Mathematical Modelling of Engineering Problems

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Experimental Investigation on Modified Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete (SIFCON) with

Fine Aggregate Substituted by Treated Waste Tire Rubber
Ali Mudhafar Hashim 1*, Basil Salah Al-Shathr 2
1
Civil Engineering Department, University of Technology Baghdad 10011, Iraq bce.20.02@grad.uotechnology.edu.iq
2
Civil Engineering Department, University of Technology Baghdad 10011, Iraq 40074@uotechnology.edu.iq

Corresponding Author Email: bce.20.02@grad.uotechnology.edu.iq

https://doi.org/10.18280/mmep.xxxxxx ABSTRACT

Received: Slurry infiltrated fiber concrete (SIFCON) is a comparatively new unique form of
Accepted: steel fiber reinforced concrete (FRC). SIFCON possesses an extensive range of
desirable characteristics, including high strength and ductility. One of the most
Keywords: important types of concrete for the current environment is sustainable concrete. An
Sustainable concrete, Waste tire rubber, enormous volume of waste rubber tires is produced globally due to the expansion of
SIFCON, Compressive strength, Flexural the automobile industry. This study's primary objective is to determine how the partial
strength. replacement of fine aggregate with waste tire rubber at varying percentages (5%, 10%,
and 15%) affects the behavior of SIFCON's compressive strength, flexural strength,
and split tensile strength. It has the added benefit of preserving natural aggregates.
This study proposes a method for applying strong polarity groups to the surface of
rubber with the goal to generate a strong chemical interaction between rubbers and
cement matrix. It is an excellent strategy for enhancing the mechanical properties of
concrete. The results of the tests show that the SIFCON's mechanical properties
deteriorated as the ratio of sand substituted with powder rubber increased. Moreover,
it has been shown that the waste rubber offers large benefits in terms of unit weight
and cost.

1. INTRODUCTION Due to a growing vehicle industry and a decline in the

Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete (SIFCON) is a unique
form of fiber reinforced concrete containing high volume
fraction of fiber. In the manufacturing of SIFCON, the fibers
are first inserted inside the molds, followed by the infiltration
of a cement slurry or mortar with a low water-to-cement
ratio. This production method is distinct from the
conventional production of fiber-reinforced concrete.
Preplacing the fibers in SIFCON can considerably enhance
the fiber content. Due to the high-strength cement-based
matrix and high fiber content, SIFCON's post-cracking
strength and energy absorption capacity, or toughness, can be
significantly greater than conventional fiber-
reinforced concrete. The high fiber content contributes
to the relatively expensive cost of SIFCON [1-5]. SIFCON
has a high application potential in areas in which high
ductility and impact resistance are required, such as structures
subject to impact and explosion effects, seismic retrofit
design, and the repair of structurally reinforced concrete
members. Generally,  fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC)
contains (1–3)% fibers by volume, while (SIFCON) contains
(4–20)% fibers by volume [6], SIFCON matrix is either a
flowing mortar or cement slurry, distinct from the aggregate
concrete used in FRC. SIFCON is made by infiltrating of pre-
placed fibers bed with cement slurry and packing them
properly into molds, as opposed to FRC, which is made by
adding fibers into wet concrete [7, 8].
quantity and capacity of landfill space, it becomes more
difficult to dispose of waste tires. Currently, 75 to 80 percent
of used tire debris is buried in landfills. Due of the size of the
flames and their propensity to rise to the surface over time,
the majority of landfills have prohibited the disposal of entire
tires. Studies have shown that waste tires contain dangerous
substances that do not decompose in the environment. Tires
can be utilized as aggregates in concrete based on these
issues. Cement and Aggregate are the two essential materials
required in the construction of buildings by concrete. Despite
the fact that 60% of it is thought to be illegally dumped. The
ideal method for getting rid of old tires is to recycle the
rubber by mixing it with concrete. The mechanical properties
of recycled rubber tire concrete with various volume contents
and substitution forms were studied. Within that
investigation, the efficacy of waste chopped rubber as a
partial fine aggregate substitute in SIFCON mixture at
various ratios and its influence on SIFCON parameters
including flexural strength, compressive strength, and split
tensile strength were assessed. [9-12].
The primary objective of investigations relevant to waste
rubber has been the substitution of fine aggregate in concrete
with waste rubber. Different ratios of recycled rubber
replacement in concrete had variable results, and researchers
found that 10% crumb rubber replacement is optimal [13].
With a 25% substitution of recycled rubber, the energy
absorption of the resultant concrete increases dramatically.
However, the compressive strength reduces significantly
[14]. The compressive strength decreases proportionately
with the amount and size of rubber replacement particles. The
decrease in compressive strength may be due to a weakened
interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between crumb rubber
particles and cement material, or to elastic modulus variations
among rubber and cement [15].
Kunal Bisht and Ramana assessed the durability and
mechanical properties of concrete containing 0%, 4%, 4.5%,
5%, and 5.5% by weight of recycled tire rubber. The
workability of concrete has been seen to decrease when
recycled rubber tire content increases. The test results of
flexural and compressive strength indicate a slight reduction
with 4% subistitution of sand by crumb tire rubber. Abrasion
resistance and water absorption were also slightly infunced at
the idintical substitution ratio of crumb tire rubber in
concrete. Furthermore, as the replacement level increases, the
density of rubbrized concrete decreases. This could be due to
the increased porosity of the concrete as well as the lower
specific gravity of waste tire rubber in comparison to fine
aggregates. [16].
Eshmaiel Ganjian et al. examined the efficacy of concrete
mix containing (5%, 7%, 5%, and 10%) waste rubber tire as
cement and aggregate substitutes. The study's findings were
as follows: With rising percentages of waste rubber
substitution in concrete, compressive strength declined;
nevertheless, the reduction in compressive strength at 5%
substitution of cement or aggregate with waste rubber was
minimal (below 5%).and other concrete parameters were
unaffected. Concrete containing rubber chips as aggregate
replacement has a lower tensile strength than concrete with
rubber powder (for cement replacement). The tensile strength
decreased by 30–60% when 5 to 10% of aggregate was
replaced by chopped tire rubber, whereas the drop for 5 to
10% cement substituted by waste powder rubber was 15-
30%. Numerous hydroxyl, carbonyl, and sulfonate groups
were introduced by oxidation and sulphonation during the
surface modification of recycled tire rubber. [17].
Zheng et al. showed that by grafting hydrophilic groups
onto the surfaces of rubber particles with polyethylene glycol
(PEG) and acrylic acid (ACA), the air entrainment, slump,
flexural strength, compressive strength, and impact resistance
of treated rubberized concrete were significantly enhanced.
The effectiveness of a two-stage method of using limestone
powder (LP) and silica fume (SF) pre-coated recycled tire
rubber to enhance the behavior of rubberized cement mortar
was studied. It was found that mixtures with 10% limestone
powder and silica fume pre-coated recycled tire rubber had
higher flexural strength [18].
Mohammadi et al. examined the properties of modified
rubcrete with rubber treated by sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
and discovered that this treatment technique result in
significant improvement in the compression strength and a
good increase in the flexural strength, while did not result in
improved adhesion characteristics because of the rougher
surfaces of the modified rubber particles for any of the
treatment methods used. According to Segre et al., the
principal purpose of sodium hydroxide NaOH is to eliminate
the additives in tire rubber composition. However, 24 hours
of saturation in NaOH solution had no effect on the
hydrophobicity of rubber, as the water contact angle of the
rubber surface remained larger than 90 degrees [19].
Cammille A. et al. utilized waste crumb rubber as a sand
replacement in concrete at a substitution rate of 0% - 100%
for crushed sand. According to the findings, a 25%
substitution of crushed sand provides acceptable compressive
strength, and utilizing up to 25% waste rubber reduces the
density of concrete by 8% while increasing its ductility,
making it perfect for shock-resistant elements, highway
barriers, etc. Additionally, damping characteristics enhance
[20].
This article examines the impact of recycled powder
rubber on the compressive strength, flexural strength, and
split tensile strength of modified SIFCON. Preliminary
knowledge of the mechanical properties of SIFCON after the
substitution of sand with recycled powder rubber can be
obtained from the test results provided in this investigation.
Therefore, this study presents a foundation for future research
on SIFCON with waste rubber and its potential applications.
2. THE AIM OF STUDY
Despite its high cost, SIFCON is increasingly utilized
worldwide, particularly in structures subject to impact and
explosive effects. This is due to the fact that the majority of
the durability and mechanical characteristics of these
materials are superior to those of normal FRC [8]. As
SIFCON is a recently developed building material, limited
information is known about its properties from previously
published research. Although there have been previous
research on waste fibers in SIFCON, this is the first time
waste rubber tires have been employed in the creation of
SIFCON, making this a one-of-a-kind study. The primary
objective of this experimental investigation is to determine
how varying percentages of fine aggregate replaced with
recycled tire rubber (5%, 10%, and 15%) affect the
compressive strength, flexural strength, and split tensile
strength of SIFCON. This study provides the details and
findings of the experimental investigation. The reduction in
tensile and compressive strength, in addition to the difficulty
in predicting the load capacity of rubberized concrete
members, represents the greatest challenge for use of
recycled tire rubber in concrete. If these undesirable
influences of concrete can be reduced, a new cement-based
structural material with improved ductility and low weight
will be developed.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Materials used and Mix Proportions
Because there is currently no standard specification for
SIFCON mixture design. The findings of the literature review
aided in the design of SIFCON mixtures. According to these
studies, the ratio of sand to cementitious materials by weight
in the majority of cases is 1:1, so this value was used in the
present study. For the production of the SIFCON matrix,
numerous researchers [21-24] recommended using a W/C
ratio of less than 0.4 (by weight) and a cement content
ranging from 800 to 1000 kg/m3. Some researchers [21, 23,
25-28] were used natural sand passing through 4.75 mm sieve
as a fine aggregate in preparing of SIFCON mortar. While
other researchers considered this size of fine aggregate is too
coarse to be used successfully in making SIFCON specimens
and they recommended to use only fine sand with small size
either passing through 1.18 mm sieve [29, 30] or with
maximum size of (1,0.6,0.5 mm) [2, 24, 31, 32] in order to
ensure complete penetration through the network of steel
fiber without honeycombing or clogging. Numerous trial
slurry mixes were conducted in order to find the mixture with
the best properties in terms of viscosity, fluidity, and filling replaced was calculated by multiplying the ratio of rubber's
ability in the fresh state, without segregation, bleeding, or specific gravity to that of sand. Powder rubber has a specific
honeycomb in the network of fiber, resulting in a significant gravity of 1.05. The powder rubber used in this investigation
decrease in the SIFCON's mechanical characteristics. The are shown in Figure 3. Powder rubber replaced fine aggregate
properties of mixtures are listed in Table 1. Using the mini- at different percentages (0. 5, 10, and 15%) by weight. Only
slump flow test, following ASTM C1437 [33], the nature sand was substituted with powder rubber; the
workability of the mixes was determined to be 255 mm. The remaining constituents remained unchanged. 10% Micro
mini-V-funnel test was another technique for measuring silica by weight of cement were added to the SIFCON to
slurry viscosity. 11 seconds was the mix's measured flow increase bonding of interfacial transition zone, [36]. Micro
rate. silica may increase the concrete strength by providing dense
packing and by filling cement paste pores. Micro silica is
Table 1. SIFCON matrix mix design more reactive than fly ash at normal temperatures and in the
presence of moisture. The chemical properties of silica fume
Constituent Mix Proportion (SF) meets the ASTM C1240-15 [37] requirements as
Cement (kg/m3) 872.4 illustrated in Table 2.
Silica Fume (kg/m3) 96.9 Table 2. Mechanical, Physical and chemical characteristics
Nature Sand (kg/m3) 969 of micro-silica and cement
Super Plasticizer by Wt. of 2.7
Cementitious (%) Chemical Cement SF Physical
Hooked end Steel Fiber (Kg/m3) 312 Composition (%) (%) Characteristics
Water/binding 0.26 SiO2 64.2 89.43 Cement
V-funnel time (s) 11 Al2O3 21.8 0.64 Specific surface 326
Mini-slump flow (mm) 255 (m2/kg)
Fe2O3 3.6 0.45 Specific 3.15
Cement (kg/m3) 872.4 gravity
SO3 2.6 0.85 SF
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) Type I produced in Iraq CaO 3.6 0.81 Specific 21000
taken from local markets known as (Al-Mass) complies with surface (m2/kg)
with ASTM C150-18 [34] Standards was utilized. Cement Lose of 3.4 4.11 Specific 2.2
had an initial setting time of 98 minutes, a final setting time Ignition gravity
of 177 minutes and a specific gravity of 3.15. The physical, CaO (free) 1.33 2.15
chemical and mechanical properties of ordinary Portland
cement are presented in Table 2. Natural river sand with a
maximum particle size of 0.60 mm. The specific gravity of
sand was determined to be 2.65, the water absorption to be
1.5%, the free surface moisture to be 1%, and the fineness
modulus to be 2.83. It must be sufficiently tiny to penetrate
completely without blocking the dense steel fiber.
A polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer (SP) which
complies with ASTMC494/C494M-17 [35] was used in order
to produce the requisite workability of the slurry, which
should be fluid enough to pass through the thick fiber bed
without leaving honeycombs. Furthermore, hooked end steel
fiber with a length of 35mm, a diameter of 0.5mm, and an
aspect ratio of 70 with a tensile strength of more than 1100
MPa was utilized in this investigation. The steel fiber volume
fraction employed in this investigation was 4%. The fiber
volume was determined in accordance with the volume of
each specimen's mold. Figure 1 illustrates the steel fiber used
in this investigation. After several casting technique trials in
the laboratory, the steel fiber was incorporated into the
SIFCON matrix using a multi-layer method. Initial placement Figure 1. The steel fibers used
and packing of randomly oriented fibers in the mold to a
specified level was followed by filling of the mold with The compressive strength test was performed using
mortar to the same level. As demonstrated in Figure 2, the (10×10×10) cm cubes in accordance with ASTM C 109/C
mortar must be sufficiently flow able to achieve penetration 109M [38]. Whereas, flexural strength tested using
into the fiber. (100×100×400) mm prisms according to ASTM C78 (third-
Waste rubber tire was collected by a local industry (Al- point loading) [39]. Splitting tensile strength test was carried
Diwaniya tire factory in Iraq). After removing the steel and out according to ASTM C496-04 [40]. Cylindrical specimens
textile fibers, waste rubber was ground into powder (which of 100mm diameter and 200mm height were used. After
was sieved using a 0.6 mm sieve). When replacing, the casting, samples were stored for 24 hours in saturated
specific gravity difference between river sand and waste humidity air at 20 ± 2 °C before being demolded. The
rubber was considered. The fine aggregate mass to be specimens were cured for 28 days in water. The temperature
of the curing water was set at 20 ± 2 °C. The symbols of the
investigated mixtures that appear in the tables and figures of
the study's results are listed in Table 3.
rubber particles were washed by water to eliminate any
potential chemical influence of NaOH on the adhesion
between cement paste and the rubber particles, rubber
particles have negligible water absorption, as is well-known
[41-43].

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Compressive Strength

Table 4 illustrates the compressive strength and the

percentage of strength loss of modified slurry infiltrated fibre
concrete with untreated and pre-treatment waste rubber. Each
value in this table was determined by averaging the results of
testing three cubes in order to minimize the predicted error of
each measured result.

Table 4. Compressive strength of modified SIFCON with

sand substituted by powder rubber

Compressive Strength fcu (MPa)

Figure 2. Pouring processes of SIFCON samples Untreated Rubber Modified Rubber
% %
Age
Days

MNS10

MNS15
MNS5
NS10

NS15
NS5
NS0
28 85.52 70.5 61.3 44.0 76.4 64.1 46.3
Residual 100 82.5 71.7 51.4 89.4 75.0 54.2
Strength %
Strength 0 -17.5 -28.3 - 48.6 - 10.6 - 25.0 - 45.8
Loss %

Figure 4 illustrates the differences in compressive strength of

modified SIFCON specimens achieved at 28 days based on
the percentage of sand replacement with powder rubber [23].
As the amount of powder rubber rose, compressive strength
gradually decreased. The decline in compressive strength of
the mixture with 15% powdered rubber was almost half that
of the control mixture. The control mix with 0% powder
rubber had the highest compressive strength (85.52 MPa),
while the mix with 15% sand replacement with powder
rubber had the lowest compressive strength (44.01 MPa).
For modified SIFCON specimens with pre-treatment
Figure 3. The powder waste rubber tires used powder rubber with NaOH solution, the percentage of
strength loss is less than that of untreated specimens at the
Table 3. Codes of the samples identical percentage of sand replacement with powder rubber.
At 28 days, the compressive strength of specimen MNS5
Sample Steel Rubber Rubber Pre-
with 5% sand replacement reduces to 76.43 MPa that is a
Code Fiber % Content % treatment
NS0 4 0 -
reduction of 10.6%. While the compressive strength with
10% sand replacement MNS10, is 64.14 MPa that is a
NS5 4 5 - reduction of 25.0% from the control specimen. For the sand
NS10 4 10 - replacement of 15% MNS15 the compressive strength
NS15 4 15 - reduces to 46.35 MPa that is a reduction of 45.8 % from the
MNS5 4 5 NaOH control mix. All modified SIFCON specimens exhibited
horizontal cracks and no brittle failure under compressive
MNS10 4 10 NaOH
load.
MNS15 4 15 NaOH The loss of mechanical properties of modified SIFCON
with sand replacement by powder rubber was supported by
3.2 Treatment of Waste Tires Rubber the findings of other studies dealing with rubberized concrete
[44]. The decline in the compressive and flexural strengths of
Rubber particles were soaked in 5% Sodium hydroxide rubberized concrete may be attributed to: a) in comparison to
(NaOH) solution for 24 h. Before usage, the rubber particles natural aggregate and cement paste, rubber particles and
were removed after the allotted time, washed with clean cement paste would not properly bond. This might result in
water, and then air-dried under conditions of laboratory. The cracks because of the stresses non - uniform distribution. (b)
 The compressive strength is dependent on the mechanical and the flexural strength reduces to 15.01 MPa, which is a
physical characteristics of the components. If a portion of the reduction of 27.3 % from the control mix.
material is substituted with rubber, the strength will decrease.
(c) Rubber tends to rise during vibration due to its low
specific gravity and the lack of bonding between rubber and
other SIFCON elements, resulting in a greater concentration
of rubber in the upper stratum. This form of heterogeneous
concrete reduces the sample's strength [17].

Figure 5. Flexural strength of varying powder rubber

replacement (%)

All modified SIFCON samples exhibited deformation

without total disintegration as illustrated in figure 6. The
inclusion of micro-silica and a decrease in the water to
Figure 4. Compressive strength of varying powder rubber cement ratio have increased rubberized concrete flexural
replacement (%) strength. Due to the impact of silica fume on the interfacial
transition zone bonding, loss of strength of high-strength
4.2 Flexural Strength rubberized concrete was less in comparison to normal-
strength concrete [45].
Table 5 illustrates the flexural strength of modified slurry The main reason of decreased flexural and compressive
infiltrated fiber concrete SIFCON with untreated and pre- strength is poor bonding between the rubber surface and
treatment waste rubber. In addition, the proportional cement mortar. Additionally, it is clear from the experimental
percentage of strength reduction in comparison to the control results that replacing sand with powder rubber in modified
mixtures was calculated. SIFCON samples reduces their compressive strength values
more significantly than it affects their flexural strength. This
Table 5. Flexural strength of modified SIFCON with sand may be explained by the elastic properties of rubber, which
replaced by powder rubber enable it to absorb considerable energy and exhibit excellent
bending toughness.
Flexural Strength fcu (MPa)
Untreated Rubber Modified Rubber
% %
Age
Days
MNS10

MNS15
MNS5
NS10

NS15
NS5
NS0

28 20.6 18.6 16.2 12.3 19.1 17.1 15.0

Residual 100 90.5 78.8 60.0 92.6 82.8 72.7
Strength %
Strength 0 -9.5 -21.2 -40.0 -7.4 -17.2 -27.2
Loss %

Figure 6 shows the flexural strength results. Substitution of

powder rubber decreases the flexural strength as expected. It
can be noticed from Table 5, that for the untreated rubber
mixtures, the test results illustrated that utilizing of rubber
reduce the flexural strength up to 9.5 % at NS5, 21.2% at
NS10, while 40 % losses at NS15, with respect to the control
mix NS0.
Figure 5 reveals that the pre-treated mixes (MNS6.MNS8
and MNS10) have a lesser reduction compared to the original
reference mix NS0, as the NaOH solution pre-treatment
creates better adhesion between cement mortar and the rubber
surface. With 5% rubber replacement MNS5, the flexural
strength reduces to 19.11 MPa at 28 days. That is a reduction
of 7.4%. While with 10% rubber replacement MNS10, the
flexural strength is 17.08 MPa. That is a reduction of 17.2%
from the control mix. For the rubber content of 15% MNS15,
Figure 6. Flexural failure mode of SIFCON samples
4.3 Splitting Tensile Strength
Figure 7 and Table 6 show the splitting tensile strength test
results. The tensile strength of SIFCON samples decreased
with increased replacement of sand with powder rubber in
both treated and non-treated mixtures. For a 5% replacement
percentage, the tensile strength dropped by 27% in the
untreated mixture and by 20.9% in the modified mixture. The
decline in tensile strength with 10% substitution was 38.8%
for the untreated mix and 33.1% for the modified mix in
comparison to the control mix. Finally, at 15% replacement,
the tensile strength reduction was 49.5% for the untreated
 mixture and 48.6% for the modified mixture. The elastic
properties of tire rubber made it a good barrier against the
formation of cracks in concrete. Consequently, the tensile
strength of rubber-containing concrete should be greater than
that of the control mixture. The results, however, contradicted
this hypothesis. The following factors might be responsible
for this behavior: Due to the inadequate bonding between the
two materials, rubber and cement interfacial zones could
behave as a micro crack; the weak interface zone accelerates
the breakdown of concrete.
Table 6. Splitting Tensile strength of modified SIFCON with
sand substituted by powder rubber
Splitting Tensile Strength fcu (MPa)
Untreated Rubber Modified Rubber
% %
Age
Days
MNS10
tensile strength is the result. In this regard, the separation
of cement paste and waste rubber aggregate during crack
formation and extension to the contact surfaces of the
waste rubber particles under tensile loads is principally
caused by a weak bond between the two materials.
• The flexural strength reduces as the ratio of powder
rubber content rises. This is because the presence of
cracks weakens the bond between the constituent
materials. At the same percentage of sand replacement
with powder rubber, the compressive strength value
reduction is more significant than the flexural strength
reduction.
• The pre-treatment of rubber particles with NaOH solution
can improve the compressive, tensile and flexural strength
of SIFCON samples compared to untreated ones.
FUTURE SCOPE

MNS15
MNS5

At replacement levels (5%, 10%, and 15%), mechanical

NS10

NS15
NS5
NS0

properties were found to be reduced, mostly as a result of

void creation brought on by the fineness of waste rubber.
28 18.5 13.5 11.3 9.4 14.7 12.4 9.6 Using different grades of waste rubber in the SIFCON mix
Residual 100 73.0 61.2 50.5 79.1 66.9 51.4 might lessen this unfavorable effect. Crumb rubber can also
Strength % be treated with different alkaline chemical compounds to help
Strength 0 -27.0 -38.8 -49.5 -20.9 -33.1 -48.6
Loss % overcome this performance decline. The use of the techniques
mentioned above may be able to increase the bonding
between cement paste and waste rubber, leading to an
improvement in mechanical and durability properties.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors want to show their appreciation and gratitude

to the head and personnel of the University of Technology's
Department of civil Engineering. We would also want to
express our gratitude to the laboratory of building materials
personnel at the civil engineering department for providing
all the resources necessary to complete this work.

REFERENCES

Figure 7. Splitting tensile strength of varying powder rubber
replacement (%)
5. CONCLUSION
This paper investigates experimentally the use of powdered
rubber as a substitute for nature sand in varying percentages
in the production of modified SIFCON. The following
conclusions can be taken from the findings obtained in this
study utilizing experimental results for SIFCON samples with
waste rubber:
• The results indicate that by substituting a percentage of
the natural sand with waste rubber powder, the
compressive strength decreased. This reduction may be
attributed to the fact that the waste rubber particles are
significantly softer than the natural sand particles adjacent
to the cementitious materials, fracture begins rapidly
around the rubber particles during compressive loading,
resulting in a reduction in compressive strength.
• The splitting tensile strength declined as powder rubber
levels rose, same to the compressive strength. Small
rubber particles isolate other solid components of the
mixture and function as voids, which causes stress
concentration and a quick failure in tension. This drop in
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