum elevation for transitional surface is: 

• along the side of the approach surface — equal to the  elevation of the approach surface at
that point; and 

• along the strip — equal to the elevation of the nearest  point on the centre line of the runway
or its extension 

APPROACH SURFACE 

Approach surface is an inclined plane or combination of  planes preceding the threshold. 
The limits of the approach surface shall comprise: 

• a horizontal inner edge of speci ed length perpendicular  to the extended centre line of the
runway at a distance  of 60m before the threshold except in case of visual  runways where
the code number is 1 the distance is 30m 

• two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge and  diverging uniformly at a speci ed rate
from the extended  centre line of the runway. 

• an outer edge parallel to the inner edge, and the above surfaces shall be varied when lateral
o set,  o set or curved approaches are utilised.  The elevation of the inner edge shall be
equal to the elevation  of the mid-point of the threshold. The slope(s) of the approach surface
shall be measured in  the vertical plane containing the centre line of the runway.  An approach
surface for an instrument runway is horizontal  beyond the point at which it intersects a
horizontal plane  150m above the threshold elevation. The dimensions shown in gure 4 are
for Precision Approach  Cat III 

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 Figure 4: Precision Approach Cat II

TAKE-OFF CLIMB SURFACE 

Take-o climb surface is an inclined plane located beyond the  end of the take-o run available
or the end of the clearway  where it is provided. The limits of the take-o climb surface shall
comprise: An inner edge of speci ed length, perpendicular to the  extended centre line of the
runway, at the end of the clearway  when it is provided, but in no case less than; 

• 60m measured horizontally in the direction of tale-o   beyond the end of takeo run
available, where the code number is 2,3 or 4, or 

• 30m measured horizontally in the direction of tale-o   beyond the end of takeo run available
where the code number is 1 

• two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge,  diverging uniformly at a speci ed rate
from the take-o   track to a speci ed nal width and continuing thereafter  at that width for the
remainder of the length of the take o climb surface,and  an outer edge horizontal and
perpendicular to the  speci ed take-o track. 

The elevation of the inner edge shall be equal to the highest  point on the extended runway
centre line between the end of  the runway and the inner edge, except that when a clearway  is
provided the elevation shall be equal to the highest point  on the ground on the centre line of
the clearway. 

In the case of a straight take-o ight path, the slope of the  take-o climb surface shall be
measured in the vertical plane  containing the centre line of the runway. 
In the case of a take-o ight path involving a turn, the  take-o climb surface shall be a
complex surface containing  the horizontal normal to its centre line, and the slope of the centre
line shall be the same as that for a straight take-o   ight path.  
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Figure 5: Plan view of a Take-off Climb Surfac

OUTER HORIZONTAL SURFACE

 
The outer horizontal surface is a plane located 150m above  the reference elevation datum and
extending from the upper  edge of the extended conical surface for a distance 15000m  (radius)
from the aerodrome reference point. 

This surface is useful for aircraft on wide visual circuits, on  arrival routes towards the airport or
circuit, or on departure  or missed approach climb paths. 
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Tall structure can be of possible signi cance if they are both  higher than 30m above local
ground level and higher than  150m above aerodrome elevation within a radius of 15 KM of  the
centre of airport 

CONICAL SURFACE 

It is a surface sloping upwards and outwards from the  periphery of the inner horizontal
surface. It represents the  level above which consideration needs to be given to the  control of
new obstructions and the removal or marking of  existing obstructions so as to ensure safe
visual maneuvering  in the vicinity of an aerodrome. 

Figure 6: Conical Surfac

INNER APPROACH SURFACE 

Inner approach surface is a rectangular portion of the  approach surface immediately preceding
the threshold. 
The limits of the inner approach surface shall comprise: • an inner edge coincident with the
location of the inner edge of the approach surface but of its own speci ed  length; 
• two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge and  extending parallel to the vertical plane
containing the  centre line of the runway, and 
• an outer edge parallel to the inner edge 
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INNER TRANSITIONAL SURFACE 

Inner transitional surface is a surface similar to the  transitional surface but closer to the
runway. 
The limits of an inner transitional surface shall comprise: 
• a lower edge beginning at the end of the inner approach  surface and extending down the
side of the inner approach  surface to the inner edge of that surface. From there,  along the
strip parallel to the runway centre line to the  inner edge of the balked landing surface and
further up  the side of the balked landing surface to the point where  the side intersects the
inner horizontal surface, and 
• an upper edge located in the plane of the inner horizontal  surface. 
The elevation of a point on the lower edge shall be: 
• along the side of the inner approach surface and balked  landing surface - equal to the
elevation of the particular  surface at that point, and 
• along the strip - equal to the elevation of the nearest  point on the centre line of the runway or
its extension. 

The slope of the inner transitional surface shall be measured  in a vertical plane at right angles
to the centre line of the  runway. 
The inner transition surface shall be used as the controlling  surface for navigational aids,
aircraft and vehicle holding  positions which must be located near the runway. 

BALKED LANDING SURFACE

 
Balked landing surface is an inclined plane located at a speci ed distance after the threshold,
extending between the  inner transitional surface. 
The limits of the balked landing surface shall comprise: 

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 • An inner edge horizontal and perpendicular to the centre  line of the runway and located at a
speci ed distance after the threshold, 
• Two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge and  diverging uniformly at a speci ed
rate from the vertical plane containing the centre line of the runway, and 
• An outer edge parallel to the inner edge and located in  the plane of the inner horizontal
surface. The elevation of the inner edge shall be equal to the elevation  of the runway centre
line at the location of the inner edge.  The slope of the balked landing surface shall be
measured in  the vertical plane containing the centre line of the runway. 
• Figure 7 shows inner approach surface, inner transitional  surface and balked landing
surface. 

Figure 7: Inner Transitional Surface

Review 

1. OLS stands for ________________________ 

2. _______ is a surface sloping upwards and outwards  from the periphery of the inner
horizontal surface. 

3. HIS stands for ________________________ 

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OBSTACLE FREE ZONE (OFZ)
 
The inner approach, inner transitional and balked landing  surfaces together, de ne a volume of
airspace in the  immediate vicinity of a precision approach runway which is  known as obstacle
free zone. This zone shall be kept free from  xed objects, other than light weight frangible
mounted aids  to air navigation which must be near the runway to perform  their function and
from transient objects such as aircrafts  and vehicles when the runway is being used for
precision  approaches. 

OLS APPLICABILITY
  
This depends on the type of runway viz. Non-instrument  or non-precision or precision
approach. Description of OLS  applicable for these three categories given below. 

NON-INSTRUMENT RUNWAYS 

The following surfaces are applicable if the airport is operated  only with Visual Metrological
Procedures as a non-instrument  runway: 
• Conical surface 
• Inner horizontal surface 
• Approach surface, and 
• Transitional surfaces 

NON-PRECISION APPROACH RUNWAYS

 
The following obstacle limitation surfaces shall be established  for a non-precision approach
runway:

• Conical surface

• Inner horizontal surface 

• Approach surface, and •

• Transitional surfaces 

PRECISION APPROACH RUNWAYS

 
• Conical surface 
• Inner horizontal surface 
• Approach surface and inner approach surface 
• Transitional surfaces 
• Inner transitional surfaces, and 
• Balked landing surface 

OLS Applicable for Runways Meant only for Take-o  Take-o climb surface is the only surface
to be established  for a runway meant for take-o . Refer to the table below for  details. 

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Table 1: Code Number - Take-o Climb Surface 

Take- off   Code Number

Climb Surface

Dimensions 1 2 3 or 4

Length of inner  60m 60m 180m

Edge

Distance from 30m 60m 60m

runway end

Divergence   10% 10% 12.5%

(each side)

Final width 380m 580m 1200/1800m

Length 1600m 2600m 15000m

Slope 5% 4% 2%

Note the details plotted for a Code 4 runway for take-o   surface


Figure 8: Take-o Climb Surface

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Table 2: Dimensions and Slopes of Obstacle Limitation Surfaces – Approach  

Runways- Summary, Source – ICAO- Annex 14- 7th Edition 

NotesObstacles can limit the operations and expansion programme  of an aerodrome. Hence
proper control & monitoring of  structures that may come up due to development in and 
around the aerodrome has to be in place. 

Review:

  
1. ___________ is an inclined plane located at a speci ed  
distance after the threshold, extending between the  
inner transitional surfaces. 
2. ___________ is the only surface to be established for a  
runway meant for take-o . 
3. OFZ stands for _______________________ 
4. _________ is a plane located 150m above the reference  
elevation datum and extending from the upper edge  
of the extended conical surface for a distance 15000m  
(radius) from the aerodrome reference point. 

Summary 

Proper control and monitoring of structures that may come  up due to development in and
around the aerodrome has to  be in place. If it is found to be impracticable to remove the 
obstacle, it may continue with appropriate lighting or marking  scheme or both. The aircraft
operations in the aerodrome  will have restrictions because of the increased probability  of
threat to the aircraft safety. Transitional surfaces and  Approach Surfaces are to protect an
aeroplane in the nal  phase of the approach to land manoeuvre. Shape & extent of  the
surface from the runway, slope, permissible height and  datum elevation from which the height
permissible will be  calculated, varies for the surfaces and these are described in  the
subsequent paragraphs. It also helps to understand how  the surface e ects ight
operations. Thus, any developments in and around the aerodrome should  be controlled so as
not to turn out to be an obstacle when  the expansion of the aerodrome is taken up in the
future.  These surfaces are established to act as a safety cover for the aircraft in the event of
any unusual situations like missed  approach, engine failure, tire burst etc.

Questions for Discussion 

1. Brie y discuss about OFZ. 
2. What is balked landing surface? Write its limitations. 

3. Brie y explain the inner transitional surface. List its  limitations. 

4. Di erentiate between outer horizontal surface and  conical surface. 
5. De ne take-o climb surface. List its limitations. 6. De ne obstacle.

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 Unit 4 
CNS System & ATC Tower 
Objectives 

After completing this unit, students will be aware of the following topics:

◢ Communication, Navigation and Surveillance Systems 

◢ Siting criteria for Air Tra c Control Tower 
◢ Ongoing Technology Advancement and Research Projects on CNS and  ATC tower 

Introduction
 
This unit deals with various communication navigation  and surveillance systems and their
siting criteria. There is  also brief explanation of ongoing technology and research 
advancement and research projects on CNS and ATC tower. 

CNS System
 
1. Instrument Landing System (ILS) 

Instrument landing system consists of two components- Glide  path (GP) which provide the
vertical guidance i.e. Glide Angle  and Localiser (LLZ) which will provide azimuth guidance  i.e.
centre line of runway, while the aircraft is on the nal  approach. These GP and LLZ are
installed near the runway. 

GP provides the glide angle information to a landing aircraft  with the help of an instrument in
the cockpit which when  tuned to the glide path frequency indicates whether the  aircraft is
ying up or down or along the correct glide angle.  Localiser radiates Very High Frequency
Signals which when  picked up by an aircraft guide it onto the centre line of the  runway in the
horizontal plane 

GP is installed at about 300 m from the threshold towards the  runway and o set by 120 m
from the runway centre line. Since  the antenna will be installed in the runway strip frangibility 
requirement will apply for the antenna. Whether the GP is to be located on the right or left of
the runway depends on the  layout of the air eld, particularly the entry or exit taxiways. 
LLZ installed beyond the runway end at about 300 m. 
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One GP and one Localiser per approach runway is required.  If it is decided to install ILS for the
both the approaches, one  set for each approach is required to be installed. 

During the master planning the distances of the GP and  LLZ as mentioned above will be
considered ( subject to nal  con rmation from the manufacturers during implementation)  to
examine the sensitive and critical areas of these instruments  to be protected so that the

performance of the instruments  is not degraded due to presence of objects – permanent or 
mobile- in these areas.  

Let us understand the critical and sensitive areas (ICAO Annex 10): 

ILS critical area is an area of de ned dimensions about the  localiser and glide path antennas
where vehicles, including  aircraft, are excluded during all ILS operations. The critical  area is
protected because the presence of vehicles and/ 
or aircraft inside its boundaries will cause unacceptable  disturbance to the ILS signal-in-
space. 

ILS sensitive area is an area extending beyond the critical  area where the parking and/or
movement of vehicles,  including aircraft, is controlled to prevent the possibility  of
unacceptable interference to the ILS signal during ILS  operations. The sensitive area is
protected against interference  caused by large moving objects outside the critical area but 
still normally within the air eld boundary. 

To protect the critical area, vehicles are not allowed to enter  in the area and neither is taxing or
parking of aircraft within  this area during ILS operations permitted Hence, in the  master plan,
the perimeter inspection roads or roads to these  installations and the runway orroad holding
positions are to  be planned according to this requirement. 

With respect to sensitive areas, it may be necessary to exclude  some or all moving tra c
depending on interference potential and category of operation. It would be advisable to have
the  aerodrome boundaries include all the sensitive areas so that  adequate control can be
exercised over all moving tra c to  prevent unacceptable interference to the ILS signals. If
these  areas fall outside the aerodrome boundaries, it is essential  that the cooperation of
appropriate authorities be obtained  to ensure adequate control. The size of the sensitive area 
depends on a number of factors including the type of ILS  antenna, the topography, and the
size and orientation of  man-made objects, including large aircraft and vehicles.  The
dimensions of the sensitive areas will also vary  depending on the Category of precision
approach viz. I, II or  III operations. The stringent requirement is for Category III  since only the
least disturbance can be tolerated for Cat III. Indicative dimensions for the sensitive and critical
areas  for localiser and glide path are given in Annex 10, with  which the initial planning can be
done. However, during  implementation, the manufacturers of the ILS system are to  be
coordinated to get the exact location of these instruments,  the critical and sensitive areas and
the permissible gradient  of the ground around these instruments.  

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Figure 1: Dimensions for the Sensitive and Critical Areas

Figure 2: Critical Area and Sensitive Area

Figure 3 a): Glidepath Antenna

Figure 3 b): Glidepath Antenna

Figure 4: Localiser Antenna

2. VOR (Very High Frequency Omni Range)  

VOR is a ground-based radio navigational aid that provides  bearing information to aircraft
to define air traffic control  routes for en-route, terminal and instrument approach or 
departure procedures. VOR when collocated with Distance  Measuring Instrument (DME)
provides both the bearing  and distance of aircraft with respect to ground station.  The
equipment radiates signals whereby an aircraft, with  the help of an instrument in its
cockpit, when tuned to the  ground equipment frequency automatically gets its direction 
with respect to the facility and helps an aircraft to navigate  on a predetermined course or
home to an airport served by  the facility. The siting criteria is that no objects shall exist
within 300m  radius of the equipment and beyond this distance, structures  if any, shall
subtend a vertical angle greater than 1.5 degree  at the centre of the Very High Frequency
Omni Range  counterpoise from the horizontal plane passing through the  counterpoise.
These criteria shall be used to locate the DVOR  at the appropriate location considering
future expansion and  additional infrastructures that are planned at the airport.

Figure 5: High Frequency Omni Range

3. Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)  

ASR is a radar facility serving an aerodrome to scan the  air tra c within 50 to 60 nautical miles
of the aerodrome.  This is the primary radar and is co-located with secondary  surveillance

radar called MSSR. Primary radar provides the  location of the aeroplane and secondary radar
provides the  altitude. 

Figure 6 a): ASR 

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Figure 6 b) : AS

Figure 7: The Siting Criteria  



No object can exist up to 500m which is higher than the 3m  below the antenna pedestal.  

4. Air Routes Surveillance Radar (ARSR) 

ARSR is high power long-range radar covering a distance of  200 nautical miles approximately
and it scans air tra c to a  larger distance than Airport Surveillance Radar. 
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 SITING CRITERIA 

No structure will be permitted on the land above the level of  5 meters below the pedestal
height, up to the distance of 200  meters from Radar antenna and permissible slope speci ed. 

Figure 8: The Siting Criteria 

5. Siting criteria for the following CNS systems, where  applicable, also be considered as per
the recommendations of the system manufacturers: 

• Automatic Dependence Surveillance – Broadcast (DME/ADS-B) 

• Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE) or Surface Movement Radar (SMR) 
• Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems 
• Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Reference Receiver 
• Ground Based Augmentation System VHF Data 

Broadcast (GBAS VDB) station 
• GBAS VDB monitoring station 
• Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) repeater  restriction 

Restrictions pertaining to Electricity Power Transmission  Lines at or near the airport Sensitive

area of Localiser and glide path shall be clear of  power lines. HT lines will not be permitted to
the following  area until and unless these are shielded by permanent  structures:  

• Localiser, with in ±18 degree, all HT lines will be  permitted only up to an angle of elevation of
0.5 degree  from the localiser. If these HT lines are on the radial,  these may be permitted to
0.75-degree elevation. In the  sector between ± 18 degree to ± 35-degree line may be 
permitted up to the elevation angle of 0.75 degree. 
• Glide Path, HT lines will be permitted only up to an angle  of elevation of 0.5 degree from the
Glide Path. If the HT  line is on the radial, it may be permitted to 0.75-degree  elevation. 
• VOR, HT lines shall be permitted below 0.5 degree at  counterpoise and if these lines are on
the radial, they  may be permitted up to 1 degree. 

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 • Radar, power line above 11 KV and up to 100 KV may  not be permitted up to 1 km and
above 100 KV up to 2  KM 

Air Tra c Control Tower (ATC Tower)

 
Air Tra c Controllers positioned at the ATC tower, uses air  orground communications and
other ATC systems to provide  air tra c services to the aircrafts on ground at the airport  and
those in the vicinity of the airport. For safe ground  movement control of the aircraft and for
viewing the take-o   and landing of the aircrafts, the ATC tower must be located  near active
runways to give controllers adequate visibility.


Height and Location of ATC Tower

Generally, the tower must be located at a minimum height  that meets visibility performance
requirements for all  controlled movement areas. Tower with a height more than  what is
required will increase the capital cost and height less  than the requirement will not meet the
objectives of safe and  e cient operation since certain areas of air eld may not be  visible from
the tower. A properly located tower itself will  optimise the height. The location should not
hinder the future  expansion of airport facilities and also for example should  consider coverage
of the all runways and taxiways which  may be developed in future development phases.

  Figure 9: Height and Location of ATC Tower

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 VISIBILITY PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT

VPRs are as below: 

Unobstructed View of all intended areas of coverage  as mentioned above is required to be

ensured. 

Object Discrimination refer to the controllers at the  tower which should be able to detect any
object lying on the air eld pavement and recognise the object, from the safety point of view to
avoid FOD (foreign object damage) to the aircraft. 

• Line of Sight (LOS) Angle of Incidence shall be equal to or greater than 0.8 degree. See
the gure below for LOS angle of incidence

• Two-point Lateral Discrimination 


Figure 10: The Lateral Discrimination Source: Airport tra c control tower siting process 

Angle shall be greater than 0.13 degree or 8 min 


Compliance with Obstacle Limitation Surface

(OLS) Requirement

While locating the tower, it shall be ensured that tower height does not penetrate transitional
surface. Generally, tower location will not be planned in the approach or take o climb areas
since the visibility requirement cannot be met and hence, the tower height is not expected to
infringe on take-o and approach surfaces. The only surface it can possibly protrude is the
inner horizontal surface (IHS), which is 45m above the aerodrome elevation. Usually in large
airports with multiple runways, the height could be more than 45m to provide coverage of all
the runways, taxiways and movement areas with one ATC tower. In such cases, where the ATC
tower protrudes the IHS, Aeronautical Study needs to be conducted for having an obstacle for
the height at the location planned, to evaluate the probability (collision risk model) of an aircraft
colliding with the tower.

This is a safety risk assessment study for the obstacle. If the study nds the probability is
extremely low, then the location & height of tower can be nalised. If the study nds that the
probability is high, then an alternative location needs to be re-worked with the required height
for that location.

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Figure 10: The Lateral Discrimination

Apron Control and Monitoring

In small and medium size airports, the apron control & monitoring could be from the ATC tower
cabin or one level below the cabin.

In large airports with apron stands at multiple locations, it would not be possible to have
visibility of all the aprons from ATC tower. In such cases the aircraft movement in the apron can
be monitored from apron control tower which can be closer to the apron and away from ATC
tower or for the stands where there are visibility issues the tra c or activities are monitored
remotely from apron control tower or AOCC through CCTV system with cameras installed for
complete coverage.



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 Communication and Navigational Equipment
E ect of the height and location with reference to CNS equipment should be analysed and
should not a ect the performance of the system.

ATC Tower Cabin Orientation

As the Controllers view the air eld from the ATC tower cabin, the direction of the cabin must be
oriented to avoid all forms of glare viz. sun light, both direct and indirect and from glare due to
manmade surfaces. Practice has shown that it is oriented such that the view faces north or
alternately east, or west, or nally south in that order of preference.

Security Aspect

It may be preferable to locate the ATC tower away from public areas. This may not be always
possible and during detailed design appropriate security system should be planned and
implemented.

Equipment Building and O ce

For housing the ATS equipment technical building, two or three stories will be planned in
proximity to the ATC tower depending on the ATS functions carried out at the airport. In
addition to housing the equipment, this building will also have area control or approach control
centre, o ces for ATM, CNS and Met departments. This building will have to be planned with
future expansion in mind as there can be a need to expand the services and systems in line
with the air tra c growth. Su cient carparking spaces need to be earmarked for sta and
visitors.

Meteorological Equipment Requirements for an Air eld

Aircraft operation on an air eld is dependent on prevailing weather conditions. ICAO has
prescribes the following meteorological elements are observed and reported:

• Surface Wind- The mean direction and the mean speed of the surface wind as well as
signi cant variations of the wind direction and speed, reported in degrees true and
metres per second (or knots), respectively.

• Visibility in metre or KM.

• Runway Visual Range (RVR) on all runways intended for Category I, II and III instrument
approach and landing operations



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 Review:

1. In large airports with apron stands at multiple locations, it would not be possible to have
visibility of all the aprons from _______________

2. IHS stands for ____________________

3. FOD stands for _____________________

4. HT lines will be permitted only up to an angle of elevation of ___ degree from the Glide
Path. If the HT line is on the radial, it may be permitted to ____ degree elevation.

• Present weather occurring at the aerodrome and/or its vicinity.

• Following present weather phenomena shall be identi ed, as a minimum: precipitation

and freezing precipitation (including intensity thereof), fog, freezing fog and
thunderstorms (including thunderstorms in the vicinity).

• Cloud amount, cloud type and height of cloud base to describe the clouds of operational
signi cance. When the sky is obscured, vertical visibility shall be observed and reported,
where measured, in lieu of cloud amount, cloud type and height of cloud base. The
height of cloud base and vertical visibility shall be reported in : (or feet).

• Air temperature and the dew-point temperature

• Atmospheric pressure 

The visual aids and the operating procedures are normally derived based on the weather
conditions at an aerodrome. Weather information report also facilitates the air crew on
deciding the requirement for the length of runway requirement and to operate at that
particular aerodrome. Aerodrome Operator declares the operating minima above which
only the operations can be performed at that airport. The operating minima comprises of
horizontal and vertical components and are expressed in terms of minimum visibility /
Runway visual range (RVR) and minimum descent altitude / height or Decision Altitude /
Height. The operating minima of an aerodrome also is published in the Aeronautical
Information Publication. 

In India, information related to the above is provided by the India Meteorological
Department, IMD. It provides services through 18 Aerodrome Meteorological O ces and
54 Aeronautical Meteorological Stations located at various airports in India. Live updates/
half hourly MET-R are provided to Air Tra c Control Tower and other concerned airlines
with which the operations are performed and the information is updated once in two
hours. MET brie ng and documentation to the operators is provided either through
manual or automated means. The web-based information dissemination system known
as On-Line Brie ng System (OLBS) of IMD is being maintained by the MET o ces at
Chennai and New Delhi airports through which registered users can directly download
the forecast. IMD also has advanced communication modes for the dissemination of
aviation meteorological information.

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 At an aerodrome following equipment are provided to collect and share the meteorological
report:

• Wind direction indicator - (wind vane)

• Wind speed measurement - (Anemometer)

• Temperature - air temperature, pressure and humidity (Barometric Pressure Sensor, AT/
Rh sensor)

• Runway Visual Range (RVR) measurements - Trans- missometer

• Rain fall measurement - (Surface observatory – Rain gauge)

• Prediction on general visibility, weather conditions and rain based on the cloud
movements - (Radar) 

While the information on wind direction, speed, temperature, rain fall etc. are measured
from one particular location of an aerodrome: the measurement with respect to the
runway visual range (RVR) for deciding the category of operations is provided by the eld
equipment placed along the runway. These measurements are taken for:

• touchdown zone of the runway intended for non-precision or Category I instrument

runway

• touchdown zone and the mid-point of the runway intended for Category II instrument
runway

• touchdown zone, the mid-point and stop-end of the runway intended for Category III
instrument runway 


The information on the RVR is also required for appropriate intensity selection of Aeronautical
Ground Lighting System. IMD as a special initiative with the support of IITM Pune also has
provided Fog predictor to ascertain the possibility of ground Fog. On trial basis the system is
installed at IGI Airport, New Delhi.

As a part of master planning, the requirement for the MET services are to be discussed with the
IMD and provisions or infrastructure as required are to be incorporated and details worked out
later on during implementation.

Remote ATC Tower

This is a concept where the Air Tra c Control will be performed o -airport, not from individual
airports as a dedicated facility. From such a remote facility nearby airports can also be
controlled.

At London City Airport a 50m digital tower is being built and at the top of this tower will be 14
HD cameras and 2 PTZ (Pan-Zoom – Tilt) cameras for 360-degree view of the air eld and
immediate surroundings. Air Tra c Controllers will be based at an o -site control room at
NATS (NATS is ATM service provider for UK airports) control centre in Swanwick. Data will be
sent through high speed secure bre network.

World’s rst new airport bring built without traditional tower is in Scandinavian Mountains,
planned for opening in Dec 2019. The airport is Code 4E and Cat III compliant.

Indra Navia (leading manufacturer) is working with Norwegian ANSP on a solution that will
enable to operate 15 airports from one location.

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 In India, AAI has invited EOI for remote ATC tower to be constructed at an airport from where
nearby smaller airports will also be controlled. India has numerous small airports and many of

which are being put into operation under RCS (Regional Connectivity Scheme) network. These
airports may not have one or two aircraft movements in a day and a remote ATC tower will
de nitely be bene cial in such cases.

The Advantages of Remote ATC Tower

Small airports having few ights need not have a dedicated ATC tower. In large airports where
there are constraints to develop the air eld due to location of the traditional ATC tower, remote
tower outside the airport helps to develop the air eld or maximise the land use for aviation
purpose or even for commercial development. The concept of Air Tra c Management through
Remote ATC tower is expected to reduce capital cost and operating cost.

Communication Navigation and Surveillance System

(Sourced from AAI and M/S Universal Avionics System Corporation & ISRO)

Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) reduces the dependency on ground-based

infrastructure and leverages the precision and accuracy provided by satellite technologies. This
system can provide approaches to runway ends at the same minima (200 ft.) as a Category I,
ground-based Instrument Landing System (ILS) while improving safety. Ground- based
reference stations, satellite-based signals and aircraft sensor systems comprise the SBAS
architecture for aircraft navigation. The SBAS provides integrity and correction data
signi cantly improves the accuracy and reliability of the GPS position estimates and most
importantly the availability.

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and Airports Authority of India (AAI) have
implemented the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation called “GAGAN “project as a Satellite
Based Augmentation System (SBAS) for the Indian Airspace. GAGAN provides the additional
accuracy, availability, and integrity necessary for all phases of ight, from Enroute through
approach for all quali ed airports within the GAGAN service volume. Initially, Director General
of Civil Aviation (DGCA) certi ed GAGAN for Enroute operations on December 30, 2013 and
subsequently on April 21, 2015 for precision approach services.

The bene ts to the airport are that ground based navigational aids are not required with the use
of SBAS. Since there are no ground based navigational aids, the siting restrictions discussed
are not applicable, such as sensitive area, critical area etc. and hence, increases the exibility
in the master planning for more e cient airside utilisation.

GAGAN, though primarily meant for aviation, will provide bene ts beyond aviation to many
other user segments such as intelligent transportation, maritime, highways, railways, surveying,
geodesy, security agencies, telecom industry, personal users of position location applications
etc.

With the launch of GAGAN, India has become the fourth country in the world to use satellite-
based navigation system.

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 National Civil Aviation Policy stipulates that all aircraft being registered in India from 1st Jan
2019 will mandatorily have to be GAGAN enabled. In respect of existing aircrafts, NCAP

stipulates that AAI will explore opportunities to incentivise the airlines by way of concessions in
ANS charges for getting their aircraft retro tted with GAGAN receivers.

Review:

1. __________ is ATM service provider for UK airports.

2. ISRO stands for _________________________________

3. Full form of DGCA is _____________________________

4. ______ reduces the dependency on ground-based infrastructure and leverages the

precision and accuracy provided by satellite technologies. 


Summary

GP and LLZ are installed near the runway. Localiser radiates Very High Frequency Signals
which when picked up by an aircraft guide it onto the centre line of the runway in the horizontal
plane. In the master plan the perimeter inspection roads or roads to these installations and the
runway or road holding positions are to be planned according to this. The bene ts to the
airport are that ground based navigational aids are not required with the use of SBAS. This
increases the exibility in the master planning for more e cient airside utilisation. In respect of
existing aircrafts, NCAP stipulates that AAI will explore opportunities to incentivize the airlines
by way of concessions in ANS charges for getting their aircraft retro tted with GAGAN
receivers.

Questions for Discussion

1. What is National Civil Aviation Policy?

2. Brie y explain the Communication, Navigation and Surveillance System.

3. De ne remote ATC tower. List some of its advantages.

4. ICAO prescribes the meteorological elements. Explain what is observed and reported.

5. De ne object discrimination.

6. De ne the following:

• a)  Localiser

• b)  Glide Path

• c)  VOR

• d)  RADAR

• e)  ARSR 

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