IMO Model Course 1.07 On Radar Navigation at Operational Level (Secretariat)

E
SUB-COMMITTEE ON HUMAN ELEMENT, HTW 3/3/2

TRAINING AND WATCHKEEPING 23 October 2015
3rd session Original: ENGLISH
Agenda item 3
VALIDATED MODEL TRAINING COURSES
Model Course on Radar Navigation at Operational Level
Note by the Secretariat
SUMMARY
Executive summary: This document provides the draft of a revised model course on Radar
Navigation at Operational Level
Strategic direction: 5.2
High-level action: 5.2.2
Planned output: 5.2.2.3
Action to be taken: Paragraph 3
Related documents: HTW 2/19 and HTW 2/3/7
1 Attached in the annex is a draft revised model course on Radar Navigation at Operational
Level.
2 The preliminary draft of this revised model was forwarded to members of the validation
panel for their comments. However, no comments were received by the Secretariat by the
submission deadline on 15 October 2015.
Action requested of the Sub-Committee
3 The Sub-Committee is invited to consider the above information and take action, as
appropriate.
***
https://edocs.imo.org/Final%20Documents/English/HTW%203-3-2%20%28E%29.docx
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ANNEX
DRAFT REVISED IMO MODEL COURSE ON RADAR NAVIGATION

AT OPERATIONAL LEVEL
MODEL
COURSE
1.07
RADAR NAVIGATION AT
OPERATIONAL LEVEL
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This course for Radar Navigation at Operational Level is based

on material developed by the China Maritime Safety
Administration for IMO.
IMO wishes to express its sincere appreciation to the

Government of China for its provision of expert assistance and
valuable cooperation in support of this work.
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Contents
Contents ....................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction................................................................................................................... 4
Part A Course Framework ....................................................................................... 9
Part B Course Outline and Timetable ................................................................. 16
Part C Detailed Teaching Syllabus ...................................................................... 24
Part D Instructor Manual ....................................................................................... 36
1 Basic theory and operation principles of a marine radar system .......................................... 37
 Detailed teaching packages ................................................................................ 37
 Assessment techniques....................................................................................... 59
 Teaching guidance ............................................................................................... 60
2 Radar setup and operate in accordance with manufacturer's instructions ............................ 62
 Assessment techniques....................................................................................... 86
 Teaching guidance ............................................................................................... 86
3 Using radar to ensure safe navigation .................................................................................. 89
 Assessment techniques..................................................................................... 105
 Teaching guidance ............................................................................................. 105
4 Manual radar plotting ......................................................................................................... 107
 Detailed teaching packages .............................................................................. 107
5 ARPA system or radar target tracking (TT) and AIS reporting functions .......................... 119
6 Operation of ARPA or radar target tracking (TT) and AIS reporting functions ................. 137
7 Application of the COLREGs when using radar ................................................................ 166
Examples of lesson plan ........................................................................................................ 175
Part E Evaluation and Assessment ................................................................... 177
Appendix I Selections and Extracts of Publications ........................................ 191
Appendix II User feedback .................................................................................. 298
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Introduction
 Purpose of the model courses
The purpose of IMO model courses is to assist maritime training institutes and their teaching
staff in organizing and introducing new training courses, or in enhancing, updating or
supplementing existing training material where the quality and effectiveness of the training
courses may thereby be improved.
It is not the intention of the model course programme to present instructors with a rigid
"teaching package" which they are expected to "follow blindly". Nor is it the intention to
substitute audio-visual or "programmed" material for the instructor's presence. As in all
training endeavours, the knowledge, skills and dedication of the instructors are the key
components in the transfer of knowledge and skills to those being trained through IMO model
course material.
Because educational systems and the cultural backgrounds of trainees in maritime subjects
vary considerably from country to country, the model course material has been designed to
identify the basic entry requirements and trainee target group for each course in universally
applicable terms, and to specify clearly the technical content and levels of knowledge and
skill necessary to meet the technical intent of IMO conventions and related to its
recommendations.
 Use of the model course
To use the model course the instructor should review the course plan and detailed syllabus,
taking into account the information provided under the entry standards specified in the course
framework. The actual level of knowledge and skills and the prior technical education of the
trainees should be kept in mind during this review, and any areas within the detailed syllabus
which may cause difficulties because of differences between the actual trainee entry level
and that assumed by the course designer should be identified. To compensate for such
differences, the instructor is expected to delete from the course, or reduce the emphasis on,
items dealing with knowledge or skills already attained by the trainees. He/she should also
identify any academic knowledge, skills or technical training which they may not have
acquired.
By analysing the detailed syllabus and the academic knowledge required to allow training in
the technical area to proceed, the instructor can design an appropriate pre-entry course or,
alternatively, insert the elements of academic knowledge required to support the technical
training elements concerned at appropriate points within the technical course.
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Adjustment of the course objective, scope and content may also be necessary if in your
maritime industry the trainees completing the course are to undertake duties which differ from
the course objectives specified in the model course.
Within the course outline the course designers have indicated their assessment of the time
which should be allotted to each area of learning. However, it must be appreciated that
these allocations are arbitrary and assume that the trainees have fully met all entry
requirements of the course. The instructor should therefore review these assessments and
may need to re-allocate the time required to achieve each specific learning objective or
training outcome.
 Lesson plans
Having adjusted the course content to suit the trainee intake and any revision of the course
objectives, the instructor should draw up lesson plans based on the detailed syllabus. The
detailed syllabus contains specific references to the textbooks or teaching material proposed
to be used in the course. Where no adjustment has been found necessary in the learning
objectives of the detailed syllabus, the lesson plans may simply consist of the detailed
syllabus with keywords or other reminders added to assist the instructor in making his/her
presentation of the material.
 Presentation
The presentation of concepts and methodologies must be repeated in various ways until the
instructor is satisfied that the trainee has attained each specific learning objective or training
objective. The syllabus is laid out in learning objective format and each objective specifies a
required performance or, what the trainee must be able to do as the learning or training
outcome. Taken as a whole, these objectives aim to meet the knowledge, understanding and
proficiency (KUPs) specified in the appropriate tables of the STCW Code.
 Implementation
For the course to run smoothly and to be effective, considerable attention must be paid to the
availability and use of:
 Properly qualified instructors

 Support staff
 Rooms and other spaces
 Equipment
 Suggested references, textbooks, technical papers
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 Other reference material.
Thorough preparation is the key to successful implementation of the course. IMO has
produced a booklet entitled "Guidance on the implementation of IMO model courses", which
deals with this aspect in greater detail.
 Course framework
For ease of reference, this course is divided into five parts.
Part A is a general description of the model course and the conditions that are needed for its
implementation, which provides the framework for the course with its aims and objectives and
notes on the suggested teaching facilities and equipment. A list of useful teaching aids,
references and textbooks is also included.
Part B provides an outline of lectures, demonstrations and simulator exercises for the course,
together with a suggested sequence and timetable. From the teaching and learning point of
view, it is more important that the trainee achieves the minimum standard of competence
defined in the STCW Code than that a strict timetable is followed. Depending on their
experience and ability, some trainees will take longer to become proficient in some topics
than in others.
Part C gives the Detailed Teaching Syllabus. This is based on the theoretical and practical
knowledge specified in the STCW Code. It is written as a series of learning objectives, in
other words what the trainee is expected to be able to do as a result of the teaching and
training. Each of the objectives is expanded to define a required performance of knowledge,
understanding and proficiency. IMO and other references, textbook references and
suggested teaching aids are included to assist the instructor in designing lessons.
Part D contains an Instructor Manual with additional explanations, exercises and examples of
lesson plan based on the Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency given in Part C.
Especially, Part D also provides suggestions regarding teaching methodologies, evaluation
technique, issues arising during the training and measures to be dealt with.
Part E provides a suggestive Evaluation and Assessment Programme for training efficiency,
which aims to assist trainee learning, identify their strengths and weaknesses, assess the
effectiveness of a particular instructional strategy, evaluate and improve the effectiveness of
curriculum programmes, and teaching effectiveness. It is worth noting that the competence
evaluation standards given in the Part A of STCW Code should be used when performing the
evaluation and assessment programme.
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In order to ensure that the end users have necessary information to use in the course
development, revision, and approval process, Appendix I is provided in the model course.
The contents of this part are excerpted from publications.
To keep the training programmes up to date, the feedback from the model course users is
very important. This information can help to improve better training in safety at sea and
protect the marine environment. Appendix II provides a questionnaire related to the model
course and its implementation. It contains contact information as well so that the model
course users can give their valuable answers and comments.
 Explanatory note
The course consists of seven main training objectives (topics) or training outcomes:
 Topic 1
Fundamental theory of a marine radar system and basic knowledge of lookout and
observation by a marine radar system;
 Topic 2
Operational skills of a marine radar system;
 Topic 3
Skills of radar position fixing and radar navigation;
 Topic 4
Skills of radar manual plotting;
 Topic 5
The main functions of radar automatic target tracking and AIS reported targets;
 Topic 6
Operational skills for radar automatic target tracking and AIS reported targets; and
 Topic 7
Adherence to the COLREGs when using radar.
It is advised that the course is to be taught:
 as a complete module covering all training Topics l-7; or

 only as a radar position fixing, radar navigation and manual radar plotting course
covering Topic l-4 and partial contents of Topic 7. In this case, the contents of automatic
target tracking and AIS reported targets in Topic 7 may be ignored.
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This model course is consistent with the note in Table A-II/1 of the STCW Code which states:
"Training and assessment in the use of ARPA is not required for those who serve exclusively
on ships not fitted with ARPA. This limitation shall be reflected in the endorsement issued to
the seafarer concerned."
If the teaching topics do not involve radar automatic target tracking, trainees may follow a
course based on Topic 1 4 and Topic 7 except those sub-topics which involve automatic
target tracking and AIS reported target. If teaching topics include radar automatic target
tracking, the lectures should cover all the topics of this model course. However, teaching
Topic 5, 6 and AIS reported target of Topic 7 may be ignored if ARPA course is based on the
competences satisfied IMO resolution A. 823(19) and before.
 Validation
The information contained in this document has been validated by the Sub-Committee on
Human Element Training and Watchkeeping for use by technical advisers, consultants and
experts for the training and certification of seafarers so that the minimum standards
implemented may be as uniform as possible. Validation in the context of this document
means that no grounds have been found to object to its content.
In reaching a decision in this regard, the Sub-Committee was guided by the advice of a
Validation Group comprised of representatives designated by IMO.
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Part A: Course Framework
 Aims
This model course provides training in the basic theory and the use of radar for officers in
charge of a navigational watch on ships that are fitted with radar equipment. It aims to meet
the mandatory standards in Table A-II/1 of STCW for "use of radar and ARPA to maintain
safety of navigation".
Proper consideration has, in the design of this course, been given to the available IMO
resolutions and guidelines on marine radar operations, including Regulations 18 and 19 in
Chapter V of Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention, Sections A-I/12 and B-I/12 of the
STCW Convention and IMO Performance Standards for Radar Equipment as amended.
The course includes the theory necessary to understand the system configuration, principles,
performance of shipborne marine radar and ARPA, the factors affecting radar performances,
how radar information is obtained, displayed and analysed, the limitations and accuracy of
that information, the correct use of operational controls to obtain an optimal display and use
radar information to maintain safety of navigation.
 Objective
A trainee successfully completing this course and meeting the required performance
standards will recognise when radar should be in use; will select a suitable mode and range
setting for the circumstances; will be able to set the controls for optimal performance; and will
be aware of the limitations of the equipment in detecting targets and in terms of accuracy.
When within range of the coast, the trainee will be able to compare the radar display with the
chart, select suitable conspicuous land targets and use these targets to fix his position; will be
able to use radar maps, navigation lines and routes to maintain the own ship on the planed
and safe route.
The trainee will also be able to choose an appropriate radar presentation mode; select
plotting and graphics controls suitable to the circumstances; make appropriate use of
operational alarms; acquire and track those targets which may present a potential threat of
collision; extract the information needed on course, speed and nearest approach to enable
early action to be taken in accordance with the COLREGs to prevent a close-quarters
situation arising; and make use of radar to confirm and monitor their actions.
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The trainee will understand the dangers of over-reliance on the automatic acquisition and
tracking of targets and on operational alarms; will also be aware of the performance
standards set out in IMO Resolutions on radar performances, and factors (including errors
from sensor inputs) which may affect the accuracy of derived information; and will realise the
need to check the accuracy of inputs and the correct functioning of the radar.
 Entry standards
This course is principally intended for candidates for certification as officers in charge of a
navigational watch. Prior to entering the course, trainees should have completed a minimum
period of six months at sea and preferably have gained some experience of watchkeeping.
Trainee officers for certification as officer in charge of a navigational watch should have
completed, or be following a planned and structured programme of training; shipboard
training should include tasks or projects relating to bridge work and watchkeeping duties.
Instructors may find evidence of the standard attained by trainees in the prospective officer's
training record book.
The course would also be of value to others using radar, e.g. those working in such craft as
harbour and customs patrol launches, in which case the entry standards may be adjusted to
suit the particular circumstances. However, the intake of trainees for each course should
normally have similar backgrounds.
In consideration of radar technology development, it is advised that trainee officers be

familiarised with personal computer operations, have the knowledge of planning and
conducting a passage and determining position and maintaining a safe navigational watch
related to this course in the KUP Table A-II/1 of STCW Code, and be proficient of such
navigational aids as THD, SDME, GPS, AIS, etc.
 Course certification, diploma or document
On successful completion of the course and assessments, a document may be issued

certifying that the holder has successfully completed a course of training which meets or
exceeds the level of knowledge and competence specified in Table A-II/1 of the STCW Code.
The certification, diploma or document may be issued by the administrative authority or its
authorised institutes.
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 Course intake limitations
Depending on the availability of radar and radar simulator equipment, the course intake
should be limited to not more than three trainees per radar and radar simulator display to
allow each trainee sufficient practice in the operation of the equipment.
 Staff requirements
The instructor shall have appropriate training in instructional techniques and training methods
(STCW Code Section A-I/6). Depending on the complexity of the exercises set, an assistant
instructor with similar experience is desirable if more than four own ship stations are in use for
practical exercises.
 Teaching facilities and equipment
The course requires a marine radar simulator with an instructor station and sufficient own
ship displays to accommodate the number of trainees.
The equipment must incorporate at least two own ship stations (STCW Code A-I/12 Part 1
paragraph 4.3). It must be capable of simulating the operational capabilities of navigational
radar equipment which meets all applicable performance standards of IMO. The performance
standards for radar equipment are given in Assembly resolutions A.222(VII) A.278(VIII)
A.477(XII) A.832(19) MSC.64(67) and MSC.192(79).
A plotting table, plotting charts and instruments should be provided adjacent to each set.
A classroom equipped with a blackboard or flipchart and an overhead projector, slide
projector, or viewgraph, as appropriate, is also needed for teaching the theoretical part of the
course.
 Teaching aids (A)
A1 Instructor manual (Part D of this course)

A2 Video player
A3 Manufacturer's operational manual (Radar and ARPA)
A4 Video-cassettes or DVDs about the use of radar and ARPA. For example, target
tracking devices available from Videotel Productions, London.
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 References (R)
R1 IMO Manila Amendments to the International Convention on Standards of Training,

Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 2010.
R2 IMO resolution MSC. 192(79): Revised Recommendation on Performance Standards
for Radar Equipment, 2004.
R3 IEC 62388: Maritime Navigation and Radio Communication Equipment and Systems -
Shipborne Radar - Performance Requirements, Methods of Testing and Required Test
Results, Edition 1, 2007.
R4 IMO resolution MSC. 64(67) Annex 4: Recommendation on Performance Standards for
Radar Equipment, 1996.
R5 Assembly resolution A. 422(XI): Performance Standards for Automatic Radar Plotting
Aids, 1979.
R6 Assembly resolution A. 477(XII): Performance Standards for Radar Equipment, 1981.
R7 Assembly resolution A. 823(19): Performance Standards for Automatic Radar Plotting
Aids, 1995.
R8 IMO resolution MSC. 96(72): Recommendation on Performance Standards for Devices
to Measure and Indicate Speed and Distance, 2000.
R9 IMO SN.1/Circ.197: Operation of Marine Radar for SART Detection, 1997.
R10 IMO resolution MSC. 164(78): Revised Performance Standards for Radar Reflectors,
2004.
R11 IMO resolution MSC. 74(69) Annex 3: Recommendation on Performance Standards for
a Universal Shipborne Automatic Identification System (AIS), 1998.
R12 IMO resolution MSC. 246(83): Performance Standards for Survival Craft AIS Search
and Rescue Transmitters (AIS-SART) for Use in Search and Rescue Operations, 2007.
R13 ITU-R M.1371-5: Technical Characteristics for an Automatic Identification System
Using Time Division Multiple Access in the VHF Maritime Mobile Band, 2014.
R14 IEC 61097-14: Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) - Part 14: AIS
Search and Rescue Transmitter (AIS-SART) - Operational and Performance
Requirements, Methods of Testing and Required Test Results, Edition 1, 2010.
R15 ITU-R M.628-4 Recommendation: Technical Characteristics for Search and Rescue
Radar Transponders, 2006.
R16 IALA Recommendation R-101: On Marine Radar Beacons (RACONS) Edition 2, 2004.
R17 IMO resolution MSC. 112(73): Revised Recommendation on Performance Standards
for Shipborne Global Positioning System (GPS), 2000.
R18 IEEE Std 686™: IEEE Standard Radar Definitions, 2008.
R19 IMO resolution MSC. 116(73): Recommendation on Performance Standards for Marine
Transmitting Heading Devices (THDS), 2004.
R20 IMO The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 (IMO-904).
R21 Andy Norris, "Civil marine radar," Chapter 22 of The Radar Handbook, 3rd Ed., Merrill
Skolnik. (ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2008, ISBN 978-0-07-148547-0.
R22 J. N. Briggs, Target Detection by Marine Radar, Institution of Electrical Engineers,
London, 2004, ISBN 0-86341-359-5.
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 Textbooks (T)
T1 Alan Bole, Alan Wall, Andy Norris, Radar and ARPA Manual, 3rd Edition, the Boulevard,
Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1 GB, UK, ISBN 978-0-08-097752-2, 2014.
T2 Liu Tong and Zhang Bin, Shipborne Navigation Radar, Dalian Maritime University Press,
ISBN 978-7-5632-2937-6, 2013.
T3 W. Burger, Radar Observer's Handbook for Merchant Navy Officers, 9th Edition.
Glasgow, Brown, Son and Ferguson LTD., ISBN 0-85174-666-7, 1998, Reprinted 2008.
T4 David F. Burch, Radar for Mariners, Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Burch, David, ISBN 0-07-139867-8, 2005.
T5 A.N. Cockcroft and J.N.F. Lameijer, A Guide to the Collision Avoidance Rules, 5th
Edition. Oxford, Heinemann Professional Publishing, ISBN 0-434-90274-8, 1996.
T6 R. Lownsborough and D. Calcutt, Electronic Aids to Navigation: Radar and ARPA,
London, Edward Arnold, ISBN 0-340-59258-3, 1993.
T7 I. Smith and R. A. Mulroney, Parallel Indexing Techniques, Warsash Publishing, ISBN 0
948646 55 1, 1979.
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 STCW 2010 Table A-II/1 mapping of IMO model course 1.07 topics
STCW 2010 Table A-II/1 IMO Model course 1.07

Competence Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency Topic Sub-topic Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency
Use of radar and Radar navigation 1 1.1 1.1 The fundamental principles of radar
ARPA to maintain Knowledge of the fundamentals of radar and 1.2 1.2 Magnetic safe distances
safety of navigation automatic radar plotting aids (ARPA) 1.3 1.3 The radiation hazards and precautions
Ability to operate and to interpret and analyse 3 3.4 3.4 Maps, navigation lines and routes for radar navigation
information obtained from radar, including the following: 3.5 3.5 Electronic chart and radar picture overlay navigation
Note: Training and
Performance, including:
assessment in the
.1 factors affecting performance and accuracy 1 1.4 1.4 The internal factors affecting radar detection
use of ARPA is not
1.7 1.7 Performance standards for radar equipment are outlined in the context of resolutions A.
required for those
477(XII), Annex 4 of MSC. 64(67) and MSC. 192(79)
who serve
.2 setting up and maintaining displays 2 2.1 2.1 Set up and maintain an optimum radar display
exclusively on ships
.3 detection of misrepresentation of information, 1 1.5 1.5 Factors external to the radar set affecting radar detection
not fitted with
false echoes, sea return, etc. Racons and SARTs 1.6 1.6 Identify and explain the factors which may cause faulty interpretation of the radar
ARPA. This
picture correctly
limitation shall be
3 3.2 3.2 Radar aids to navigation
reflected in the
endorsement Use, including:
issued to the .1 range and bearing; course and speed of other 2 2.2 2.2 Measure ranges and bearings accurately
seafarer concerned ships; time and distance of closest approach of 4 4.2 4.2 The course, speed and aspect of target ship
crossing, meeting overtaking ships 4.3 4.3 Determination of the closest point of approach (CPA) and time to closest approach (TCPA)
.2 identification of critical echoes; detecting course 3 3.1 3.1 Radar position fixing
and speed changes of other ships; effect of 4 4.4 4.4 Effects of course and speed changes
changes in the own ship's course or speed or both
.3 application of the International Regulations for 7 7 The application of the COLREGs when using radar
Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended
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.4 plotting techniques and relative-and true-motion 4 4.1 4.1 The relative motion triangle
concepts 4.5 4.5 Radar plotting data
.5 parallel indexing 3 3.3 3.3 Parallel index line navigation
Principal types of ARPA, their display 5 5.4 5.4 IMO performance standards for ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions
characteristics, performance standards and the 6 6.7 6.7 Risks of over-reliance on ARPA or TT and AIS reported information
dangers of over-reliance on ARPA
Ability to operate and to interpret and analyse
information obtained from ARPA, including:
.1 system performance and accuracy, tracking 5 5.6 5.6 Tracking capabilities and limitations
capabilities and limitations, and processing delays 5.7 5.7 Processing delays of ARPA or TT and information delays of AIS reported targets
6 6.5 6.5 Correctly identify and interpret causes of errors in data display
.2 use of operational alarms and system tests 6 6.6 6.6 Operational tests of system to determine data accuracy
.3 methods of target acquisition and their limitation 5 5.5 5.5 Criteria for acquisition of ARPA or TT targets and activation of AIS reported targets
.4 true and relative vectors, graphic representation of 5 5.1 5.1 ARPA systems or TT display characteristics
target information and danger areas 5.2 5.2 The display characteristics of AIS reported targets
5.3 5.3 Association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets
.5 deriving and analyzing information, critical 6 6.1 6.1 Setting up and maintaining ARPA or TT display correctly
echoes, exclusion areas and trial manoeuvres 6.2 6.2 Setting up and maintaining AIS display correctly
6.3 6.3 Operation of ARPA or TT and AIS functions to obtain target information
6.4 6.4 Outline possible errors of interpretation of target data
6.5 6.5 Identifies and explains factors caused errors in displayed data correctly
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Part B: Course Outline and Timetable
 Introduction
Part B is a general description of what materials should be presented and its sequences of
presentation. In the following table, this course outline is divided into 7 topics and further
subdivided into 38 sub-topics corresponding to the competencies and KUPs required by
STCW table A-II/1.
The training is delivered through lectures, demonstrations and/or practical training.
The contents of each topic and sub-topic and their allocated hours are duly specified.
However, the course materials have to be adjusted according to the target group as well as
the time needed for individual topics. The course timetables, although intended for general
guidance only, reflect the varying needs for the different target groups. However, it may be
possible for experienced instructors, by amending the timetables and presentations, to
accommodate different target groups on the same course.
 Lecture
The lecture should be presented in general teaching scenarios. The presentation of

theoretical knowledge may be achieved in various ways combining with diagrams, pictures,
sketches and radar application practices.
Effective teaching methodology involves delivering the relevant knowledge to the trainees by
certain techniques, and enhancing the knowledge by further explanation. For example, firstly
instructors introduce the general contents to the trainees, then illustrate each objective in
detail and finally give a summarisation and conclusion. It is an efficient approach to utilise a
projector or to distribute the handouts to the trainees.
 Demonstration
It is essential for the officer in charge of navigation watch to ensure the safety of navigation by
understanding the fundamental principles of radar system and its composition and efficient
and proper use of radar and ARPA.
Demonstration provides an effective link between lectures and practice training, and it is a
helpful approach for the trainee to thoroughly understand the theoretical knowledge and
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enhance efficiently their operational skills. During the demonstration and practical training,
the instructor should help and assist the trainees to attain the training objectives by
demonstrating the operational key points and skills.
 Practical training
The experience shows that well-designed practical training will substantially improve the
training outcome. If the practice training is performed on simulator, the instructor shall use
efforts to ensure that the training exercises are presenting the real ship and practical
situations. If it is found that the training exercise on a simulator can hardly make the trainees
achieve the operational skills of officer in charge of navigation, the training institute is
requested to replace the training with performance on a live radar.
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 Course outline and class hours
Knowledge, understanding and proficiency Lecture (h) Demonstration (h) Practical training (h)
1 The Basic Theory and Operation of the Marine Radar System 11.5 0.5
1.1 The fundamental principles of radar 2.0 0.5
1.2 Magnetic safe distances 0.05
1.3 The radiation hazards and precautions 0.05
1.4 The internal factors affecting radar detection 3.0
1.5 Factors external to the radar set affecting radar detection 3.8
1.6 Identify and explain the factors which may cause faulty interpretation of the radar picture correctly 1.6
1.7 Performance standards for radar equipment outlined in the context of resolutions A. 477(XII), Annex 4 of 1.0
MSC. 64(67) and MSC. 192(79)
2 Set up and Operate Radar in Accordance with Manufacturer's Instructions 6.0 1.0 3.0
2.1 Set up and maintain an optimum radar display 4.5 1.0 3.0
2.2 Measure ranges and bearings accurately 1.5
3 Using Radar to Ensure Safe Navigation 3 1.0 4.0
3.1 Radar position fixing 0.9 0.2 0.8
3.2 Radar aids to navigation 0.5
3.3 Parallel index line technique in radar navigation 0.8 0.4 1.6
3.4 Maps, Navigation Lines and routes for radar navigation 0.4 0.4 1.6
3.5 Electronic chart and radar picture overlay navigation 0.4
4 Manual Radar Plotting 6 0.8 3.2
4.1 The relative motion triangle 0.5
4.2 The course, speed and aspect of target ship 2.0
4.3 Determination of the closest point of approach (CPA) and time to closest approach (TCPA) 0.5 0.2 0.8
4.4 Effects of course and speed changes 2.5 0.4 1.6
4.5 Radar plotting data 0.5 0.2 0.8
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Knowledge, understanding and proficiency Lecture (h) Demonstration (h) Practical training (h)
5 ARPA System or TT and AIS Reporting functions 3.0 3 12

5.1 ARPA systems or TT display characteristics 0.9
5.2 The display characteristics of AIS reported targets 0.3
5.3 Association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets 0.4
5.4 IMO performance standards for ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions 0.6
5.5 Criteria for acquisition of ARPA or TT targets and activation of AIS reported targets 0.8
5.6 Tracking capabilities and limitations 0.6
5.7 Processing delays of ARPA or TT and information delays of AIS reported targets 0.4
3 12
6 Operate ARPA or Radar target tracking (TT) and AIS reported Targets Function 6.0
6.1 Setting up and maintaining ARPA or TT display correctly 0.7
6.2 Setting up and maintaining AIS display correctly 0.5
6.3 Operation of ARPA or TT and AIS function to obtain target information 2.0
6.4 Outline possible errors of interpretation of target data 0.8
6.5 Identifies and explains factors caused errors in displayed data correctly 1.0
6.6 Use system operational tests to determine data accuracy 0.5
6.7 Identifies and explains risks of over-reliance on ARPA or TT and AIS reported information 0.5
7 The application of the COLREGs when using radar 2.0 2 10
7.1 Using the radar as a mean of the proper look-out, and stating the importance of the radar systematic 0.5
observations, correct and full interpretation of radar information
7.2 Emphasis on the radar related factors which can affect safe speed 0.3
7.3 Listing the methods and characteristics that can acquire sufficient radar information to avoid collision or 0.5
2 10
close-quarters situation
7.4 Making substantial alteration of course or speed to avoid collision or close-quarters situation in accordance 0.5
with displayed information on radar
7.5 Stating the periods to use radar by day with good weather, clear night when there are indications that
0.2
visibility may deteriorate, and at all times in or near the area of restricted visibility and in congested waters
Total 78.0 37.5 8.3 32.2
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Note: Because the required performances in Topic 5 and 6 involve comprehensive and systematic practical training, it is impractical to recommend
time for each performance element in demonstration and practical training.
The lecture hours, demonstration hours and practical training hours are for guidance only. Instructors may adapt the time allocated to lectures,
demonstration and practical training depending on the needs of the trainees.
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 Course timetable
Period/Day Morning Afternoon

Day 1 1.1 The fundamental principles of radar 1.4 The internal factors affecting radar
Demonstration and practice training 1-1 detection (continued)
Cognition practice of radar configuration and
installation location
1.2 Magnetic safe distances
1.3 The radiation hazards and precautions
1.4 The internal factors affecting radar detection
Day 2 1.5 Factors external to the radar set affecting 1.5 Factors external to the radar set affecting
radar detection radar detection (continued)
1.6 Identify and explain the factors which may
cause faulty interpretation of the radar picture
correctly
1.7 Performance standards for radar
equipment are outlined in the context of
resolutions A. 477 (XII), Annex 4 of MSC.
64(67) and MSC. 192(79)
Day 3 2.1 Set up and maintain an optimum radar 2.1 Set up and maintain an optimum radar
display display (continued)
2.2 Measure ranges and bearings accurately
Day 4 Practice and training 2-1 Radar set up and 3.1 Radar position fixing
adjustment 3.2 Radar aids to navigation
3.3 Parallel index line technique in radar
navigation
3.4 Maps, Navigation Lines and routes for
radar navigation
3.5 Electronic chart and radar picture overlay
navigation
Day 5 Demonstration and Practical Training 3-1 Demonstration and practical training 3-3
Radar Fixing Radar maps/navigation lines/routes navigation
Demonstration and practical training 3-2 PI
navigation
Day 6 4.1 The relative motion triangle 4.4 Effects of course and speed changes
4.2 The course, speed and aspect of target ship 4.5 Radar plotting data
4.3 Determination of the closest point of approach
(CPA) and time to closest approach (TCPA)
Day 7 Demonstration and practical training 4-1 5.1 ARPA systems or TT display characteristics
Acquiring the motion elements of target ships 5.2 The display characteristics of AIS
Demonstration and practical training 4-2 Effects reported targets
on RML by altering course of the own ship 5.3 Association of radar tracked targets with
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Demonstration and practical training 4-3 AIS reported targets

Effects of changes of speed on RML 5.4 IMO performance standards for ARPA or
Training 4-4 Radar plotting report exercises TT and AIS reporting functions
5.5 Criteria for acquisition of ARPA or TT
targets and activation of AIS reported targets
Day 8 5.6 Tracking capabilities and limitations 6.3 Operation of ARPA or TT and AIS
5.7 Processing delays of ARPA or TT and reporting functions to obtain target
information delays of AIS reported targets information (continued)
6.1 Setting up and maintaining ARPA or TT 6.4 Outline possible errors of interpretation of
display correctly target data
6.2 Setting up and maintaining AIS display correctly 6.5 Identifies and explains factors caused
6.3 Operation of ARPA or TT and AIS reporting errors in displayed data correctly
functions to obtain target information
Day 9 6.6 Use system operational tests to determine Demonstration and practical training 6-1
data accuracy (continued)
6.7 Identifies and explains risks of over-reliance on
ARPA or TT and AIS reporting information
Demonstration and practical training 6-1 Operating
ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions
Day 10 Demonstration and practical training 6-1 Demonstration and practical training 6-1
(continued) (continued)
Day 13 7.1 Using the radar as a mean of the proper Demonstration and practical training 7-1
look-out, and stating the importance of the Exercises for single target ship collision
radar systematic observations, correct and full avoidance
interpretation of radar information
7.2 Emphasis on the radar related factors
which can affect safe speed
7.3 Listing the methods and characteristics that
can acquire sufficient radar information to avoid
collision or close-quarters situation
7.4 Making substantial alteration of course or
speed to avoid collision or close-quarters
situation in accordance with displayed
information on radar
7.5 Stating the periods to use radar by day with
good weather, clear night when there are
indications that visibility may deteriorate, and at
all times in or near the area of restricted
visibility and in congested waters
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Note: Teaching staff should note that the timetables are suggestions only as regards
sequence and length of time allocated to each objective. These factors may be adapted by
lecturers to suit individual groups of trainees depending on their experience, ability,
equipment and staff available for training. Particular attention is drawn that the length of time
for presentation, demonstration and practical training may be adjusted to suit the needs of
different target group; the practical training assessment is indispensable.
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Part C: Detailed Teaching Syllabus
 Introduction
Part C correlates the knowledge, understanding and proficiencies, required by STCW Code,
with the specific expertise that the trainee must acquire. Each specific expertise is presented
as a topic or sub-topic. This is done so that the Developer, the instructor developing the
working course and other model course users can focus on outcome-based learning.
The detailed teaching syllabus is presented as a series of learning objectives. The objectives,
therefore, describe what the trainee must do to demonstrate that the specified knowledge of
skill has been transferred and competence achieved.
The course topics and sub-topics have been given in Part B. In Part C, the detailed teaching
syllabus breaks down each topic/sub-topic into Learning Objectives under the column of
"Knowledge, understanding and proficiency". And a table is established which lists each topic
or sub-topic and the corresponding guidance in Part B of STCW Code. Correspondingly, the
table provides the teaching aids and references as well. Thus the user of model course can
clearly understand the fundamental condition of each Learning Objective.
Teaching aids and references are significant to the detailed teaching syllabus and delivery of
the course; in particular,
 Teaching aids (indicated by A)

 IMO references (indicated by R), and
 Textbooks (indicated by T)
will provide valuable information to instructors.
The following are examples of the use of references:
"A1" means teaching aids 1, and refers to the Instructor Manual in Part D of this model
course
"R1-STCW Code B-I/12 pa 11.2" refers to B-I/12 of STCW Code, Paragraph 11.2
"T2" means reference textbook 2, and refers to the textbook Shipborne Navigation
Radar.
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Note: In designing lesson plans from the Detailed Teaching Syllabus, instructors should
aim to produce exercises which enable trainees to demonstrate the ability of understanding
and practical application of the course theory and knowledge. In particular trainees must
develop an understanding of the implications of possible errors and other factors affecting
radar performance, accuracy and its limitations. The practical significance of these factors
to the proper use of radar as an aid to navigation is as important as the knowledge itself.
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Annex, page 26
 Detailed teaching syllabus
IMO Reference
Textbook Teaching
Knowledge, understanding and proficiency STCW Code Other s aid
Table B-I/12 Reference
1 Describe the basic theory and operation of the marine radar system (12.0 h) R1;R2;R3;R4; T1;T2;T3;T4 A1;A2;A3;A4
R5;R6;R7;R8
1.1 Describe the fundamental principles of radar (2.5 h) T1;T2;T3;T4 A1;A2
.1 explains the principles of range and bearing measurement pa4.1
.2 states the configuration of a marine radar system pa4.1

.3 states the composition and principles of a basic radar pa4.1 A1
1.2 Explain the magnetic safe distances (0.05 h) pa4.3 T1;T3
1.3 State the radiation hazards and precautions (0.05 h) pa4.4 T1;T2;T3
1.4 Explain the internal factors affecting radar detection (3.0 h) R1;R2;R3;R4 T1;T2;T3 A1;A2
.1 states the relationship of the maximum detection range with the power, the pulse recurrence frequency, the pa4.1;4.2
pulse length, and the sensitivity of the receiver
.2 states the relationship between the minimum detecting range and the pulse length, the vertical beam width, pa4.1;4.2;4.3
the change-over time of antenna transmitting/receiving
.3 explains the effects on bearing and range accuracy due to the beam width, the heading marker error, the pa4.1;4.2
centring error, the variable range marker error, the THD error, the synchronisation error, the CCRP error,
the pixel/spot size, and the pulse length
.4 explains the effect on bearing and range discrimination of the beam width, the pixel/spot size, the range pa4.1;4.2
scale, the pulse length, the gain, and the information processing
1.5 Identify the factors external to the radar set affecting radar detection (3.8 h) R1;R2;R3;R4 T1;T2;T3 A1;A2
.1 uses the equation for the distance to the radar horizon to explain the relationship between antenna location pa4.3;5.3
and detection ranges
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.2 explains the effect of variations in refraction on radar detection range (super-refraction, sub-refraction, pa5.6
surface duct, elevated duct)
.3 states the effect of precipitation on radar detection ranges (rain, hail, snow, fog) pa5.7
.4 identifies blind areas and shadow areas, permanent blind and shadow sectors and their relationships to the pa4.3;5.9
antenna location
.5 states how characteristics of targets influence their detection range (aspect, shape, composition, size) pa5.4
.6 explains how clutters may mask targets (sea clutters, rain clutters, radar interferences) pa5.7;5.8;5.10
1.6 Identify and explain the factors which may cause faulty interpretation of the radar picture correctly R1;R2;R3;R4 T1;T2;T3 A1;A2
(1.6 h)
.1 explains the cause and effect of indirect echoes pa4.3;5.9;6
.2 explains the cause and effect of multiple echoes pa4.3;6
.3 explains the cause and effect of side lobe echoes pa4.1;4.3;6
.4 explains the cause and effect of second trace echoes pa4.3;6
.5 states the effect on radar picture of power lines and bridges crossing rivers and estuaries, low altitude pa6
aircraft
.6 explains the effect of the ship in seaway pa5.5
1.7 Outline the performance standards for radar equipment in the context of resolutions A. 477(XII), R1;R2;R4;R5; T1;T2
Annex 4 of MSC. 64(67) and MSC. 192(79) (1.0 h) R6;R7;R8
.1 states required range (maximum and minimum range) pa4.1;4.2
.2 states required accuracy (range and bearing measurement) pa4.1;4.2
.3 states required discrimination (range and bearing) pa4.1;4.2
2 Set up and operate radar in accordance with manufacturer's instructions (10.0 h)
2.1 Set up and maintain an optimum radar display (8.5 h) T1;T2;T3 A1;A2;A3
.1 operates the main controls (power, antenna) pa8.4
.2 operates the transmitter controls (Transmit switch/Pulse length/Pulse repetition frequency) pa8.3.1
.3 adjusts the receiver controls to give an optimum picture (Tuning/Gain/Anti-clutter sea) pa5.2;5.8;
8.3;8.4
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.4 adjusts the display controls/menus (Display, menus and controls; Range selector; Heading line control; pa5.2;5.8;
Off-centring display; Fixed Range Rings; VRMs; EBLs; Cursor; Ant-clutter rain; Automatic anti-clutter; 5.10;8.4
Interference rejection; Echo Stretch; Echo Average; Target trails)
.5 demonstrates the correct orders of making adjustments to radar and states the criteria for optimum setting pa5.2;8.3
of the controls
.6 explains that small or poor echoes may escape detection pa5.2;8.3
.7 describes the effects of saturation by receiver noise pa8.3
.8 states the importance of frequent changes in range scale pa8.5
.9 identifies the different types of display modes (Relative-Motion Presentation, Relative-Motion Head-Up presentation, pa8.1
Relative-Motion North-up presentation, Relative-Motion Course-up presentation, True-Motion Presentation)
.10 explains the advantages and limitations of the different types of presentations pa8.1;15
.11 explains the need of heading information for relative stabilised display, and the need of heading and speed pa8.2;8.3.2
input for true motion presentation
.12 identifies the effects of transmitting compass error on stabilised and true motion presentation pa8.2
.13 identifies the effects of SDME on true motion presentation pa8.2;8.3.2
.14 operates the special controls/menu (Display mode, Speed controls, Reset controls, Heading information) pa8.3;8.4
.15 identifies the maladjusted controls and explains their effects and dangers pa8.3;8.4
.16 detects and corrects the maladjustments pa8.3
.17 states the effects of incorrect speed setting and CMG correction on true motion displays pa8.3.2
.18 describes the purpose and use of the performance monitor pa8.3;8.5
.19 record radar data: (radar logs, radar maintenance records, radar shift records) pa8.5
.20 explains how propagation conditions can affect target detection pa5.6
.21 states the effects of incorrect CCRP setting
2.2 Measure ranges and bearings accurately (1.5 h) T1;T2;T3
.1 states the methods to measure ranges and its accuracy (fixed range rings, VRMs, cursor) pa9.1;9.2;9.3
.2 emphasises the importance of accuracy while measuring ranges pa9.2;9.3;9.7
.3 explains the methods to measure bearings and its accuracies (EBLs, cursor) pa9.4;9.5;9.6
.4 emphasises the importance of accuracy while measuring bearings pa9.5;9.6;9.7 R2;R5
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.5 checks and corrects the errors in range and bearing pa9.7

.6 states how to measure bearing and range with offset EBLs and VRMs pa9.1;9.4
3 Use radar to ensure safe navigation (8 h) T1;T2;T3
3.1 Fix a ship's position by radar (1.9 h)
.1 describes the characteristics of good, conspicuous radar targets Pa7;11.1
.2 describes the characteristics of poor radar target echoes pa7;11.1
.3 states position fixing methods based on radar bearings and ranges pa11.1
.4 explains position fixing errors and the method to improve the fixing accuracy pa11.2
.5 checks the reliability of radar position fixing repeatedly by using other navigational aids pa11.3
.6 compares the features of coast on chart with that on radar display pa17.7;17.8
3.2 Identify radar aids to navigation (0.5 h)
.1 describes passive aids (corner reflector and Luneburg lens reflector) pa7
.2 describes active aids (racon, echo enhancer and AIS AtoN) pa7
.3 describes radar SART and AIS SART pa7
.4 identifies data information of passive and active aids pa7
3.3 Use parallel index line technique in radar navigation (2.8 h)
.1 establishes and uses parallel index lines
.2 states the correct actions taken when the echo deviates from the Pl line
.3 uses more PI lines
.4 establishes and uses PI lines at two range scales
.5 states the importance of "wheel over"
.6 demonstrates "wheel over"
.7 states the importance of safety margin
.8 demonstrates the use of safety margins
.9 interprets the real motion of ships from the tracked echoes
.10 takes appropriate actions to counteract the influence of currents
.11 uses the line of turn
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.12 establishes and uses PI lines for radial turns

3.4 Use maps, navigation lines and routes for radar navigation (2.4 h) R1;R2 A1;A3
.1 uses maps/navigation lines/routes in reference to the own ship or a certain geographical position
.2 removes maps (marks/lines)
3.5 Use the electronic chart and radar picture overlay for radar navigation (0.4 h) R1;R2 A1;A3
.1 displays ENC and other vector chart information
.2 switches off the electronic chart display on radar screen
.3 explains "picture frozen" alarm and signal source or sensor failure alarm
4 Perform manual radar plotting (10.0 h) T1;T3;T5 A1;A2;A4
4.1 Construct the relative motion triangle (0.5 h)
.1 explains the meanings of the relative motion triangle, various vectors and angles pa10
.2 constructs a triangle of relative motion vector pa10
4.2 Determine the course, speed and aspect of target ship (2.0 h)
.1 measures the range and bearing of a target at an appropriate interval and frequency pa11.4
.2 determines the course, speed and aspect of a target ship in a relative presentation (of stabilised or pa10;12.1.1;
unstabilised mode) 12.1.2
.3 determines the course, speed and aspect of a target ship in true presentation pa10;12.1.3
.4 states factors affecting the accuracy of derived course, speed and aspect pa16;15
.5 determines the set and drift of current from observations of a fixed target
4.3 Determine the closest point of approach (CPA) and time to closest approach (TCPA) (1.5 h)
.1 determines CPA and TCPA in relative presentation (stabilised and unstabilised) pa13.1
.2 determines CPA and TCPA in true presentation pa13
.3 states factors affecting the accuracy of CPA and TCPA pa13
4.4 Identify effects of course and speed changes (4.5 h)
.1 identifies effects of changes of course and/or speed of the target ship pa14.1
.2 compares advantages and disadvantages of radar observation with that of visual look-out pa12.2
.3 explains the time delay between change in the course or speed and detection of that change pa14.2
.4 states advantages of bearing stabilisation in a relative motion presentation pa15
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.5 explains effects of changes in the own ship's course or speed on the observed movement of targets pa16;15
.6 states effects of small changes of course and/or speed on finding changes of true vector of the target ship pa14.3
and accuracy of changes
4.5 Report radar plotting data (1.5 h) pa17.4
5 Describe the ARPA system or TT and AIS reporting functions (4.0 h) R2;R3;R5 T1;T2;T3 A1;A2;A3;A4
R6;R7;R11
5.1 Describe the ARPA systems or TT display characteristics (0.9 h) R2;R3;R5;R6;R7
.1 describes the characteristics of vectors pa21 R2;R3;R5;R7
.2 describes the characteristics of graphics pa21 R2;R3;R5;R6;R7
.3 describes the characteristics of alphanumeric data output pa21 R2;R3;R5;R7
.4 describes the characteristics of PADs pa21 R2;R3;R5;R7
5.2 Describe the display characteristics of AIS reported targets (0.3 h) R2;R3;R11
.1 describes the characteristics of vectors
.2 describes the characteristics of graphics
.3 describes the characteristics of alphanumeric data output
5.3 Associate radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets (0.4 h) R2;R3;R11
.1 states the concept of the association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets
.2 states the principles of the association setting of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets
5.4 Outline IMO performance standards for automatic radar plotting aids (ARPA) or TT and AIS
reporting functions (0.6 h)
.1 states IMO performance standards for ARPA or TT relating to accuracy pa22 R2;R3;R5;R6;
R7;R11
.2 states the requirements for acquisition and tracking of targets Pa25.1;25.2 see above
.3 lists the requirements of operational alarms of ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions pa27 see above
.4 states the data available from ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions pa22 see above
.5 explains the effects of sensor errors on ARPA or TT pa23 R2;R3;R5 R6;R7
.6 states the requirements of performance standards for inputs to THD, SDME, EPFS and AIS sensors pa23;24.1 R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
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.7 states the requirements of performance standards for range and bearing accuracy and discrimination of pa4.1;4.2; R2;R3;R5;R6;R7
radar 24.1;24.2
.8 states the requirements of performance standards for association of radar tracked and AIS reported target R2;R3;R11
5.5 Outline the criteria for acquisition of ARPA or TT targets and activation of AIS reported targets (0.8 R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
h)
.1 states the criteria for target acquisition of ARPA or TT and selection/activation of AIS reported target pa25.1; 25.2;29 R2;R3;R5;R7
.2 states different ways for target acquisition pa25.1; 25.2;29 R2;R3;R5;R7
.3 states the criteria for automatic acquisition of targets specified in the manual pa25.1;29 R2;R3;R5;R7
.4 states the criteria for manual acquisition of targets pa25.2;29 R2;R3;R5;R7
.5 states number criteria of ARPA or TT and AIS reported targets to be acquired pa29 R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
.6 states that targets may be deleted if not posing a potential threat (when tracking limit has been reached) pa30.1 R2;R3;R5;R7
.7 describes the tracking results of targets in acquisition, guard and exclusion zones pa32.7 R2;R3;R5;R7
5.6 State tracking capabilities and limitations (0.6 h) R2;R3;R5;R7
.1 outlines the principles of target tracking pa25.3;25.4;26;2 R2;R3;R5;R7
9
.2 describes target lost and alarm pa25.3;29 R2;R3;R5;R7
.3 states common circumstances leading to "target swop" pa25.4;29 R2;R3;R5;R7
.4 describes effects of "target swop" on displayed data pa25.4;29 R2;R3;R5;R7
5.7 Describe processing delays of ARPA or TT and information delays of AIS reported targets (0.4 h) R2;R3;R5;
R7;R11
.1 explains delay in the display of tracked target data pa26 R2;R3;R5;R7
.2 explains delay of data display when the target ship manoeuvres pa26 R2;R3;R5;R7
.3 states that there may be a delay of up to three minutes before the accuracy of the derived information may pa26 R2;R3;R5;R7
be attained after acquisition or a manoeuvre of the target
.4 states the delay in the display of dynamic information of AIS reported target R2;R11
6 Operate ARPA or radar target tracking (TT) and AIS reporting functions (28 h) R2;R3;R4;R5; T1;T2;T3 A1;A2;A3;A4
R6;R7;R11
6.1 Set up and maintain an ARPA or TT display correctly (0.7 h) R2;R3;R4;R5;R6;R7
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.1 adjusts radar sensor for the optimum display of echoes pa32.3;32.8 R2;R3;R4;R5;R6;R7
.2 sets up and confirms THD and SDME sensors pa32.3;32.4;32.8 R2;R3;R4;R5;R6;R7
.3 sets up an appropriate display mode (relative- and true-motion, HL orientation, range scale, past positions, pa21;30;31; R2;R3;R5;R7
relative- and true-vector, PADs) 32.1;32.2
.4 sets up CPA LIM/TCPA LIM pa32.1 R2;R3;R5;R7
.5 acquires and monitors targets manually pa25.2;29;32.5 R2;R3;R5;R7
.6 sets up automatic guard/acquisition and exclusion zones pa25.1;32.7 R2;R3;R5;R7
6.2 Set up and maintain AIS display correctly (0.5 h) R2;R3;R11
.1 sets and confirms EPFS sensor R2;R3;R11;R17
.2 sets up and confirms THD sensor R2;R3;R11;R19
.3 sets up and confirms SDME sensor R2;R3;R8;R11
.4 checks the AIS information of the own ship R2;R3;R11
.5 verifies AIS reported targets R2;R3;R11
.6 selects appropriate display mode for AIS target (sleeping targets, activated targets, selected targets, vector, R2;R3;R11
past positions, sea-stabilised and ground-stabilised)
6.3 Operate ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions to obtain target information (2.0 h) R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
.1 operates display in relative and true modes to obtains relative and true vectors in each display mode pa30;34 R2;R3;R5;R7
.2 states the importance of switching between true and relative vectors pa30;34 R2;R3;R5;R7
.3 obtains information from past positions pa31 R2;R3;R5;R7
.4 uses graphic display of PADs pa30.1;30.2;30.3 R2;R3;R5;R7
.5 uses the information of AIS reported target R2;R3;R11
.6 associates tracked targets with AIS reported targets R2;R3;R11
.7 assesses the encounter situation and collision risks by associated targets' information R2;R3;R11
.8 performs the trial manoeuvre pa30.1;30.2;34.6; R2;R3;R11
34.7
.9 sets up and acknowledge ARPA or TT operational alarms (full alarm, dangerous target alarm, new target pa27 R2;R3
entry alarm, lost target alarm)
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.10 sets up and acknowledge AIS operational alarms (full alarm, dangerous target alarm, lost target alarm) R2;R3;R11
6.4 Outline possible errors of interpretation of target data (0.8 h) R2;R3;R4;R5;
R6;R7;R11
.1 interprets possible errors due to improper sensors' setting and/or adjustment Pa23;32.1;32.2;3 R2;R3;R4;R5;
2.3;32.4 R6;R7;R11
.2 explains the misunderstanding of information deriving from alphanumeric display and information from pa30;34.2; R2;R3;R5;R7
vector 34.3;34.4
.3 explains the possible errors due to incorrect interpretation of radar presentation and vector mode pa30.1;30.2;30.3 R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
.4 explains the possible errors due to incorrect interpretations of the own ship's speed pa34.2;34.3; R2;R3;R5;R7
34.4;34.6
.5 explains the possible errors resulting from incorrect interpretation of a trial manoeuvre Pa30.1;30.2; R2;R3;R5;R7
34.6;34.7
.6 explains that reacquired "lost target" may present false course and speed alteration pa26 R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
.7 states PADs not indicating mutual threats between targets pa30 R2;R3;R5;R7
.8 states the length of line from target to PAD is not an indicator of target speed pa30.1 R2;R3;R5;R7
.9 states that past position displays may not be in the same mode as vectors Pa30.3;31 R2;R3;R5;R7
.10 states that a change of direction in the relative past positions does not necessarily indicate a target pa30;31 R2;R3;R5;R7
manoeuvre
.11 explains that misinterpretation of ARPA or TT and AIS information may lead to dangerous misunderstanding Pa30 R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
6.5 Identify and interpret causes of errors in data display correctly (1.0 h) R2;R3;R5;R7
.1 explains the effects of errors caused by the radar sensor on data display pa23;24.1 R2;R3;R5;R7
.2 explains the effects of heading errors on data display pa23;24.1 R2;R3;R5;R7
.3 explains the effects of speed errors on data display pa23;24.1 R2;R3;R5;R7
.4 explains the unreliable indications with manoeuvres by both the own ship and the target ship pa26 R2;R3;R5;R7
.5 states the satisfactory tracking by ARPA or TT as indicated by smoothness of the displayed past positions pa31 R2;R3;R5;R7
.6 explains the causes of data errors for AIS reported target R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
6.6 Use system operational tests to determine data accuracy (0.5 h) R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
.1 uses system diagnosis to test system status (including errors, troubles, etc.) pa28.1 R2;R3;R5;R7
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.2 operates test programmes to check system performances against known solutions pa28.1 R2;R3;R5;R7
.3 demonstrates performance check by manual plotting, including a trial manoeuvre pa33 R2;R3;R5;R7
.4 takes correct actions after anomaly of ARPA or TT and AIS reported information pa28.2 R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
6.7 Identifies and explains risks of over-reliance on ARPA or TT and AIS reported information (0.5 h) R2;R3;R5;R7;R11
.1 demonstrates use of ARPA or TT and AIS reported information and explains the requirements to comply pa20.2
with basic principles in keeping a navigational watch
.2 reacts correctly to operational alarms pa20.1;27
.3 avoids small predicted passing distances (CPA and BCR (bow crossing ranges)) pa20.1
.4 explains that sensor input alarms only occur on failure of input and do not respond to inaccurate inputs pa23;28.2
7 Apply the COLREGs when using radar (6.0 h) R1;R2;R20 T1;T2;T4;T5 A1;A2;A3;A4
7.1 uses the radar as a mean of the proper look-out, and states the importance of the radar systematic pa17.4;17.8
observations, correct and full interpretation of radar information (0.5 h)
7.2 emphasises on the radar related factors which can affect safe speed (0.3 h) pa17.2;17.5
7.3 lists the methods and characteristics that can acquire sufficient radar information to avoid collision pa17.1;17.3;17.4
or close-quarters situation (0.5 h)
7.4 makes substantial alteration of course or speed to avoid collision or close-quarters situation in pa17.1;17.4;35
accordance with displayed information on radar (0.5 h)
7.5 states the periods to use radar by day with good weather, clear night when there are indications that pa17.5;17.6
visibility may deteriorate, and at all times in or near the area of restricted visibility and in congested
waters (0.2 h)
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Part D: Instructor Manual
 Introduction
Based on Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency in Part C, Part D is intended to provide

the most detailed communication to the model course instructors in terms of teaching
organisation and structure, sequence of lectures, possible problems and solutions in the
course, etc. The instructors are recommended to study carefully this part and work out lesson
plans in consideration of the quality and demand of trainees, the local conditions of each
country (region), and the status quo of radar technology.
 Structure
This course is comprised of 7 topics, each topic includes 3 sections, namely detailed teaching
packages, assessment techniques and teaching guidance.
 Guidelines for use
Detailed teaching packages. The detailed teaching packages are the core section for each
topic. By reading the summary, it will help instructors to have a quick and clear overall
understanding of the primary content of the topic. It not only increases lesson preparation
efficiency, but also facilitates the organisation and cohesion in the course of lesson
preparation and delivery. In the detailed teaching packages, the main learning objectives are
specified, many of which provide the resources that may be used in the teaching process for
the convenience of instructors, such as principle block diagrams of radar, schematic
diagrams of radar and the essential formulas, tables, data, etc. In Topic 1 – Topic 4, Topic 6,
and 7, in accordance with the specific competence requirements and teaching needs, a
syllabus of the demonstration and practical training is available, including the training
objectives, training mode and training procedure. The instructor should note that the required
performances in Topic 5 and 6 involve comprehensive and systematic theoretical knowledge
and practical training and it is impractical to recommend demonstration and practical training
for Topic 5 separately. Therefore, the demonstration and practical training in Topic 6 is
designed for both topics as a whole.
Assessment techniques. The course developer provides constructive assessment techniques.

Assessment builds a link between the "knowledge, understanding and proficiency" and
"criteria for evaluating competence "in table A-II/1 of the STCW Code. However, assessment
techniques reflect the "methods for demonstrating competence" in column 3 of table A-II/1.
Assessment techniques not only clarify the objectives which should be contained in the
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assessment so as to help the instructor conduct teaching tasks based upon them, but also
give suggested approaches on how to examine whether a trainee satisfies the required
performances which include written examination, oral test, practical operation, class
discussions and records, etc.
Teaching guidance: On the basis of detailed instructor manual, key points and difficulties in
teaching are analysed and reasonable solutions provided. Especially for the sustainable
development of the nautical technology and safe navigation, constructive and prospective
teaching recommendations are given regarding teaching notions, teaching methods, teaching
skills, etc. Practical teaching methods and techniques are also provided for better utilisation
of the model course. Instructors are suggested to have a thorough knowledge and
comprehension of this part and apply this throughout the course.
 Detailed instructor manual
A detailed manual, consistent with Part B and C, is as follows.
1 Basic theory and operation principles of a marine radar system
 Detailed teaching packages
The contents of this topic include the principles of the range and bearing measurement of the
marine radar, the basic configuration and operation of the radar, the performance and the
influence factors, and the factors leading to the misidentification and misinterpretation of the
radar picture.
This topic is the foundation of this course. Adequate understanding of this part is essential to
comprehend and utilise the information of the radar and ARPA or Target Tracking (TT) and
AIS to keep look-out, observe, fix positions, undertake navigation and avoid collision.
1.1 Fundamental principles of radar
The target's position relative to the own ship is determined by the plotted range and bearing.
On this basis, radar can provide the functions of keeping look-out, observation, position fixing,
navigation and collision avoidance.
.1 Principles of range and bearing measurement
(1) Range measurement

If the transmitted pulse round-trip time of between the antenna and a target is Δt and the
electromagnetic wave traveling velocity in free space is C, then the range is,
S  C  t 2 (1-1)
(2) Bearing measurement
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Radar antenna is a directional circular scanner, and the width of the antenna radiation is only
one to two degrees on the horizontal plane. At a given moment, therefore, radar can transmit
electromagnetic waves to only one direction and at the same time it can simultaneously
receive echo returns in the same direction. The scanner rotates at a very constant speed
(about 20 to 30 r/min). When the scanner receives the echo returns from one direction, the
target would be recorded in the same bearing unit in the display. The relative bearing of the
target is the angle measured clockwise from heading line of the screen to the target echo.
On the advanced radar display, range and bearing measurement is based on CCRP.
According to the Revised Recommendation on Performance Standards for Radar Equipment
annexed to IMO MSC. 192(79) (hereinafter referred to as the MSC. 192(79) PS), the CCRP is
the location of the own ship, to which all horizontal measurements such as target range,
bearing, relative course, relative speed, CPA and TCPA are referenced. Where multiple
antennas are installed, there should be a provision for applying different position offsets for
each antenna in the radar system.
The difficulties in this sub-topic such as the concepts of the antenna horizontal bandwidth, the
CCRP and the theory of bearing measurement, can be explained. It is suggested that the
instructor be informed how the trainees' understand the concepts of CPA, TCPA before the
class, and give a brief explanation in class if necessary.
.2 Configuration of a marine radar system
The system configuration of a marine radar satisfying with the MSC. 192(79) PS is shown in
Fig.1-1, in which the parts with equal dotted lines are not mandatory but optional.
The main EPFS provides data of WGS-84 position and UTC time to the radar system; the
gyrocompass or the Transmitting Heading Device (THD) supplies heading; the Speed and
Distance Measuring Equipment (SDME), usually the speed log, provides the own ship speed;
the radar sensor provides image information of the sea surface around the own ship. To be
specific, the functions of radar Information processor and display system include presenting
processed images, tracking targets and obtaining the targets' parameters. The Automatic
Identification System (AIS) provides static and dynamic information of surrounding ships and
data of navigation aids. The Voyage Data Recorder (VDR) records voyage data. The optional
Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) offers hydrographical data necessary for navigation, and
all data are integrated and shared on radar display terminals.
This sub-topic can be taught by referring to the marine radar system configuration as shown
in Fig.1-1. Note that the part within the equal dotted lines is not the standard configuration but
is optional.
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Main EPFS AIS
Basic radar system

Antenna
AIS antenna
Main unit Main unit Transceiver
VDR
Information
ENC/other processor and
vector chart system display system
Gyro/THD
SDME
Fig.1-1 Radar system configuration
.3 Composition and principles of a basic radar
The composition of a basic radar is shown in a block diagram of Fig.1-2 which is also the
radar equipment satisfying the performance standards before the MSC. 192(79) PS. It
consists of mainly seven parts: the trigger generator, the transmitter, the duplexer, the
antenna, the receiver, the information processor and display system and the power.
(1) Trigger generator: to generate trigger pulses (Timing signal);

(2) Transmitter: to generate recurrent & high-frequency pulses;
(3) Duplexer: to transmit pulses to the antenna when transmitting;
to receive echoes to the receiver when receiving;
(4) Antenna: to transmit and receive;
(6) Receiver: to process echoes;
(7) Information processor and display: for the radars that comply with the MSC. 192(79) PS,
the information processor processes information, tracks targets from sensors, display targets
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information of the radar and AIS. For the radars that do not comply with the MSC. 192(79) PS,
this unit is only used as the information display and operation terminal;
(8) Power: to convert ship's power into radar power.
Demonstration and practical training 1-1 Demonstration of radar configuration

and installation location. (0.5 h) (See Page 54)
1.2 Magnetic safe distance

The magnetism caused by radar parts leads to compass deviation. In order to avoid affecting
the accuracy of the magnetic compass, a the safe distance of more than 2.5 m should be kept
between the radar parts and the magnetic compass, especially for the distance between the
magnetron and the magnetic compass. The instructor can illustrate the relationships between
the radar parts and the magnetic compass by showing their positions on the real ship bridge.
1.3 Radiation hazards and precautions

The peak power of the radar's radiation, usually 2~30 kW, is very high, but the average power
is very low. On board, the microwave radiation is tiny when people are away from an antenna
for more than 20 m, and not in the radiation centre of the antenna's vertical band. If this does
not involve a prolonged close-range radiation exposure, the harm of the radar to the human
body can be ignored.
When some support boats (pilot boat, tug, etc.) are approaching, the own ship's radar shall
be switched to standby mode temporarily.
The instructor shall give a clear explanation about peak power to the trainees, and
demonstrate the characteristics of the peak power as it decays with the increasing distance.
Real ships photos can be utilised to illustrate the above contents with introduction of the radar
antenna location.
1.4 Internal factors affecting radar detection
.1 Relationship between maximum detection range and power, pulse length, pulse
recurrence frequency, and sensitivity of the receiver
In free space, the farthest distance that radar is able to detect a certain target is called the
radar's maximum detecting range of target, which is given by the radar equation.
1/4
 P  G2   2  0 
Rmax   t A3  (1-2)
 64 Pr min 
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Where
Pt ——radar peak power (W)
Ga ——antenna gain
 ——wavelength (m)
Prmin ——receiver threshold power (W)
0 ——effective scatter area of target (m2).
It can be noted that the stronger the Pt , the higher the Ga; the longer the , the smaller the
Prmin; the larger the RCS (radar cross-section), the longer the Rmax.
The higher transmitting power of the radar, the stronger the detecting capability of long-range
weak targets. But the pulses experience energy loss due to absorption, diffraction, scattering,
etc. during their travel through the atmosphere. Water or dirt inside the waveguide, dust or
particles of salt on the scanner, etc. can cause severe attenuation, thus reducing the
maximum detecting range.
The duration of the transmitting pulse is usually marked by . The longer the , the greater the
radar maximum detecting range.
The Pulse Repeat Frequency (PRF) changes with the radar range. Usually, the PRF is high
at short range, while low at long range. In consideration of the echoes' accumulation, the
higher the PRF, the greater the radar's detecting range will be.
Sensitivity of a receiver is the capability to receive the very weak signal. The smaller the Prmin,
the higher the sensitivity, then the longer the Rmax will be.
This section is comparatively abstract. It is recommended that the instructor explain with slide
presentations, illustrations, etc.
.2 Relationship between minimum detecting range and pulse length, vertical beam
width, change-over time of antenna transmitting/receiving
The minimum detecting range is the nearest distance that radar can identify a target, which
represents the radar's capability to detect short range targets.
Within the time of radar transmission pulse width  and the antenna
transmitting/receiving change-over time , the radar receiver is disconnected with the
antenna, which means the target echoes cannot be received. The minimum detection
C(+')/2
Rmin1 Transmitting
pulse
V V
hA Half power line

Zero power line 3.5 m
A B
Rmin2
Fig.1-3 Minimum observation range
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range (MDR) is determined by the radar technical parameters, which is referred to as

the theoretical MDR Rmin1, and the area within the Rmin1, is referred to as the radar
absolute blind area. It is given by,
Rmin1  C       2
(1-3)
When a radar is installed on a specific position on a ship, the shadow that the vertical beam
width cannot reach is shown in Fig.1-3. The distance is called the installation minimum
detection range Rmin2 which forms a blind area for the radar. It is given by:
Rmin 2  hA ctg ( v / 2) (1-4)
In the formula, hA is the antenna height over water; and φvis the vertical beam width.
Therefore, the minimum detection range is the larger one of Rmin1 and Rmin2.
.3 Effects on bearing and range accuracy due to horizontal beam width, heading
marker error, centring error, variable range marker error, THD error, synchronisation
error, CCRP error, pixel/spot size, and pulse length
(1) Range accuracy
Main factors impacting radar range accuracy are as follows:
Time synchronisation error: Time synchronisation error occurs if the time when the
transmitting pulse leaves the radar radiation window is different from the position of "0" nm
scanned on the screen or recorded by the echo return. Under appropriate conditions, the
error should be checked whenever necessary;
CCRP error: The setting of CCRP offset should be made when the radar is installed and
can be adjusted on voyage. The inaccuracy of CCRP offset adjustment would bring range
error relative to the CCRP;
Pixel/spot size error: Pixel is not to be neglected to range error especially when the range
is set at long ranges;
Pulse length error: While measuring a target at long range, the echo trailer generated by
pulse width has a severe effect on trailing edge range accuracy. The application of FTC while
measuring a target's trailing edge can improve range accuracy;
Measurement instrument error: RR and VRM have their own errors which should be
adjusted every voyage or month (whichever is shorter). For the radar that satisfies the latest
performance standard, this regular adjustment is not necessary.
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(2) Bearing accuracy

The main factors impacting the radar bearing accuracy are as follows:
Bearing synchronisation error: the error occurs when the radar antenna bearing data is
transferred to information processor and display system.
Beam width error: horizontal beam width is one of the main factors affecting radar bearing
accuracy. It will cause:
(a) echoes expansion of about θH/2 both in right and left sides;
(b) an expansion of more than θH/2, when the radar is detecting the target at short range;
(c) the expansion of less than θH/2, when the radar is detecting the weak target at long
range;
Heading marker and THD error: they affect the target relative & true bearing accuracy.
Centring error: for the PPI, if the radial scan centre is not completely consistent with the
screen centre, it may cause the bearing error.
Pixel error: the echoes can expand 1 pixel at most to the right and left sides due to the
pixel effect, with greater influence on the bearing accuracy than on the range accuracy.
CCRP error: the inaccuracy of CCRP offset adjustment would cause bearing error relative
to the CCRP.
.4 Effects on bearing and range discrimination of beam width, pixel/spot size, range
scale, pulse length, gain, and information processing
(1) Range discrimination
Range discrimination refers to the radar's capability to distinguish two adjacent targets with
the same bearing as shown in Fig.1-4, and it relies on:
Range discrimination
Pulse width: pulse width is one of the main
factors affecting the range discrimination. The

Screen periphery
Target A
Processing distortion
Pixel distortion
Processing distortion
Pulse length
Target B
pulse width of 1 s can cause 150 m radial

extent along with the trailing edge;
Pixel/spot size: the size of screen pixel is
another main factor affecting the range

discrimination. The longer the range scale, the
Fig.1-4 Range discrimination
greater the influence on the range
discrimination caused by the pixel size;
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Information processing: the distortion due to the receiver signal processing includes the
transmission bands distortion, the non-linearity distortion, and the quantification distortion, etc.
which make the leading and trailing edges of the echo blur and have a certain effect on the
range discrimination;
Gain: proper gain reduction improves the range discrimination.
(2) Bearing discrimination

Bearing discrimination is the radar's capability to distinguish two adjacent point targets with
the same range on the screen. The performance standard is expressed by the minimum
intersection angle of the two adjacent point targets at the same range, as shown in Fig.1-5. It
relies on:
Pixel size expansion
HBW: the echoes expand to the right and left sides H
Bearing discrimination
A
with the difference of the targets' distances and the
difference of the targets' echoes strength.
B
For long range, weak small targets, the radar's bearing
H
discrimination >θH/2.
For short range targets with strong reflection, the echo Fig.1-5 Bearing discrimination
expansion > 2θH.
For short range strong targets, the radar's bearing discrimination would diminish.
Pixel/spot size: the size of the screen pixel causes the echoes to expand to left and right
sides up to 1 pixel size.
Range scale: the bearing discrimination is poor for targets in short range.
Gain: oroper gain reduction can improve the bearing discrimination.
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1.5 Factors external to radar set affecting radar detection
.1 Explaining the relationship between antenna location and detection ranges with the
equation for the distance to the radar horizon
Radar horizon
T
hA Sea surface horizon Target horizon
hT
Fig.1-6 Radar standard detection horizon
As shown in Fig.1-6, under standard atmospheric conditions, the radar beam tends to bend
slightly downward to the sea surface, and the theoretical maximum detection range for the
target T is given by the formula:
Rmax  2.2( ha  ht ) (1-5)
Where ha and ht are the heights of the antenna and the targets respectively in metres.
And Rmax is the theoretical maximum detection range affected by the earth's curvature in
nautical miles.
The instructor should illustrate to the trainees that formula (1-5) is an engineering application
formula in navigation, it will deviate because of the change of the atmospheric condition any
time. Suggest this formula be used to estimate Rmax.
.2 Effects of variations in refraction on radar detection range (super-refraction,

sub-refraction, surface duct, elevated duct)
The instructor should teach first the concept of refraction with the help of teaching apparatus
or models, such as prism and glass container filled with water. This section demonstrates
radar detection horizon in the atmosphere propagation in non-standard atmospheric
conditions.
(1) Super-refraction
In calm weather, when the humid hot air over the continental area flow up over the sea, with
the increase of the altitude, the temperature increases but humidity decreases sharply. This
will cause the electromagnetic wave propagation velocity to increase, and the
electromagnetic wave propagation path bends to the sea surface more seriously than normal
propagation. This phenomenon is called super-refraction, as shown in Fig.1-7. As
super-refraction occurs, the radar detection horizon would be greater than normal.
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Warm air
Standard horizon
Super-refraction horizon
Sea surface
Fig.1-7 Super-refraction
Super-refraction often occurs in tropical and other hot continent areas, such as the Red Sea,
the Arabian Gulf, the Mediterranean Sea and the English Channel in the summer.
(2) Sub-refraction
In calm weather of the opposite meteorological conditions with the super-refraction when the
temperature of the atmosphere decreases more rapidly as the height rises than in standard
atmospheric conditions, or the increase of relative humidity as the height rises sharply,
sub-refraction will occur, as shown in Fig.1-8.
When sub-refraction occurs, wave beam departs from ground higher and higher, and it may result
Cold wet air

Sub-refraction horizon
Warm dry surface Standard horizon
Fig.1-8 Sub-refraction
in that the radar cannot detect the original targets which can be detected in the standard
refraction. The original targets within the radar detection horizon on the sea surface may be
undetectable when serious sub-refraction occurs.
Sub-refraction often occurs in the Polar Regions and the vicinity of very cold continents.
When cold air masses over the continent move over warm ocean surface, also known as
"cool up warm down" and "wet up and dry down" situations, the sub-refraction phenomenon
can be observed.
In late winter and early spring seasons in the mid-latitude regions, when the weather is clear
after the snow and cold air over the continent moves over the sea surface, sub-refraction
phenomenon can also be observed.
The features of sub-refraction are as follows:
Temperature decreases more sharply with altitude increase than in normal atmospheric
condition;
Relative humidity increases sharply with altitude increase;
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Sub-refraction often occurs in the polar regions & adjoining very cold continents.
(3) Surface duct

As shown in Fig.1-9, when serious super-refraction occurs, surface duct occurs, which is,
radar wave is refracted to sea surface, then refracted to atmosphere, and then refracted to
Warm air
Low clouds
Breeze Cold air
Sea surface
Standard horizon
Super-refraction horizon
Fig.1-9 Surface duct
sea surface from atmosphere.
(4) Elevated duct
In calm weather, a layer of cold air over the warm sea surface appears at the height of the
radar antenna, as shown in Fig.1-10. The radar wave, which is reflected by the layer between
the cold air and the warm air, may travel a far distance and detect very long range targets, but
Warm air
Cold air
Warm surface
Fig.1-10 Elevated duct

cannot detect targets close to sea surface clearly. This phenomenon is known as elevated
atmospheric duct. This duct phenomenon does not occur frequently in all directions, and has
a relationship with the radar working wavelength.
The elevated duct usually appears seasonally in the trade wind regions between mid-ocean
water of high atmospheric pressure and the doldrums, such as the waters between Brazil and
Ascension Island and between southern California and Hawaii, etc.
The features of elevated duct are as follows:
There exists a reflecting layer of warm air (inversion layer) above the sea in peaceful
weather;
Antenna height is in reflection level;
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It normally appears in trade-wind zone between high pressure zone and doldrums
seasonally in the centre zone of the sea.
.3 Effects of precipitation on radar detection ranges (rain, hail, snow, fog)

During the process of atmospheric propagation, the absorption or scattering of dust haze and
water vapour in the atmosphere will cause the attenuation to radar wave energy. The
attenuation to radar waves due to rain or snow will increase with the increase of raindrop and
rain density, and lead to the decrease of the maximum detection range. References indicate
that attenuation due to rain or snow for 3 cm wavelength is about 10 times larger than 10 cm
wavelength.
.4 Blind areas and shadow areas, permanent blind and shadow sectors and their
relationships to the antenna location
This part can be illustrated through the use of real ship radar pictures (e.g. Fig.1-11(c)) and
an actual antenna.
Sheltered by obstacles or ship super-structures, shadow sectors are known as areas where
Blind area Sensitivity reduced arc
blind area
Sensitivity reduced arc
(a) Top view
VBW
Shadow sectors Shadow sectors
(b) Side view
Sea clutters
Shadow sectors
(c) Radar image of shadow sector
Fig.1-11 Shadow sector

detecting ability is reduced or even targets cannot be detected.
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The antenna radiation window has a dimension with a radiation beam width of 1°~ 2°, and
radar wave has certain diffraction capabilities, therefore, it is probable to detect targets within
the shadow sectors. Radar may detect no target in the centre of shadow which is called the
blind area in shadow sectors. The other areas where radar detecting ability is reduced are
known as the sensitivity reduced arcs in shadow sectors. The ship structures such as
forecastle, foremast, cross tree, mainmast, funnel and poop, etc. impose effects on radar
observation permanently and affect navigation safety, as shown in Fig.1-11 (a) and (b).
Radar picture of Fig.1-11 (c) shows the influence of blind sectors caused by the ship's
mainmast and the funnel on radar observations.
The size of a shadow sector is determined by the size of obstruction, the distance of the
obstruction to the antenna, the relative height of the obstruction to the antenna, and the
antenna size, etc.
The higher the obstruction, the larger the measurement, the closer the distance to the
antenna, and the larger the shadow sector; the location of the radar antenna should be
carefully considered prior to installation. In accordance with IMO radar installation guidelines,
blind sectors should be kept to a minimum, and should not be placed in an arc from right
ahead to 22.5°abaft the beam on its respective side. Within the remaining azimuth, individual
blind sector of more than 5°, or a total arc of blind sectors of more than 20°should not occur.
.5 Characteristics of target influence the detection range (aspect, shape, composition,

size)
Different targets have different reflective characteristics. A good understanding of the
features of target contributes to quick and accurate target identification in complex
observation environments, and for effective radar position fixing, navigation and collision
avoidance.
The feature of the electromagnetic response of target under radar beam radiation is called
the target characteristics. The target is detected by receiving the reflective radar wave. Thus
the ability of target reflecting radar wave will affect radar observation. Normally, the target
RCS, or radar cross-section, represents the capability of a target reflecting radar wave.
The RCS of target is related to many factors, including target composition, shape, aspect,
structure, size, radar aspect and radar wave length, etc.
In class, the instructor can demonstrate the influences of the aspect, shape, composition,
size, etc. to the radar detection range by radar screen shots.
(1) Aspect and shape
Aspect
The angle between incident radar beam and target surface (0° 90°) is known as radar
aspect.
Target shape
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With respect to radar wavelength, the surface of target is rough.

Any complex target at sea can be seen as a combination of several protocol geometric
objects. Spherical targets have poor reflective performance; especially the spherical targets
with smooth surface, only a small portion towards the waves can reflect the echoes. When
the sphere has a rough surface, the response is slightly better. Cylinder targets such as
funnel, gas/oil tank and mooring buoys, only a small portion towards the waves contributes to
response. The specific echo intensity depends on its size and aspect. Cone targets, such as
beacons, church steeples and conical buoys, have very poor reflective performance. Only
when the radar wave is perpendicular with the generatrix, the reflect performance is the same
as cylindrical targets. A conical buoy in seaway will roll, so the echoes may fluctuate.
(2) Target composition

Usually, materials with good electrical conductivity will produce good radar responses. This
occurs as a result of absorption and re-radiation of the waves of the same wavelength as
those received, rather than from simple specular reflection.
(3) Target size

The radiation cell is defined by the transmitted pulse length of the radar radiation beam.
When target area towards radar beam is less than intersecting surface of radiation unit,
strength and size of echoes are proportional to target width and height.
When target area towards radar beam is greater than intersecting surface of radiation unit,
strength of echoes does not relate to target width and height, shape of echoes is determined
by the horizontal projection of target towards the antenna.
.6 Influences of clutters and interference (sea clutters, rain clutters, radar

interferences)
(1) Sea clutters
The causes of sea clutters are shown in Fig.1-12.
The features of sea clutters are:
Wind direction
(a) Front view θv
A
Leeward Short range Windward No clutters
Weak Strong echoes Strong
echoes Rmin echoes
Pulse width
C
A
(b) Top view θH

A
C
Fig.1-12 Sea clutters
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Clutters decrease sharply with range increase, more influencing on short range targets.
Sea clutters are random.
Clutters are strong in windward, weak in leeward.
Clutter range is normally 3 ~ 6 nm, 8 ~ 10 nm in rough sea.
Higher antenna, stronger clutters are, larger clutter range is.
3 cm radar is stronger than the 10 cm one.
wide pulse is stronger than narrow pulse.
Clutter is strong when horizontal beam is wide.
(2) Rain clutters

Rain not only attenuates radar wave, but also reflects wave as echoes which affect normal
radar observation. The strength of responses is proportional to rainfall. Rain echoes are
shown in Fig.1-13.
The features of rain echoes are:
Echo strength is proportional to
precipitation;
The responses are fluffy bright

Rain clutter
speck with no obvious edge;
Under a tropical rainstorm condition,
radar can hardly detect targets; Target
3 cm radar is stronger than the
10 cm one;
Fig.1-13 Rain clutter
wide pulse is stronger than narrow
pulse;
Clutters are strong when horizontal beam is wide;
Echo strength is related to radar antenna beam width, pulse width and wavelength.
The instructor shall demonstrate to the trainees the screen shots with and without rain
clutters.
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(3) Radar interferences

Interferences generated when radar receives signals from other radars of the same or similar
frequency are known as radar interferences.
The features of radar interferences: the interference are non-correlative, while the target
echoes are correlative.
The interference pictures can take any form but frequently has a spiral character within the
operational display area. Not only the main lobe transmission and reception constitute
interference to each other, but also the side lobe radiation and reception may interfere.
In this section, video demonstrations of sea and rain clutters should have a positive effect on
teaching and learning.
A
B
A A Real target
B
False echo
B
False echo
No AIS symbol
Fig.1-14 Indirect echo
1.6 Factors that may cause faulty interpretation of radar picture
.1 Causes and effects of indirect echoes

Radar waves can be blocked by the obstructions such as superstructures including masts,
funnels, cross-trees, deck cargoes, deck cranes, ventilators on board or large vessel in
vicinity or tall buildings on shore, thus the shadow arcs are engendered behind these
obstructions. These obstructions can also reflect radar waves like mirrors to other directions.
Then one target may produce two echoes on the radar screen. As shown in Fig.1-14, A and B
are the true target echoes, while A' and B' are indirect false echoes.
(1) The features of indirect false echoes are:
The indirect false echo of the target appears in the shadow sector;
The range and bearing of indirect false echoes are different from its real echo. The
azimuth of obstacles is the bearing of false echoes and the range is the sum of both
distances of the obstacle to the target and obstacle to the antenna;
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The strength of indirect false echoes is weaker than the real echo, and often has a
significant distortion in shape;
The motion of false echo is not like the real echo movement.
By alteringing ship course, indirect false echoes will disappear or still be in the shadow sector
and can be identified. They can be suppressed or eliminated by decreasing gain temporarily
or using FTC properly.
.2 Causes and effects of multiple echoes

As shown in Fig.1-15, radar energy bounces back and forth between the target and the
observing ship, with some of the energy entering the antenna at each return. Multiple false
echoes may thus occur. This phenomenon often happens when two ships navigate in parallel
in narrow waters, such as narrow channel or anchorage.
The features of multiple echoes are as follows:
False
Target ship Own ship target Real
echoes
Fig.1-15 Multiple echoes
They occur on the same direction beyond the true echo with the same interval. The
spacing equals the range of the true echo;
Strength becomes weaker with the increase of range;
False echoes move with real echoes.
It is easy for observers to identify multiple echoes, and they can be suppressed or eliminated
by decreasing gain or using FTC properly.
.3 Causes and effects of side lobe echoes

Radar side lobe radiation is relatively weak and generally never affects the observation of
long range targets. However, for close range strong echoes, side lobe radiation cannot be
ignored. Radar side lobe false echoes mainly refer to the false responses caused by the
primary side lobe radiation.
In recent years, the capability to detect small targets by radar receiver has been greatly
improved, while the capability to suppress antenna side lobe radiation has not. As a result,
the capability of side lobe reception has been enhanced. Therefore, some modern radar
equipment may detect the false echoes by secondary side lobe radiation, namely side lobe
indirect false echoes and side lobe multiple false echoes.
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(1) The false echoes by primary side lobe radiation

Side lobe echoes, associated with close range targets, result from the radar beam being
surrounded by side lobes. As shown in Fig.1-16, side lobe echoes distribute dispersedly on
Real echo
Main beam
B
Two small targets
A
Side lobes B Side lobe echoes
Fig.1-16 Side lobe echoes
the arc of the genuine echo on both sides.

Side lobe echoes may appear frequently for smaller size antenna, especially when the
surface of radiation window is dirty or damaged.
The features of the side lobe echoes are:
Side lobe echoes symmetrically distribute on the sides arc of the real echo;
All side lobe echoes will be at the same range as real echoes, with neighbouring bearing;
As side lobe echoes are much weaker than real echoes, it is a little difficult to distinguish a
whole real echo under the interference of side lobe echoes;
Under the strong wave condition, side lobe radiation will deteriorate sea clutters, and
seriously affect radar close range observation.

It is easy to identify side lobe echoes and use the gain or anti-clutter controls (STC/FTC) to
suppress or eliminate the weaker side lobe echoes.
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(2) The false echoes by secondary side lobe radiation

The false echoes by secondary side lobe radiation are very much similar to indirect false
echoes and multiple false echoes due to the main lobe, as shown in Fig.1-17. Because the
capability of modern radar receiver to detect weak signals is continuously improving, some
radar side lobe radiation and reception can also detect false echoes of short range and strong
A
A
A
Fig.1-17 Secondary side lobe echoes
targets due to secondary side lobe radiation, namely, side lobe indirect false echoes and side
lobe multiple false echoes. But the side lobe radiation is about 20 to 30 dB weaker than main
lobe radiation, compared with normal radar echoes, false echoes by secondary side lobe
radiation are usually much weaker. This is often accompanied by main lobe indirect false
echoes and main lobe multiple false echoes at the same time, making the radar picture
confusing.
The instructor could explain the effects of radar receiving by side lobe indirect false echoes
by use of Fig.1-17. In this illustration, A' is the schematic diagram of side lobe indirect false
echoes. It should be noted that the secondary side lobe indirect false echoes have rare
occurrences and can be observed occasionally only in a few high gain receiver systems, and
they are mostly side lobe indirect false echoes.
.4 Causes and effects of the second trace echoes

Under super-refraction conditions, the radar energy travels to greater distances than under
normal atmospheric conditions. This means that echoes from long range targets can be
detected with, the distance exceeding over pulse repeat period, and the echoes are displayed
on the "second trace". As shown in Fig.1-18, the return from a target situated beyond the
maximum displayed range may be received after the next pulse has been transmitted. It can
be erroneously displayed as a target at a much shorter range. It is generally termed the
"second trace echo" effect.
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Trigger
1 2
Tx pulse
Echo of previous
transmitting pulse
Echo
Sweep
RR
Fig.1-18 Principles of second-trace echo

The features of second trace echoes:
The bearing of second trace echoes is right, but the display distance loses a range of
CT/2;
The second trace echoes will have a distortion compared with the actual target. For
example, an echo of straight shoreline at long range is displayed as "V" picture;
If range selection is changed, range of false echoes will change, distort or disappear;
The movements of second trace echoes are unreasonable on the screen.
It can be observed that motion of the echo is abnormal in the display by changing the range
scale to identify the false echoes.
.5 Effects on radar picture of power lines, bridges crossing rivers and estuaries, low
altitude aircrafts
If an overhead power line is vertical with the river and estuary, the cable echo is fixed ahead
of the ship, and no matter how the ship moves, the echo is always in the bow direction of the
ship. If the overhead power line cross the river and estuary with an angle, no matter how the
ship manoeuvres, the ship always has a collision risk with the cable echo. For easy
identification, some radar reflectors are installed on the cable at intervals. Due to bearing
discrimination, it is possible that the echoes of reflectors look like the dyke-dam blocking up
the channel for radar of very strong detecting ability. Fig.1-19 shows the echoes of an
overhead cable across a channel.
Low altitude aircraft may also be detected by radar, presenting a quick jumping echo on the
screen. If it is acquired by radar target tracking, the lost target alarm may arise after a short
period.
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Cable echoes
lines
Fig.1-19 Echoes of an overhead cable across channel
.6 The effect of the ship in seaway

The pitching and rolling of a ship may lead to echo glint and the periphery of the echo is
blurred. Weak echoes appear flickering on the screen.
1.7 Performance standards for radar equipment in the Resolutions A. 477(XII),

Annex 4 of MSC. 64(67) and MSC. 192(79)
This sub-topic can be discussed separately; or in combination with Sub-Topic 1.4. This helps
the trainees to develop an understanding of the subject knowledge and radar performance
standards.
.1 The requirements for detection range (maximum and minimum range)
(1) The requirements for detection range in the resolutions A. 477(XII) and Annex 4 of
MSC. 64(67)
Maximum range
Under normal propagation and in calm conditions, when the radar antenna is mounted at
height of 15 m above sea level, a minimum range is showed as Tab.1-1.
Tab.1-1 Minimum detection ranges
Target Description Detection Range (nm)
Shoreline, when the ground rises to 60 metres 20
Shoreline, when the ground rises to 6 met 7
A ship of 5000 tons gross tonnage, whatever her aspect 7
A small ship of 10 m in length 3
A navigation buoy having an effective echoing area of approximately 10 m2 2
Minimum range
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The surface objects specified in Tab.1-1 should be clearly displayed from a minimum range of
50 metres up to a range of one nautical mile, without changing the setting of controls other
than the range selector.
(2) The requirement for detection range in the MSC.192(79) PS
Maximum range
In the absence of clutter, for long range and shoreline detection, the requirement for the radar
system is based on normal propagation conditions, in the absence of sea clutter, precipitation
and evaporation duct with an antenna height of 15 m about sea level, and based on an
indication of the target in at least 8 out of 10 scans or equivalent and a probability of a radar
detection false alarm of 10-4.
Tab.1-2 Minimum detection ranges in clutter-free conditions
Target description Detection range (nm)
Height above
Type X band S band
sea level (m)
Shorelines 60 20 20
Shorelines 6 8 8
Shorelines 3 6 6
SOLAS ship (>5,000 GT) 10 11 11
SOLAS ship (>500 GT) 5.0 8 8
Small vessel with radar reflector 4.0 5.0 3.7
Navigation buoy with corner reflector 3.5 4.9 3.6
Typical navigation buoy 3.5 4.6 3.0
Small vessel of length 10 m with no radar
2.0 3.4 3.0
reflector
Minimum range
With the own ship at zero speed, an antenna height of 15 m above the sea level and in calm
conditions, the navigational buoy in Tab.1-2 should be detected at a minimum horizontal
range of 40 m from the antenna position and up to a range of 1 nm, without changing the
setting of control functions other than the range scale selector.
Compensation for any range error should be automatically applied for each selected antenna,
where multiple antennas are installed.
.2 The requirements for accuracy (range and bearing measurement)

The radar system range and bearing accuracy requirements are shown in Tab.1-3.
Tab.1-3 The range and bearing accuracy
IMO Resolution Range Accuracy Bearing accuracy

A. 477(XII) ≤70 m or 1.5% of the range scale in use, whichever is greater. ≤1°
MSC. 64(67)
≤30 m or 1% of the range scale in use, whichever is greater. ≤1°
MSC. 192(79)
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.3 The requirements for discrimination (range and bearing)

The radar system range and bearing discrimination requirements are shown in Tab.1-4.
Tab.1-4 The range and bearing accuracy
Range Bearing
Resolution Conditions
discrimination discrimination
In calm sea conditions, on a
range scale of 2 nm or less and
A. 477 50 m 2.5°
at between 50% and 100% of
the range scale selected.
In calm sea conditions, on a
MSC. 64(67) range scale of 1.5 nm or less
40 m 2.5°
MSC. 192(79) and at between 50% and 100%
of the range scale selected.
Demonstration and practical training 1-1

Demonstration of radar system configuration and installation location (0.5 h)
(1) Training objective

The contents of this topic include the basic theory and operational principles, and this topic is
the foundation of this course. Through this topic, instructor can help trainees to understand
radar system configuration and installation location of a basic radar, and to be familiar with
basic information of radar picture.
(2) Training mode
Use the live radar or adopt other teaching approaches, for example, videos, etc.
(3) Training procedure
Demonstrate radar configuration, including antenna, transceivers, display system, T/R
switch and power supply, THD, SDME, EPFS, AIS, ENS and VDR, etc.
Demonstrate the installation location of the radar components on board.
Demonstrate the radar echoes, heading line, EBLs, VRMs and RR, CCRP, etc.
 Assessment techniques
Assessment upon completion of the topic can be conducted in forms of written examination,
oral test, discussions and class records, etc. in order to assess whether a trainee satisfies the
required performance. Focusing on the fundamental principles in this topic, the trainee shall
(1) acquire the knowledge of radar system configuration, radar installation location and the
fundamental principles of a marine radar system;
(2) understand the radar performances and factors affecting them;
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(3) identify the information derived from radar picture correctly; and
(4) be aware of the factors that may lead to misinterpretation of radar picture.
 Teaching guidance
With the development of navigation technology and information innovation, the radar is no
longer a stand-alone observation unit but rather an integrated navigation information system
which performs multiple functions including position fixing, navigation and collision avoidance
based on important navigation information from sensors. In this regard, as required in the
performance standards of Integrated Navigation System (INS), the radar system has the
primary functions of INS. The instructors should be well aware of the change and impact on
radar navigation training and lead the trainees' to build up the concept of radar navigation
from an information navigation perspective.
The fundamental principles of marine radar system are the basis of this course and the
prerequisite for trainees to develop a proper understanding of radar and ARPA information in
position fixing, navigation and collision avoidance, and put it into use. As an important
component of INS, the sensor system which provides course, speed, position and timing to
the radar system should adopt the same Consistent Common Reference System (CCRS)
with other integrated information processing terminals so that the operator can acquire
consistent information from different displays. It is advised that the instructors should highlight
the indispensable role of the marine radar system in safe navigation in the context of
information navigation with GNSS as the cornerstone and AIS as the trigger.
With the ever-increasing contradiction between shipping development and navigation safety,
higher standards for radar sensor system are adopted. Azimuth stabilised presentation mode
is essential to ensure the proper operation of digital information processing system in a
modern radar. Hence, the officer in charge of a navigational watch has no choice but use the
azimuth stabilised presentation to maintain safe navigation. The latest navigation technology
provides abundant multi-sensor information to radar system. In accordance with IMO radar
performance standards, the speed sensor should provide the stabilised mode with speed
over the ground and speed through the water. It is advised that, in the course of instruction,
the instructor interact with the trainees and explore the effects of various speed modes on
radar navigation and collision avoidance so that the trainees can fully understand the
necessity and complexity of speed mode selection for safe navigation.
It is also advised that the instructor should facilitate the trainees in developing a gradual
understanding of the changes of radar performances, functions, operations and applications
in the trend of navigation informatisation, on the basis of their mastery of the fundamental
radar principles. Furthermore, after the trainees have learned the basic theory on
measurement of target range and bearing by radar, the instructor may, use teaching aids
such as projectors, video and CBT, etc. to highlight the significance sensors and its integrity
to the safety of radar navigation.
In order to help the trainees achieve better understanding of the fundamental principles of
radar, it is advised that the instructor use a live radar set as well as videos to demonstrate the
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configuration of a radar system, the components of a basic radar and the radar picture
information.
The key points, requirements and teaching instructions of this topic include the following
aspects:
(1) Radar fundamental principles mainly include the principles of measuring target range and
bearing, radar system configuration, basic radar components and primary information of
radar picture. Trainees are required to fully understand the principles.
(2) Radar detection performances include maximum and minimum detection range, range
and bearing discrimination, range and bearing accuracy. Trainees should be familiar with
factors which affect these performances. In class, it is recommended that the instructors
make use of sketches, radar video recordings or pictures to help the trainees to have a good
understanding of the factors. Meanwhile, the following aspects should be highlighted:
The main factor affecting the maximum detected range is the receiver sensitivity.
The main factor affecting the range accuracy is the time synchronisation error.
The main factor affecting the bearing accuracy is the bearing synchronisation error.
The main factor affecting the range discrimination is the pulse length.
The main factor affecting the bearing discrimination is the horizontal beam width (HBW).
Moreover, it is necessary to remind the trainees of the significance in knowing how to identify
the long range target (beyond sea surface radar horizon) and short range target (within sea
surface radar horizon) by radar detection horizon formula. It might also be a good suggestion
to incorporate Sub-topic1.7 into Sub-topic 1.4 to suit practical needs.
(3) Radar false echoes include indirect false echoes, multiple echoes, side lobe false echoes
and the second trace echoes. Induction or tabulation teaching methodologies might facilitate
the trainees in understanding the causes, features, identification and suppression of various
false echoes.
(4) Radar clutters include sea clutters, rain clutters and radar interferences. Trainees are
required to be familiar with the features of the various clutters and their influence to radar
observation (The suppression methods will be discussed in Topic 2). Note that videos and
pictures showing the live radar observation scenarios at sea are very helpful for the trainees
to understand how the clutters/interferences affect the radar observation.
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2 Radar setup and operate in accordance with manufacturer's instructions
As for the operation of radar, this topic mainly introduces the basic methods of operating the
main controls and the general steps of switching on and off, the essentials of setting up and
maintaining the optimum display, and the operations of measuring range and bearing
accurately. Radar operation directly affects the observation, position fixing, the accuracy of
navigation, collision avoidance, and the safety of navigation. A radar operator needs to
accumulate experience in a variety of navigation conditions. So that they can use the radar in
the observation, position fixing, navigation and collision avoidance properly.
2.1 Setting up and maintaining an optimum radar display
.1 Main controls (power, antenna)

The power control of radar includes ship's power supply, radar power switch and radar
antenna safety switch.
Ship's power supply is usually set onto "on" mode. Some sets are provided with a heating
system in each unit, when the set is not working, ship's power will heat them.
Radar power switch is usually located on the radar display unit. When the radar power starts
working, except the high-voltage power of the transmitter, all other parts will be in working
condition. After 3 minutes, automatic delay, time-delay relay contacts will be closed. The
transmitter goes into the standby mode. Now the "Stand-by" indicates on the screen. Radar
transmitter is ready to be transmitted.
Antenna safety switch is usually located at the antenna base. When the technical staff
maintains the equipment near the antenna area, this radar can be shut down, so that it cannot
be switched on from the operator panel and the safety of personnel is ensured.
(1) Preliminary procedures
Ensure that the antenna is clear of obstacles; check that the ship's power supply is working
properly; set the brilliance, gain, automatic clutter controls to zero. Set the range in medium
or long scale.
(2) Switch on
Turn on ship's power supply; then turn on radar power switch. After the system enters into the
"stand-by" mode in 3 mins, press the transmit switch and the radar starts transmitting.
(3) Cautions
Don't turn on the power immediately after it has been turned off, wait several seconds before the
operator restarts the radar; Ensure to preheat the equipment in the standby mode for 20 to 30
minutes before setting it into the transmit mode after the magnetron has been replaced.
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.2 Transmitter controls (Transmit switch/Pulse length/Pulse repetition frequency)

(1) Transmit switch
Transmit switch is used to control the radar transmitter. Turn the switch from standby to
active mode, then transmitter starts transmitting and radar is fully operational. Operate this
switch again, radar returns to standby mode. Consider the following while using this
equipment:
While on duty, it's best to use radars alternately. When the radar is not in use, it can be set
temporarily into standby mode, in order to prolong the service time of magnetron.
In a complicated navigational situation, such as restricted visibility and the congested waters
which contain more navigational hazards and ships, it is suggested to use two or more radars
simultaneously. One is used for lookout, position fixing, navigation and the other for collision
avoidance. The radar operator should select different range scales to ensure the safety of
navigation.
If out of service for a period of time, warming-up period must be extended in order to remove
the risk of dampness and ensure that the magnetron is fully preheated.
After the magnetron is replaced, the operator should strictly comply with the magnetron
preheating procedures and the preheating period must be more than 0.5 h.
Whether the ship is proceeding at sea or berthing, the radar is expected to set into Standby
mode in order to reduce the radar interference.
(2) Pulse length
Pulse length selector is used to adjust the pulse length. A long pulse length can be selected
for long range scale to enhance the detecting ability. A short pulse length can be chosen for a
sharp image and good range discrimination.
The change of range will cause the change of pulse length and pulse repetition frequency.
Pulse length can be selected within 2~3 choices in the same range. The short pulses are
used on the short range scales and can be appropriately changed to the longer ones, while
the long pulses are used on the longer range scales and can be appropriately changed to the
shorter ones as well.
it is suggested that the instructor demonstrate the influence of pulse length on radar
observation by switching between different range scales.
(3) Pulse repetition frequency
Radar transmits short pulses on short range scales. The increase of the pulse repetition
frequency can gain on the accumulation numbers of pulse-echo, so as to enhance echo
intensity and improve the accuracy of the echo. In long range scales, it is ensured that the
farthest echoes can be received within a transmitting period by decreasing the pulse
repetition frequency. Once the initial pulse is transmitted and received, the next pulse will be
transmitted. Otherwise, the target detected by the first transmitted pulse will appear in the
next scan and be displayed on the screen. It is called the second-trace echoes, which will
affect the radar observation.
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As mentioned above, when the range is changed, automatically so does the pulse repetition
frequency. Some radars are designed with the second-trace echoes cancellation control
which is accomplished by changing the pulse repetition frequency.
.3 Receiver controls to give an optimum picture (Tuning/Gain/Anti-clutter sea)

(1) Tuning
The tuning control is to adjust the output frequency of the local oscillator, so that the output of
frequency converter is stable in nominal intermediate frequency. Radar has a tuning indicator
and the tuning control should be adjusted to its maximum value. Then adjust the control
carefully, until echoes will be complete and clear. If tuning is not accurate, there will be
problems with vague echo edge, unsaturated brilliance, sparse echoes and poor contrast.
Modern radar is usually designed with AFC or AUTO-TUNE control. It is recommended to use
manual tuning to adjust radar before using AUTO-TUNE. Then contrast the images to ensure
the fine auto tuning.
If the radar screen appears with large areas of clutter or land echoes which are suspected as
SART echoes, the operator can temporarily adjust the tuning control to mistune mode. In this
mode, the target echo will be weakened or disappear and the unique echo of SART is
highlighted. After the SART position is determined, the radar should be tuned immediately to
ensure the normal observation. Some radars are equipped with SART observation control.
It is equivalent to make the radar receiver in the mistune mode and expand the bandwidth
through using this button. It can highlight SART echoes in case of no interference from other
echoes.
(2) Gain
The gain control is used to adjust the amplification degree of intermediate frequency amplifier
and it is also called the receiver sensitivity control. The initial optimum position of the gain
control should make the speckled background noise just visible. As shown in Fig.2-1.
If the gain is set too low, the brightness of small or poor target echoes will be weak and the
Excessive gain The gain decreases gradually Optimum gain
Fig.2-1 Gain adjustment

echo is easy to lose. If the gain is set too high, the strong echoes will saturate the display and
deteriorate echo contrast, which cannot show the details of the echo. At the same time, the
speckled background noise will be enhanced and the image will become chaotic.
When navigating in the narrow channels, the targets in the short distance can also be
detected by the radiation beyond the horizontal beam width of radar. Therefore decreasing
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the gain at this time can obtain higher precision. If there are indirect echoes, multiple echoes
or side-lobe echoes, the radar's gain should be reduced appropriately, so as to weaken or
even eliminate the confusing influence caused by false echoes.
(3) Anti-clutter sea
The radar pulses are reflected in every direction by the waves. Part of the reflected energy is
received by the radar antenna, and then scaly shiny spots are formed. It may interfere with
radar images. This is called sea clutter. The sea clutter interference will be stronger at close
distance, the closer the distance, the stronger the sea clutter interference. The interference
caused by medium waves is 3 ~ 6 nm, while the clutter caused by large waves can reach 8 ~
10 nm. Interference becomes rapidly weaker over a longer distance.
Before using the anti-clutter sea, the gain should first be adjusted.
It is recommended to adjust STC according to the actual sea state, as shown in Fig.2-2.
Ensure that weak echoes can be detected as much as possible. Don't adjust the STC too
high. In general, it is better to keep showing some sea clutter.
Sea clutter
The breakwater Sea clutters decrease
echo is covered by
sea clutters The Breakwater echo
is clearly visible
Echoes in short range

Land echoes become weaker
Increase STC gradually Long range echo is not affected
by STC
Fig.2-2 STC effect
.4 Display controls/menus (Display, menus and controls; Range selector; Heading line
control; Off-centring display; Fixed Range Rings; VRMs; EBLs; Cursor; Ant-clutter
rain; Automatic anti-clutter; Interference rejection; Echo Stretch; Echo Average;
Target trails)
(1) Display, menu and controls
In the early days, radar applied plan position indicator (PPI) and showed low brilliance. It can
only display radar echoes with simple measurement tools (such as VRMs and EBLs).
However, modern radar usually uses raster display to replace the PPI, as shown in Fig.2-3.
The radar echoes display area still adopt plan position display mode, which is called working
display area. The functional areas can be divided into the operation menu, the target data
display area, the operation status indicator area and the ship information display area and
other areas.
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(2) Range selector

There are many factors that affect the range selection, such as the open level of the sea,
weather and sea state, ship traffic
density, ship's speed and the Operation Operation
observation frequency of radar. In status status
general, it is not suitable to start radar

observation from short range scales. Menu
Changing range from long to short Conning and
data
helps to know ship traffic density and display
display
observe the shoreline distance and Display area
navigational hazards and determine a
safe speed. Operation Operation
status status
Operators should pay attention to the
influence of range operation on radar Fig.2-3 Display, menu and controls
information. It provides more information in long range scale, while in short range scale the
measurement accuracy will be higher and the information is more intensive. The range
selection should always depend on the variable position of the targets. The minimum range
which covers targets is usually selected, in order to make sure the radar observation has a
high accuracy.
In poor visibility, frequent range switching should be conducted any time. A clean radar image
doesn't mean there are fewer targets. Do not change the range to long range scale when
there are close dangerous targets.
The change of range scale may also cause the change of the display brilliance. It may neglect
small or poor targets in this case. Suspected second-trace echoes can be identified by a
range change. The effective range for collision avoidance is 3, 6 and 12 nm.
(3) Heading line control
Generally the heading line control is a spring switch. When pressed, the heading line
disappears and will reappear when released. The operator should use frequently the heading
line switch, to confirm whether the weak target is covered by the heading line. This is a
routine practice for the operator.
(4) Off-centring display
When navigating at open sea, the range between 6 ~ 24 nm is often selected so as to be well
informed of the navigation conditions around the ship at any time. During the offshore
navigation, in order to ensure the observational accuracy, the range is usually between 3 ~ 12
nm. Setting off-centring display not only ensures the observational accuracy, but also
increases the observation range in a set direction.
(5) Fixed Range Rings
Fixed range rings provide radar with a reference calibration mark for estimating the range of
target. Fixed range rings much more convenient to measure the close moving target.
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Normally RRs shall be displayed, but the brightness should not be set too high, in order to
avoid the impact on target observation.
(6) Variable Range Markers
VRMs can be used to accurately measure the range of targets. VRM error should be
inspected on each voyage or every month (whichever is less), but generally modern radar
does not need to calibrate the VRMs.
Together with VRMs and EBLs, the operator can predict the moving trend of targets by
accurately measuring two continuous positions.
(7) Electronic Bearing Lines
EBLs can be used to measure the bearing of targets. Generally EBL takes the form of a
continuous or dashed line which originates from the own ship position to the edge. EBLs can
also use off-centring display mode. By fixing the origin to the target, the bearing between
targets can be measured. When proceeding in near-coastal waters, the operator can use
EBLs as the parallel index lines for navigation.
(8) Cursor
Modern computer-based radar has a cursor to display the position with longitude and latitude
where the cursor is located as well as the relative distance and bearing to the own ship.
The operator can use the cursor to measure the distance and bearing of targets quickly.
However, it is of low accuracy and not suitable for accurate measurement of the target's
location.
For radar collision avoidance function, the cursor can be used to select radar tracked targets
or AIS reported targets.
The cursor controls the radar function via the menu in the screen dialogue area.
(9) Anti-clutter rain
The anti-clutter rain can detect and reserve all the leading edges of echo pulse and eliminate
their trailing edges. Comparing with useful echoes such as ships, islands, navigational aids,
and coastlines, the snow/rain echoes are wider and weaker. After initiating the anti-clutter
rain, it will filter out most of the clutters, leaving only the front part of rain/snow area clutters,
and the display strength is greatly weakened. However, other useful echoes are generally
narrow and strong. In comparison, there will be less loss of energy after the removal of the
rear edge of echoes, and its cutting-edge will also be clearer and brighter than the snow/rain
clutter frontier. Therefore, after rain/snow clutters suppression, the signal to clutter ratio of
useful video signal to rain clutter will be significantly improved. It is worth noting that, after
rain/snow clutters suppression, all echoes are subject to varying degrees of suppression and
some weaker echoes may be lost, as shown in Fig.2-4.
In general, when the anti-clutter rain is used, the radar picture displays the following
characteristics:
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All echoes are weakened. The target front edge will be highlighted and the rear edge
weakened or dissipated.
The large area of continuous land echoes is split by "differentiation", showing the frontier
of land projection.
Fig.2-4 Rain suppression effect
It improves the range discrimination of the target.
It may lose small or weak targets.
When anti-clutter rain is used in certain circumstances, the following should be noted:
If the observed target locates in the rain/snow area, with the use of FTC, the gain should
be reduced. This is because the target echoes located among the rain/snow area are usually
stronger than the rain/snow echoes. Such operation can further reduce the influence of the
frontier of rain/snow echoes on the target and highlight them.
If the observed target locates near the rain/snow area, with the use of FTC, the gain
should be increased. This is because the radar pulse through the rain/snow area was greatly
attenuated. Such operation can compensate for the attenuation on the radar pulse.
If the observed target locates behind the rain/snow area or far away from it, and the echo
is weaker than rain/snow interference, the operator does not need to use the FTC but to
increase the gain directly. This is because the target on the screen has a better separation
with rain/snow echoes, and the echoes have been very weak. Using FTC will further weaken
the target echo.
If there is no rain or snow, in order to improve the target range discrimination, FTC can
also be appropriately used.
FTC can also be used to suppress multiple echoes, indirect echoes and side-lobe echoes.
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(10) Automatic anti-clutter

Radar based on modern digital signal processing can suppress sea clutter and rain/snow
clutter automatically. The effect of automatic anti-clutter on the ocean is satisfactory. For
navigation in the complicated coastal environment, the technologies adopted by different
manufacturers are different. In order to ensure the ability to detect weak targets nearby strong
clutters, land echoes or active radar beacons, it's suggested not to use automatic anti-clutter.
After the use of automatic anti-clutter, there will still be small amount of clutters remaining
around the radial scan centre especially on rough sea with a higher antenna.
(11) Interference rejection (IR)
Interference rejection is a video processing method which uses radial scan line correlative
detection technology, doing correlation detection for two or more scan lines. Therefore,
unstable weak echoes will be much decreased.
(12) Scan correlation
Scan correlation is based on modern digital signal processing, which perform correlation
detection to multiple consecutive whole scanning images of radar so as to remove
interference and noise more efficiently. But it also removes unstable echoes of weak targets,
fast targets and marginal information of targets. Therefore, it should be used cautiously while
fast and weak targets within close range should be identified.
(13) Echo Average
Echo average is based on scan correlation, which does averaging to two or more images.
The intensity of reliable echoes is unchanged, but not clutter. After averaging, screen display
brightness is reduced, thereby improving the SNR of the screen echo signal.
It's applied to situations where the density of sea clutter or rain/snow clutter is low. To some
extent, it can improve the ability to detect targets in the clutter. For example, in
ground-stabilised true-motion presentation, the ability to detect fixed targets such as a light
buoy in waves can be enhanced by this control. But it's unfit for a situation where small high
speed targets exist. Obviously, the echo average should be used in the azimuth stabilised
display mode. Do not use this control in rough seas.
(14) Echo Stretch
Echo stretch is a video processing method which amplifies the echo image information in
order to be observed.
There are three ways to conduct echo stretch:
Bearing stretch. Echo laterals stretch when the leading edge and trailing edge of echo
remain unchanged.
Range stretch. The trailing edge of echo stretches when the positions of the leading edge
and both sides remain unchanged.
Bearing and range stretch. Echo stretch on trailing edge and laterals simultaneously.
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Weak target echoes can be extended by echo stretch, but also for noises. Therefore,
suppress noises before using echo stretch.
(15) Target trail
Target trail is the track recorded by screen afterglow over a period of time, a shown in Fig.2-5.
There are true target trails, relative target trail, sea-stabilised target trail and ground-stabilised
target trail. True target trail can only be obtained with sensor information of THD and SDME.
Through observation of true target trail, the operator can easily determine the ship's
encounter situation and estimate target ship's speed. Through observation of relative target
trail, the operator can quickly determine whether risk of collision exists or not.
Fig.2-5 Target trails
.5 Correct order of making adjustments to radar and the criteria for optimum setting of
the controls
Radar start-up operating sequences are generally as follows:
(1) Make sure that the antenna is clear of obstacles; turn on the antenna power switch and
radar power switch.
(2) Preheat for 3 minutes, and then transmit.
(3) Set brilliance to proper condition and anti-clutter control to zero position.
(4) Set input information of heading and speed.
(5) Select medium or long range scale. Set the presentation of radar picture.
(6) Set gain so that the sparkled background noise is just visible.
(7) Manual tuning firstly to maximum level of the tuning indicator, and then switch to
automatic tuning. Tuning again 10 minutes later.
(8) Select the appropriate range scale according to the needs of the navigation environment.
(9) Adjust A/C sea control to break up the sea clutter into small dots so that small targets
become distinguishable.
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(10) Adjust Interference Rejection control if necessary. Choose Interference Rejection level to
reduce interference that has little impact on weak echoes.
(11) Adjust A/C Rain control if necessary to split up unwanted rain echoes into a speckled
pattern, so as to make useful targets distinguishable.
.6 Small or poor echoes detection

The detection of small targets is the key to the safety of navigation. In case of improper
brightness, improper tuning, too low gain, too much suppression of sensitivity-time control
(STC), using fast-time control (FTC) in fine weather, using interference rejection (IR) without
same-frequency interference and using automatic anti-clutter, scan correlation and echo
average in the azimuth unstabilised display mode, the risk of loss of weak targets, especially
the fast weak target within the close range will increase.
.7 The effects of saturation by receiver noise

The excessive gain with more receiver noise will cause amplifier saturation, which can neither
enhance the target's display brilliance nor increase SNR. Hence the strong targets will be
hidden in the noise. Besides, the target echoes will scatter so that range discrimination and
range accuracy will be reduced.
.8 The importance of frequent changes in range scale

The importance of frequent changes in range scale is:
(1) Balance far and close targets, and be aware of the surrounding traffic density, the
positions of obstacle, danger, navigation target and coastline with respect to the own ship.
(2) Obtain a large amount of information at long ranges; obtain high precision of information
at short ranges.
(3) Obtain the overall traffic awareness at long ranges, avoid collision at short ranges.
(4) Second-trace echoes can be recognised.
.9 Different types of display modes

(1) Relative-Motion Presentation
In relative-motion presentation, CCRP (and the radial scan centre), which always represents
the effective position of the observing ship, is stationary. In consequence, targets exhibit their
motion relative to the observing ship. The targets' motion equals to the sum of their true
velocity vector and the own ship's true velocity vector. In particular, in the absence of any
leeway, the movement of fixed targets at sea is reverse and isokinetic with the own ship, and
the movement of target's ship with the same velocity vector of the own ship is stationary. If
CCRP coincides with geometric centre of workspace, it is called centre display mode.
Otherwise, it is called off-centred display mode. On selection of off-centred display, there are
more display areas ahead so that targets can be observed expediently.
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Relative-Motion Head-Up presentation
Relative-motion head-up presentation is often described as unstabilised mode. Radar can

work properly without other sensors information in this mode. The characteristics are as
follows:
I. The characteristics of relative-motion presentation as described.
II. Heading line connecting CCRP at the top of the display (000) indicates the own ship's
heading. The displayed radar picture corresponds directly with the scene viewed through the
wheelhouse window in this mode only. The relative bearing of the targets can be obtained in
this way.
III. Yawing movements of the ship will cause echo swing. The afterglow trail of targets and
accumulation of echoes will be lead to a false appearance that the bearing of a target is
changing, while in fact the true bearing remains constant. If the ship's course is altering while
the heading line remains constant, the picture will rotate in reverse direction. This will affect
observation, especially when the own ship is altering heading rapidly and significantly and
fast and the target's echoes become blurred.
IV. Intuitional observation can be obtained; it is applied to collision avoidance at a calm open
sea.
V. Unfavourable to position fixing, navigation and environment in which course is changed
frequently, such as a ship entering into port, narrow waterways and mostly coastal waters.
VI. Target trails, anti-clutter control and target tracking (TT), etc. which can work properly only
in stabilised display mode, will be restricted.
For a radar in normal working condition, the Head-up orientation mode is not a regular
function in accordance with IMO radar performance standards. When heading sensor is not
functional, this mode will be used as a backup and fallback mode with an alarm indication.
215°
Before alteration Altering
Fig.2-6 Scenarios on chart
It is worth noting that some types of radars are provided with Head-up TB (True Bearing)
mode. Radar echoes are shown in the same way as in the head-up mode. The difference
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from normal head-up presentation lies in the orientation of the bearing scale. The bearing
scale is heading sensor stabilised. This adapted H-up presentation is known as H-up TB
presentation. Visual illustrations help to have a direct and clear understanding of the
characterises of radar pictures in various display modes. The chart scenarios are illustrated in
Fig.2-6. Fig 2-7 shows the characteristics of RM H-up presentation.
000 000
270 090 270 090

CCRP CCRP
180 180
(a) Before alteration (b) Altering
Fig.2-7 RM H-up
presentation
Relative-Motion North-up presentation
This is stabilised bearing display mode that requires access to information of the own ship's
heading. Display characteristics are as shown in the Fig.2-8:
II. The top of screen represents the true north; heading line is from CCRP to the own ship's
true heading. The displayed radar picture corresponds directly with the paper chart in use.
True bearing of targets can be obtained directly by bearing measurement.
III. When the ship is yawing in bad weather and rough seas or the own ship is altering course,
heading line is changing with the ship's heading. The echoes are maintained stable and clear
to facilitate observation. 000 000
CCRP
CCRP
180
180
Before alteration Altering
Fig.2-8 RM N-up
presentation
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IV. It is applied to position fixing, navigation and environment in which course is changed
frequently, such as a ship entering into port, narrow waterways and coastal waters.
V. When it is used in collision avoidances, especially heading in 090 to 270, the operator
should be aware that radar picture is contrary to the observation from the bridge windows.
Relative-Motion Course-up presentation
This is also stabilised bearing display mode which requires access to the information of the
own ship's heading. Display characteristics are as shown in the Fig.2-9:
180 180 215
(a) Before alteration (b) Altering (c) New C-up
Fig.2-9 RM C-up presentation

II. The heading line, which represents the own ship's course from CCRP to the own ship's
true heading, points to the top of screen. The bearing scale on the screen is driven by the
heading and 000 represents true north. The displayed radar image is similar to the visual
observation by the operator through the bridge. True bearing of targets can be obtained by
bearing measurement.
III. When the ship is yawing in bad weather and rough seas or the own ship is altering course,
this mode has the characteristics of north-up orientation. Heading line is changing with the
ship's heading. The echoes are stable and clear to facilitate observation.
IV. After the course is altered and the own ship's course is steady, press "course-up" control,
and radar picture will be rotated rapidly and restored to new course-up state. It can avoids the
problem of fuzzy target trailing in Head-up display mode when the ship is altering course.
V. For both navigation and collision avoidance, course-up mode is suitable for open waters.
But in most situations, the true north is inconsistent with the paper chart, which is not
conducive to target identification and position fixing.
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(2) True-Motion Presentation

This display mode requires the own ship's heading and speed to be transmitted to the radar.
In true-motion presentation mode, the CCRP (and the radial scan centre) represents the own
ship's position, and is going ahead with the own ship's course and speed on the screen.
If the operator uses speed through the water (STW), the drifting ship is stationary and the
land will move with speed and reverse direction of current. Water true-motion mode is applied
to collision avoidance. STW can be obtained by the ship's log in water tracking mode. The
speed can also be inputted manually so that the radar can work in water true-motion
presentation.
If the operator uses speed over the ground (SOG), the island and other fixed objects are
stationary and the own ship and target ships move in accordance with its track on the screen.
Heading does not indicate the direction of movement of ships on the waters with current.
Ground true-motion mode is applied to narrow waterway and navigation of ship entering and
leaving port. There are many ways to achieve SOG, such as doing correction of set and drift
on STW mode, using ship's log in seabed tracking mode, using electronic position fixing
system (EPFS, such as GPS) etc. SOG can also be obtained by radar ground referencing
function. It can check the accuracy of SOG by observing whether a fixed target drift or not.
According to the provision of radar performance standards, the radial scan centre shall be at any
point at least 50% and not exceeding 75% of the radius from the centre of the operational display
area. The radial scan centre can be retuned manually any time for better observation.
On true-motion presentation, the radar can provide the three orientation modes as described.
Since TM head-up presentation does not indicate true movement, this mode is not available
on modern radar. When the own ship's heading information is lost, radar will alarm and carry
out Head-up orientation mode. When the own ship's speed information is lost, radar will also
sound alarm and carry out off-centre relative-motion presentation.
.10 Advantages and limitations of different types of presentations

Different types of display mode satisfy the different applications of radar. In relative-motion
mode, continuous observation of echoes is useful for determining the risk of collision and
make an early decision to avoid collision. Because radar function is restricted in head-up
orientation mode, the operator shall avoid using this mode when the radar system works
properly. In coastal waters, when radar position fixing and navigation is conducted with paper
charts for target identification, it is better to use north-up orientation mode. When proceeding
along the coast, on the narrow waterways or on entering/leaving port, with the ship yawing
and altering course frequently, it is better to use course-up orientation mode which is suitable
for collision avoidance. With ECDIS, course-up orientation mode is also suitable for position
fixing and navigation.
When conducting collision avoidance in water true-motion mode, the operator can easily and
accurately determine the target ship dynamic movement and make avoidance decisions
according to encounter situations and the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions
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at sea. In true-motion mode, the motion of target ship is unrelated with the own ship's
manoeuvring, which benefits monitoring the movement of target ship during and after
avoidance of the ship. In the ground true-motion presentation, the operator can monitor the
ship's dynamic movement with respect to coastal and fixed obstruction. This mode is the best
choice when the ship navigates in narrow waterways and in port. It is worth noting that the
operator must strictly distinguish the water stabilised mode and the ground stabilised mode.
Where current is strong, it is recommended to use the sea-stabilised mode in collision
avoidance or the ground stabilised mode in navigation, especially when navigation
environment is restricted and visibility is poor.
.11 The need for heading information for relative stabilised display, and heading and
speed input for true motion presentation
(1) Azimuth-stabilised presentation
Azimuth-stabilised is a presentation mode in which heading reference input is used to
orientate the heading line on the radar display. In the absence of stabilisation, the image
would rotate by an amount equal and opposite to any change in observing ship's heading.
The heading stabilisation signal is used to simultaneously produce a commensurate rotation
of the image in the same direction with the change of heading. As a result, it eliminates the
angular wander of the image due to yaw. Not only does this eliminate the masking of targets
by the afterglow generated during an alteration of course, but it allows true bearings to be
read off directly and quickly from the fixed bearing scale.
(2) True-motion presentation
In a correctly adjusted true-motion presentation, it is essential to input course and speed
information from THD and SDME sensors. The echo movement of the own ship and all
targets are rendered independent of the observing ship's motion. This is achieved by making
the origin of the image to track across the screen in a direction and at a rate which
correspond with the motion of the observing ship. True-motion mode can be divided into
true-motion mode relative to water and true-motion mode relative to ground. See above for
details.
.12 Effects of transmitting heading error on stabilised and true motion presentation
If azimuth-stabilised (North-up or Course-up) is selected, the displayed heading should be
correctly aligned to the ship's true heading. Otherwise, errors in true bearings will be
produced. A check should then be made to ensure that the transmitting heading follows the
ship's heading.
.13 Effects of SDME error on true motion presentation

When speed error exists, all the displayed tracks will be in error and that misleads the
observer.
An error in the own ship's log will produce non-zero speed indications on all stationary targets
being tracked. It may also produce large errors in the aspects of very slow moving targets.
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.14 Special controls/menu (Display mode, Speed controls, Reset controls, Heading
information)
(1) Display mode
The radar has different image display modes in order to meet the requirements in different
navigation environments. On operation control/menu, the radar has ship's motion
presentation and orientation control. Motion presentations contain relative-motion and
true-motion selector. Orientation modes contain head-up, north-up and course-up.
(2) Speed controls
The speed of the ship can be referred to sea and ground.
Speed through the water can be used in ocean and collision avoidance. The sensor provided
with STW is the ship's log in water tracking mode. The speed can also be inputted manually,
but large error exists.
Speed over the ground can be used in coastal navigation. The sensors provided with SOG
include sea bottom tracking speed-log, GNSS equipment and radar, also, the speed can be
inputted manually, but large error exists.
(3) Reset controls
There are two reset operations. In the case of course-up display mode, course-up reset is
used to set new course. In the case of true-motion presentation, the reset for selected
antenna position is used to set the own ship position on the display.
(4) Heading information
Heading information is provided by THD. According to SOLAS Convention, for ships of 500
gross tonnage or more, the heading is usually provided by the gyro-compass, and for ships of
300 to 500 gross tonnage by the magnetic compass. For the simulator, when compass
repeater degree is incorrect, it should be calibrated in accordance with the instructions.
According to the MSC. 192(79) PS, electronic means should be provided to align the heading
line to within 0.1. However, the previous radar standards require that the errors of heading
line must be less than 1°.
.15 Maladjusted controls and their effects and dangers

Maladjustment of the controls may seriously affect radar observation. The operator should
pay attention to adjusting radar anytime, anywhere and according to the needs of observation,
so as to keep the radar in the best display mode.
(1) Screen brightness and contrast disorder: the screen is too bright with excessive contrast;
the image is not suitable for visual observation. Furthermore, it is hard to observe and
distinguish image details.
(2) Gain is too high so that echo loses focus, which will result in low resolution and
measurement accuracy; gain is too low, which will result in loss of small target. New
operators will often see an illusion by using raster display radar, thus inadequate gain will be
used often.
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(3) Most radar has automatic tuning, but every time for radar transmitting and bridge shift, it is
very important to compare automatic tuning with manual tuning to confirm the reliability of
automatic tuning.
(4) Inappropriate range selection, or not timely range switching, is not conducive to
comprehensive observation information obtained from the radar screen. The importance of
regular range switching for radar observation is already mentioned above.
(5) The adjustment of pulse length should comply with switching from long to short, mainly in
short, timely switching in the short range, but switching from short to long, mainly in long,
timely switching in the long range. The operating of long staying in one pulse length is
inappropriate.
(6) Maladjustment of A/C sea can cause the echoes of close targets submerged by sea
(insufficient suppression) or lost (excessive suppression). Maladjustment of A/C rain may
hide the echoes of targets nearby or in the snow area or lose small targets within the range.
Using IR in the absence of same frequency interference or overly using IR will cause loss of
weak echoes. In a complicated environment with all kinds of clutters, using a variety of clutter
suppression and trying to display a clutter-free image may cause greater negative effects.
(7) The function of digital signal processing methods involved, such as echo stretch, scans
correlated, echo average and so on, should only be used when needed. Doing this may
severely reduce the screen resolution and damage useful information, in particular small
target information.
(8) Target trail display
Whether it is true trail or relative trail, they all leave afterglow of the own ship or targets on the
screen. The afterglow is helpful to radar application, but the trail of a long stay on the screen
will cause interference. Therefore, maladjustment can be avoided by cleaning the trail in the
appropriate time.
.16 Detection and correction of maladjustments

It is an essential operation to check and correct the maladjustment of control in order to
ensure radar application. It requires the operator to operate in the long-term practice and
gather experiences. The aim of radar control/menu is to ensure obtaining more
comprehensive information at any given time of observation. Thus in case of radar
observation, every operator is required to make comprehensive adjustments of radar control
for the effect of each target echo. Any operation of radar control/menu for a specific image
may cause maladjustment for other observations.
Maladjustments should be recognised and adjusted instantly. Correctly adjust control to
ensure radar lookout, observation, navigation and collision avoidance for the best effect of
radar application.
The content and sequence of checking control/menu is usually as follows: brightness and
contrast, sensor set, display, tuning status, gain levels, pulse length, level of clutter
suppression.
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.17 Effects of incorrect speed setting and CMG correction on true motion displays
Correct course and speed input must be fed in when the True Motion display is used. Errors
of speed and heading can lead to target's true data error, and then result in the wrong
assessment for the officer.
The operator can determine whether the input errors of speed and heading exist by observing
the stationary target.
.18 The purpose and use of the performance monitor

The performance monitor shall be available (automatically or by manual operation) and while
the equipment is operational, to determine a significant drop in system performance relative
to a calibrated standard established at the time of installation.
The sensitive element which makes monitoring possible is usually a unit known as an echo
box or a transponder.
A performance check should be carried out as soon as practicable after setting up and
thereafter at regular intervals.
The important basic rule for carrying out a performance check is to consult the manufacturer's
manual and follow exactly the instructions given therein.
.19 Record of radar data (radar logbook, radar maintenance records, radar hand-over
records)
(1) Radar logbook
The radar logbook can be available to assist the operator to record daily use. The form of
radar logbook may vary owning to different ship owners. The operator needs to record the
data of switch time, weather, sea condition, the ship's position and specific conditions when
using it.
(2) Radar maintenance records
Maintenance records should record the content of scheduled and unscheduled maintenance
work, including time, place, the name and number of consumables (should be consistent with
the record of inventory) and signature, etc.
Repair records should describe in detail the time and place of radar failure, symptoms,
repairing time and place and a brief repairing process, the name and number of replacement
parts, service provider and their contact information, inspection result and signature of
acceptance after repairing, etc.
(3) Radar hand-over records
Radar hand-over is part of ship hand-over work. It includes the relevant materials of radar
equipment and hand-over records of current radar working condition. The records should be
co-signed by the shift officers and then archived.
The changing history of performance monitoring data and the revision history of
measurement accuracy should be recorded continuously at work. The diagram of radar
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shadow sectors and short-distance blind area should be posted in the bridge and recorded in
the radar logbook, and must be kept valid.
.20 Target detection affected by propagation conditions

When electromagnetic wave is crossing the rain, snow, hail and fog zone, it not only causes the
clutter, but also leads to the energy loss that will decrease the detecting ability of the radar.
When sub-refraction occurs, the radar beam is bent downward slightly less than under standard
conditions, and the detection range will be reduced, the low altitude targets may disappear from the
display.
When super-refraction occurs, the radar beam tends to be bent down slightly more and so targets
may be detected at ranges which are slightly greater than standard. This can result in the detection
of unwanted 'second-trace' echoes, which can be identified by changing range scale frequently.
.21 Effects of incorrect CCRP setting

The consistent common reference point (CCRP) is a location on the own ship, to which all
horizontal measurements, for example range, bearing, relative course, relative speed, CPA or
TCPA are referred, typically the conning position on the bridge. Where multiple antennas are
installed, there should be correct offsets for applying different CCRP positions for each antenna in
the radar system. Otherwise, there exist measurement errors to the CCRP on the display.
The setting of CCRP offset should be implemented when installation. The synchronization error
should be calibrated first, and then CCRP position is set and adjusted according to the
manufacturer's documentation.
Demonstration and Practical training 2-1 Radar setup and

adjustment (4.0) (see Page 79)
2.2 Accurate Measurement of ranges and bearings
.1 Methods and accuracy of range measurement (fixed range rings, VRMs, cursor)
The operator can use fixed range rings, VRMs and cursor to measure the range of the target
(a) RR (b) VRM (c) Cursor
Fig.2-10 Three different methods of measuring the

ranges
as shown in Fig.2-10.
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(1) Fixed range rings
Fixed range rings provide the radar with a reference calibration mark for estimating ranges.
According to the MSC. 192(79) PS, the accuracy of RRs should be 30 m or 1% of current
range (whichever is greater).
Fixed range rings can be used to estimate the ranges when the target distance needs to be
estimated quickly under the large ranges (error is less than 5%).
(2) VRMs
VRMs can be used to measure the ranges. According to the MSC. 192(79) PS, at least 2
VRMs are required and should have a digital display window for activated VRMs. The error of
VRMs should be the larger between 30 m and 1% of current range, while the previous
standard is the larger between 70 m and 1.5% of current range.
Before the use of VRMs for PPI radar, it should be calibrated with RR. This work can be done
at any time, or at least each voyage or every month (whichever is less). But modern radar
does not need to calibrate the VRMs.
(3) Cursor
Cursor can be used to measure the ranges quickly, according to the MSC. 192(79) PS. The
accuracy of range measurement provided by the cursor should comply with the relevant
requirements of VRMs.
.2 Accurate range measurement
(1) The preparation before range measurement
Adjust the radar picture to make the echo display clear.
Select a proper range when the target is located in the 50~90% position of the display
area.
Select the front edge of the specific target.
When measuring range for position fixing, appropriate targets which are clear, sharp, and
isolated should be selected. When measuring ranges for multi-targets, measure them at
abeam direction first, then fore and aft.
(2) Accurate range measurement
The VRM can be used for accurate measurement of a target distance. Different methods are
available to measure the ranges for the long and short distance targets respectively.
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If the target is within the radar horizon and the front edge is able to be detected, the echo
of the front edge can be used to measure the target distance. Efforts should be made to keep
the internal tangent between VRM and the target's echo so as to eliminate the error resulting
from the influence of the size of pixels of the monitor.
If the target is outside the radar horizon and the front edge cannot be detected, the echo
of the rear edge is used to measure the target distance. Transmitter should be changed to
shorter pulse, and the Gain of echoes should be decreased properly. Efforts should be made
to keep the external tangent between VRM and the rear edge of the target's echo so as to
eliminate the error resulting from the influence of the size of pixels of the monitor.
.3 Methods and accuracy of bearing measurement (EBLs, cursor)

According to the MSC. 192(79) PS:
A bearing scale around the periphery of the operational display area should be provided.
The bearing scale should indicate the bearing as seen from the CCRP.
Electronic means should be provided to align the heading line to within 0.1.
At least two electronic lines (EBLs) should be provided to measure the true or relative
bearing of any point object within the operational display area, with a maximum system error
of 1 at the periphery of the display. Each active EBL should have a numerical readout.
It should be possible to move the EBL origin from the CCRP to any point within the
operational display area and reset the EBL to the CCRP.
Cursor can be used to measure quickly the ranges, but the cursor only measures coarsely
the ranges due to its large tolerance. Therefore, it is not an accurate tool to measure the
position of the targets.
N.B. According to the IMO performance standard on radar, the errors of measuring bearings
must be less than ±1°; the errors of the vessel heading line must be less than ±1°; the input
errors of the ship's heading must be less than ±0.5°. For details please refer to Appendix I-5.
.4 Accurate bearing measurement
(1) Preparation
Adjust the radar picture to make the echo display clear.
Select a proper range so that the target is located in the 50~90% position of the display area.
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When measuring bearings for position fixing, appropriate targets which are clear, sharp,
and isolated should be selected. To measure bearings for multi-targets, the operator should
first measure them at fore and aft direction, then at abeam.
For measurement of bearings for specific targets, refer to the following methods.
(2) Accurate bearing measurement

EBLs should be used to measure the target bearing accurately; different methods are applied
to measure the bearings for different shapes and distances respectively.
For point target, the centre of the echoes is selected as the measuring position; otherwise, we
need to select a proper measuring position in terms of the different targets. If the target is
within the radar horizon, the front edge is able to be detected; the echo of the front edge can
be used to measure the target bearing. When measuring the target bearing, the gain of the
echoes should be decreased properly, and the EBL should be tangent externally with the
echoes so as to eliminate the error resulting from the influence of the size of pixels of the
monitor. When reading the bearings, the width of horizontal beam of the antenna should be
considered, if we measure the left of the echoes, the half-beam width should be added to the
bearings. On the contrary, if we measure the right of the echoes, the bearings should be
subtracted with the half-beam width. If the target is outside the radar horizon, the front edge
cannot be detected; the centre of the echoes is selected as the measuring position.
.5 Errors in range and bearing measurement and correction

(1) Range errors
Select the minimum range to observe whether the shape of
the linear target is curved or not. This adjusts and A
eliminates the time synchronisation error if there is a range

error.
B
Adjust the synchronous device of the trigger pulse in the
display or set the delay time of the trigger pulse in the
maintenance menu so as to ensure the shape of the linear Fig.2-11 The adjustment of
target in short range recovers the linear shape, as shown in radar range error
Fig.2-11.
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(2) Bearing errors

Heading line errors
In fine weather, when the ship docks, ensure the stability of the ship heading, choose H-up
orientation mode and use 6 nm range scale, select a point target from 3 nm, use EBLs
measuring the bearing, compare with Gyro, if the difference between the two values is more
than ±1°, there is a bearing error. Then adjust the error less than ±1° by referring to
Fig.2-12 The range and bearing measurements between two targets by the off-centre of ERBL
manufacturer's instructions.
Compass repeater errors
Compass repeater error will cause the fixed error of the heading line and the true bearing.
The error can be eliminated through comparing radar compass repeater with the master
compass, and then adjust the reading in accordance with the master compass. Generally
compass repeater error can be inspected at any time, or at least each voyage or every month
(whichever is less).
.6 Bearing and range measurement by offset EBLs and VRMs

As shown in Fig.2-12, set the cursor to the centre of the target 1, then activate the EBLs and
VRMs. Move the origin of EBL to the position of cursor by EBL OFFSET. Then make the EBL
cross the target 2, the bearing from target 1 to target 2 can be measured, and the range
between target 1 and target 2 can be measured by VRMs.
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Demonstration and practice and training 2-1

Radar setup and adjustment
Through the instructor's demonstrations and trainees' practice, the following capabilities should be
achieved:
To be familiar with the display interface of the radar, control names and functions, use turn
on/off and adjusting radar echo video image.
Use different types of presentations.
Correctly identify radar picture, targets, clutters and false echoes.
Understand the impact of maladjustment of control on radar picture.
(2) Training mode
Practice with a live radar and/or simulator.
Preliminary procedures: Check whether the antenna is clear, check the switches and controls.
Operation of turning on the radar, verifying sensor data and adjusting to optimum condition
I. Switching on
(a) Turn on the ship's power supply
(b) Turn on power of radar
(c) Explain why radars need preheating before transmitting
(d) Turn on transmit switch
II. Adjusting
(a) Adjust brightness, gain and tuning; make the radar picture to optimum condition.
(b) Select range scale
(c) Select orientation mode (head-up/north-up/course-up) and motion mode (relative mode/true
mode)
III. Verifying other sensors data
Verify the own ship's heading, ship's speed, AIS data and GPS data
IV. Operation of observation on targets according to the sea condition and navigation environment
In case of favourable echo conditions, the operation process of A/C sea control, A/C rain control
and interference rejection should be demonstrated. Otherwise, this process should be described
orally. In addition, the identification process of indirect echoes, side-lobe echoes, multiple echoes,
and second-trace echoes should be demonstrated. Otherwise, this process should be described
orally.
V. Operation of turning off the radar
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(a) Turn off transmit, switch to standby mode
(b) Rotate brightness counter clockwise to minimum (for PPI display)
(c) Turn off radar power switch
(d) Turn off the ship's power for radar
Assessment upon completion of the topic can be conducted in forms of written examination, oral
test, practical operation, discussions and class records, etc. in order to assess whether a trainee
satisfies the required performance. Focusing on radar operation skills in this topic, the trainee
shall
(1) acquire the primary knowledge and practical ability to operate and control the radar;
(2) set and maintain the radar in optimal working condition; and
(3) measure targets by range and bearing accurately.
Radar operation is the core teaching content of this course. Which provides the basic knowledge
and skills for lookout, observation, position fixing, navigation and collision avoidance. In the
teaching process, it is advised that the instructor should explain and demonstrate with typical
cases at sea, radar echo pictures, and radar videos, in order to obtain the best effect. The
demonstration and practical training is vital in this topic. It is advised that the instructors supervise
the trainees' operation on the basis of prior demonstrations. During the whole process, instructors
should have sufficient interaction and individualised communication with trainees with various
characteristics, so that they are able to operate radar with confidence. Trainee operating time
should be no less than two-thirds of the whole training time.
Insufficient understanding of essential points in radar operation may occur during the teaching
process. The instructor should highlight the particularity and complexity of radar operation. On the
one hand, radar operation is different from other stand-alone information source devices (such as
gyrocompass, speed log, GPS, AIS, etc.). Radar system is the processor of integrated information
from these sensors. The officer in charge of a navigational watch needs not only to acquire the
information from radar, but also to set up the sensors correctly, so that the radar can output the
optimal outcomes based on the information. On the other hand, the control of radar information
processor is far from intelligent and convenient. To ensure the safe navigation by using the
multi-sensor integrated terminal, the radar operation for lookout, observation, position fixing and
collision avoidance could be extremely complicated, especially when facing changing weather or
sea conditions and variety of target environment. Under such circumstances, users have to grasp
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the basic knowledge of radar, develop an understanding of the principles of radar and acquire
proficiency in basic function operations.
Due to the different ships equipped with different types of radar equipment, the applicable
standards are also different. Appropriate teaching plans meeting specific requirements should be
developed in different contexts. For example, for the PPI display radar equipment, echo stretch,
echo average and CCRP, which are covered in modern radars, may not necessarily be involved,
however the mechanical cursor and focus operation should be added. For training institutions in
compliance with the MSC. 192(79) PS, the separate antenna power switch may not be involved.
For radar system based on integrated information processing, it should be emphasised that the
integrity information is the key to ensure its proper operation, and that the azimuth-stabilised data
from THD is the indispensable information for a modern digital video processing radar. In case of
a lack of azimuth-stabilised information, for example, a wrong choice of unstable H-up
presentation mode, radar normal functions may be severely affected, resulting in serious defects
in radar information. It is worth noting that the effect of scan correlation, echo average and echo
stretch are largely determined by the hardware and software of the radar. Therefore, for different
generations and different types of radar, the presentation results by the same function might vary
greatly. Past experiences in operations cannot be applied to other types of radar directly.
The instructor should also attach the importance to radar operating skills in accordance with the
navigation practice. For example: STC is not only used to suppress sea clutters, but also can be
used to suppress and eliminate indirect and side-lobe echoes. Even when the area covered by
the tropical rainstorm is within 10 nm of the own ship, it can be used to suppress rain clutter while
observing distant targets beyond that area. Tuning can be used to obtain a fine radar image.
However, in search and rescue operations, it is also used to observe clear SART echoes in
de-tuned state. With the development of radar technology, auto-tuning has been widely adopted,
but it is still very important to emphasise the difference between manual tuning and auto-tuning
images.
Skilful use of the VRMs and EBLs to measure the range and bearing of a target in a fast and
accurate manner is the basic skill for radar position fixing and navigation. It should be noted that
the accuracy of range measurement is high, but bearing measurement is low. Because of the
influence of the radiation energy which is outside of horizontal beam width, the accuracy of
bearing measurement within 1.5 nm would decrease rapidly.
For teaching plan design, it is recommended that the instructor demonstrate how to measure
ranges and bearings with simulation scenarios. The instructor should first demonstrate the
procedures and skills of range measurement by RRs, VRMs and cursor; then the procedures and
skills of bearing measurement by EBLs and offset EBLs; and finally explain the influence of
measurement accuracy on ship's position fixing and navigation.
In consideration of the importance of radar operation, a scheme for practical training is included in
this topic. The use of the radar simulator may not achieve satisfying teaching effectiveness due to
the status quo of radar technology, it is recommended that the practical training be conducted on
a live radar, so that real experience of radar operation can be obtained and false preconceived
experience owing to the simulation deviation be avoided. In practical training, on the basis of
optimising the brightness, gain and tuning, focus, the trainee should be trained to be able to
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always keep optimum visual effects at different times in various environments and for different
targets.
The importance of safety can never be ignored in the course of teaching. The instructor should
keep stressing the importance of personal safety, equipment safety and navigation safety in radar
use. The importance of safety checks before starting the radar, compliance with safety operation
procedures and maintaining the best working conditions of the radar to ensure safety of
navigation should be kept in mind in the whole course of instruction.
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3 Using radar to ensure safe navigation
This topic mainly includes radar position fixing, radar navigational aids and radar navigation.
Understanding the content of this topic is the key to use radar parallel index lines (PI), maps,
navigation lines, routes and electronic chart navigation correctly, so as to ensure the safety of
navigation.
3.1 Radar position fixing

The operator should select the proper target that is suitable for radar position fixing based on
nautical charts. They should take account of the distribution and characteristics of targets, range
measurement and bearing measurement, and the requirements of position fixing and navigation,
etc.
.1 Description of the characteristics of good, conspicuous radar targets

The basic principles to select targets are as follows:
(1) Select the target echoes that are stable, clear, highly accurate and exactly matching with
nautical charts.
(2) Select the targets that are near, less distorted and easily identified on nautical charts.
(3) Select multi-targets for position fixing when the angles of two or more position lines meet the
requirement of navigation position fixing. The operator can also use range or bearing to a single
target for position fixing when the target is considered very reliable.
The echoes of good targets are stable, clear, highly accurate for measurement and exactly
matching with nautical charts, which are preferred
targets for position fixing, for example, isolated island,
island-reef, cape, jetty and isolated lighthouses with
obvious signs, etc.
If the instructor describes the above contents with

nautical charts in the teaching process, it is helpful for
trainees to have quick grasp of the basic
knowledge.
.2 Description of the characteristics of poor radar

target echoes
The position and shape of poor radar target echo are
not stable and will change with tide, Some echoes Fig.3-1 Radar fixing method are
weak and some echoes are blurring. This kind of
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targets should be avoided in position fixing, for example, the position and shape of gentle beach
shoreline echoes will change with tide, and is not stable. The echoes of gentle slope are weak and
the echoes of buoys are blurring.
.3 Position fixing methods based on radar bearings and ranges

Radar position fixing means that the operator draws the range and/or bearing lines to obtain the
ship's position by comparing target characteristics on the chart with radar echoes, selecting
suitable targets and using radar to measure the range and/or bearing of the target. Instructors can
refer to Fig.3-1 to explain this part.
(1) Record the measurement of radar range and/or bearing of the target.
(2) Identify the targets used for fixing on the chart.
(3) Draw the range and/or bearing line from the target according to the measurement result.
(4) The intersection of position lines or centre of geometry formed by position lines is the ship's
position.
The operator can get the range line and bearing line when using the radar for position fixing.
Radar fixing can be reformed in the following four methods:
(1) Position fixing by the range and bearing lines of a single target
This method is based on the range and bearing lines of a single target intersecting at one point,
which is the observed position. The fixing accuracy of targets must be considered when selecting
the targets and the nearer, isolated target with strong and stable echo should be selected. This
method is the only reliable position fixing method when only one isolated target can be used for
position fixing. The wrong target identification will result in serious consequences if there are
confused multi-targets. An obvious advantage of position fixing by the range and bearing lines of
a single target is that it can be completed in a short time and the angle intersected by the two lines
is 90°.
(2) Position fixing by the range lines of two or three targets
As shown in Fig.3-2, the ship's position which is near DR (Dead Reckoning) position, can be
determined by two range lines obtained from measurement of the ranges to two targets
simultaneously. The ship's position is the heart or escentre of the triangle obtained from
measurement of ranges to three targets simultaneously.
In many situations, more than three range lines can be used

for position fixing and there is a time lag between the
measurements, resulting in decrease of position fixing
accuracy. The target with fast range changing should be
measured later. The accuracy of the radar position fixing also
depends on the angles of position lines, Range line fixing
should be done with care. In general, the target of ship
abeam should be measured first and reduce the time lag Fig.3-2 Two targets range fix
between measurements should be reduced as much as possible.
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(3) Position fixing by two or three bearing lines of targets
Satisfactory position fixing accuracy can be obtained when small, isolated, stable and
conspicuous radar targets' centre bearing is observed. The advantage of this method is that it can
be done in a short time and the ship's position can be determined roughly by the bearing lines
before accurate fixing.
(4) Mixed fixing by range lines and bearing lines of multi-targets
The proper angle of position lines can be obtained from two or more isolated and conspicuous
radar targets, and the method of combining range and bearing measurements can be used for
position fixing. The interaction of range lines from two identified targets and one bearing line from
another target can be used to determine the ship's position and the accuracy is high. Similarly, the
combination of bearing lines from two reliable targets and one range line from another target can
be also used to obtain accurate ship position.
.4 Position fixing errors and the method to improve the fixing accuracy
Factors that cause radar position fixing are as follows:
(1) Position fixing is usually carried out when the ship is underway and fixing results is behind the
ship's actual position.
(2) Errors exist in the radar measurement, resulting in errors in position fixing.
(3) Errors arise from inappropriate position fixing method.
Ways to improve accuracy of position fixing:
The operator should be familiar with radar operation, and maintain optimal radar images Fixing
should be done quickly and multi-targets should be selected as appropriate, if the condition
admits, try to choose multi-targets for position fixing.
Regarding the operational methods to improve accuracy of position fixing, please refer to A1 2.2.
.5 Cross chack of reliability of radar fixing with other navigational aids

Errors exist in radar fixing. Wrong fixed position will be obtained from the wrong target
identification, and the radar fixing position should be compared with satellite positioning, landmark
fixing, etc. so as to improve the accuracy of radar position fixing.
.6 Comparison of the coast features on chart with that on radar display

Land echo is basically an integral whole. Echo strength is related to the land feature, height, slope
gradient, slope structure and slope covers situation, etc. but has little to do with the land
extension.
When the ship approaches the mainland from ocean, the high hills of distant land are first
detected by radar and their echoes are much smaller than the actual land area. Generally, the
echo of distant target has greater distortion and is difficult to be identified. When the ship
approaches the mainland and the targets are within the radar horizon, although the shoreline
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frontiers can be detected, the feature of the shoreline does not completely match with the chart.
This causes difficulty in target identification (see Fig.3-3).
Most echoes of islands matched well with charts.

Land
The echoes of near islands forefronts are more
Pulse wide
accurate, which are the ideal reference positions distortion
for radar range measurement. It should be noted Island Pulse wide
distortion
that it is difficult to separate echoes of the
River entrance
mainland from that of the islands adjacent to it if totally unseen
they are observed from a distance. Radar beam
Port navigational aids include lighthouses, light Radar

shoreline
vessels, buoys and radar beacons, etc. Isolated
Real
lighthouse and light vessel are good radar targets, shoreline
but the echo of a buoy is weak. Special attention
Land
should be given to the echoes of buoys that are
glinting in the waves and they can be displayed
clearly only at very close range.
Fig.3-3 Land echo distortion
The characteristics of target's echo change with
radar range scales and the proper radar scale should be selected in the measurement. Generally,
the accuracy of radar ranges is higher than radar bearings and the target accuracy of short
distance is higher than long distance. When the target echo is located at the 2/3 radius of the
screen, the accuracy is the highest. For raster scan radar, the target echo closer to the edge of
the screen is of higher accuracy.
Demonstration and Practical Training 3-1 Radar Fixing (1 h) (see page 96)
3.2 Radar aids to navigation

Radar beacons are classified into navigational radar beacons and search and rescue locating
radar beacons according to their usual functions. The navigational radar beacons are divided into
passive aids and active aids.
.1 Passive aids (corner reflector and Luneburg lens reflector)

(1) Corner reflector
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A corner reflector as shown in Fig.3-4 (a) is a device which reflects the incoming waves back
parallel along the incoming beam. Array corner reflectors can increase reflecting ability at any
horizontal angle and vertical angle. Fig.3-4 (b) is the chart symbol of corner reflector. Corner
(a) Principles of corner reflector (b) Chart symbol of corner reflector

Fig.3-4 Corner reflectors
reflector is usually installed on buoy, light vessel, lighthouse, over waterways cable, sea crossing
bridge, lifeboat and other important targets at sea.
(2) Luneburg lens reflector
The Luneburg lens reflector is a dielectric sphere with a permittivity varying with the distance from
the centre. Paraxial rays can be focused at a point and reflect along the direction of the incident,
as shown in Fig.3-5, and increases the RCS (radar cross-section). However, it is rare nowadays
due to its high cost and complex technique process.
.2 Active aids (Racon, echo enhancer and AIS AtoN)
(1) Racon
Racon (Radar Beacon) is mainly used to increase the ability of radar to detect targets such as
buoys and landmarks. IMO Radar Performance Standards only
require that X-band radar can detect Racon. Racon is applied to
Incoming rays
coastlines with no obvious properties, sea & land mark, gentle
coastal land, precautionary area, centre line, waypoint of TSS, Rays focused
to this point
dangers, channel under bridge, drilling platform, etc.
Returning
To this point
(2) The Radar Target Enhancer rays
Fig.3-5 Principles of the
The Radar Target Enhancer (RTE) is a device that receives,
Luneburg lens
amplifies, and relays the radar pulse, which is used to enhance the
RCS of target, and mainly used for buoys and small vessels.
(3) AIS AtoN
AIS AtoN is usually installed on the important navigational facilities and it can increase the
information of this facility and radar detection range. AIS AtoN (AIS Aids to Navigation) includes
real AIS AtoN, Synthetic AIS AtoN and Virtual AIS AtoN. Real AIS AtoN is the navigational aid
where the real AIS is installed. Synthetic AIS AtoN transmits AIS navigational aid information from
an AIS based station and the navigational aid physically exists. Virtual AIS AtoN transmits
navigational aid information from AIS based station, but the navigational aid does not physically
exist.
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.3 Radar SART and AIS SART
(1) Radar SART
The SART operates in the 9 GHZ frequency band (X band frequencies) and generates special
response signals when triggered by the radar of this frequency band. Radar display shows a line
of 12 dashes with equal space outward from the SART's position along its bearing. When the
search and rescue radar approaches SART less than 1 nm, the 12 dashes will change to
concentric arcs or even concentric circles as shown in Fig.3-6. It is useful to warn the search craft
to slow down and search the vicinity carefully. The concentric arcs phenomenon can be
weakened by reducing the radar receiver's gain to determine the bearing of the survivors. If the
clutters interfere with SART signals, the SART signal can be observed clearly when the radar is
set in detune.
Normal echo 1-nm echo 300-500 m echo

Fig.3-6 Change of Radar SART echo
(2) AIS SART
AIS SART (Automatic Identification System Search and Rescue Transmitter) adopts AIS
technique to locate the survivor on the scene of search and rescue. According to the SOLAS
Convention, AIS SART is allowed to be equipped to replace radar SART from January 1, 2010.
The AIS SART, once activated, can send static information, GNSS position information and
"SART ACTIVE" safety message. AIS SART broadcasts "SART TEST" safety short message with
fixed format in the test mode. AIS SART appears as a cross surrounded by a red circle " " on
radar displays. AIS SART identification code is 970xxyyyy. AIS SART can be activated when the
ship is in distress and the distress messages will be transmitted one minute after activated.
.4 Data information of passive and active aids
(1) Corner reflector
The corner reflector can improve the reflective performance, and it is displayed on radar screen
as an enhanced brighter spot than the original echo.
(2) Luneburg lens reflector
The Luneburg lens reflector increases the RCS, and it is displayed on radar screen as an
enhanced brighter spot than the original echo.
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(3) Racon
Racon transmits the Morse code response after

Racon Code
receiving ship radar searching pulse and the Morse code is
displayed on the radar screen outward from the
Racon's position along its bearing, as shown in Fig.3-7.
Racon appears only code information on radar screen
at long distance, while at short distance the Racon
platform can be observed on radar screen.
Racon Platform
(4) AIS AtoN
Fig.3-7 Racon echo
AIS AtoN identification code is 99MIDxxxx and it
appears as a diamond surrounded by a cross at beacon " " on the radar screen. Real AIS AtoN
and Synthetic AIS AtoN only display AIS icon at a long distance, and can display both echo and
AIS icon at a short distance, while they may not coincide completely and may have offset with
error. But virtual AIS AtoN can only display AIS icon " " without echo on the radar screen.
3.3 Parallel index line technique in radar navigation

The Parallel Index line technique can monitor uninterrupted the own ship's movement over the
ground without radar fixing. Especially on the shorter range scales, it is very sensitive in detecting
deviation from the route plan. The instructor should be informed whether the trainees understand
the route plan, navigation in narrow channel, etc. The instructor can also illustrate with reference
to the attached figures in this sub-topic and explain it in class, if necessary.
.1 Establishment and use of parallel index lines

The direction and distance of parallel index line can be set to keep the ship at a safe distance from
shoreline and dangers, so that safe navigation can be achieved easily.
As shown in Fig.3-8 (a) and 3-8 (b), the conspicuous targets with short distance and accurate
position are chosen as reference targets and the distance (d) from this target to the planned route
d=3 nm
a
A Small Island
b
c
(a) Choosing a conspicuous target near the route (b) Parallel Index Line
Fig.3-8 PI line on radar screen
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is measured. Adjust the radar to the relative motion north-up presentation, set the VRM to
distance (d), and make an EBL (electronic bearing
line) parallel to the route, tangent to the VRM at
the same side of the target. When the ship is
underway, the OOW keeps the target echo
moving along the electronic bearing line, and
a
ensure that the ship proceeds on its route. The
early PPI radar uses the mechanical parallel index
to achieve this function, while modern radar uses
parallel index lines instead. The instructor is
suggested to use teaching appliances for
demonstration.
.2 Correct actions to be taken when the echo Fig.3-9 Echo departs from the PI line
deviates from the Pl line
When the ship deviates from its route, as shown in Fig.3-9, the echo of target departs the parallel
090° (True) D
C
a
054° (True)
3 miles b
B Small Island
5.8 miles d c
000° (True)
A
(a) Multi-courses (b) PI lines on Radar screen
Fig.3-10 More than one PI line
index line from position 'a' to position 'a1'. The own ship must alter course to port to make the echo
back to the parallel index line that means to make the ship back to the route.
.3 Using more PI lines

As shown in Fig.3-10 (a), the ship is proceeding
from A to D via points B and C and the ship's track
should be monitored. a
As shown in Fig.3-10 (b), before the ship arrives at b

e e'
point A, switch radar on, North-up with the own
ship at centre, range scale 12 nm. Draw the f
d g c
parallel index line ab, bc and cd of the segment AB, f'
g' c'
BC and CD.
Fig.3-11 PI lines for two range scales

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.4 Establishment and use of PI lines at two range scales

As shown in Fig.3-11, when target reaches at point e, the operator can change it to the 6 nm
range scale. At this time, the echo of target appears at point e' and point e' starts to track along
the dotted line. Point f indicates the position of "wheel over". When point g' on the 6 nm range
scale is reached, if the operator changes it back to the 12 nm range scale, the echo will appear at
point g. Thus the operator can continue to use the parallel index line for navigation.
.5 The importance of "wheel over"

The echo will deviate from parallel index lines bc and cd without the consideration of manoeuvring
characteristics of the own ship when the conspicuous radar target reaches position B and C and
the alterations of the course are made. Therefore, the "wheel over" position must be calculated
when using parallel index lines, as shown in Fig.3-12.
090° Index target

C D
should move
along this line
054° W/O2 a
O/W1
3 nm b
e O/W1e'
B Small Island
O/W2 054°
000° d g c
W/O1 ( )054
O/W2
A O/W2
g' c' )
O/W2
Fig.3-12 "Wheel over" position
Fig.3-13 "Wheel over" on screen
.6 Demonstration of "wheel over"

As shown in Fig.3-13, when the target echo reaches the "wheel over" position, the operator can
use small rudder angle to turn the ship slowly to the new course.
C'
C D
a
W/O2
O/W1
3 nm b
e e'
B'
Small Island
054° (True) O/W2
B d g c
Safety
W/O1 margin
O/W2
A g' c'
Fig.3-14 Safety margin Fig.3-15 Safety margin on PPI
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.7 Safety margin
As shown in Fig.3-14, the planned course of the own ship is 054° and B'–C' is the safety margin
line. This line drawn on the radar screen can remind the operator of the ship's deviation.
.8 The use of safety margins

As shown in Fig.3-15, set up a safety margin line next to the parallel index line, keep the echo of
the target not to exceed the margin line.
.9 Interpreting the real motion of ships from the tracked echoes

In using of a true-motion presentation with a parallel index line, the radar picture should be kept
ground-stabilised. The ship proceeds from B to C on course of 054° (True) to pass the radar
target at a distance of 3 nm, as shown in Fig.3-16 (a).
C
'
Steering
3 miles course
True)
Island c
054°(T)
054°
B Cons. Target
5 3 miles
4
b
(a)T3 miles off a radar conspicuous target (b) true-motion display for parallel indexing
r Fig.3-16 Real motion of ship from a tracked echo
u
e
Fig.3-16 (b) shows the radar true motion, ground-stabilised presentation, 6 nm range scale, the
)
realisation method is as follows:
(1) Set the VRM as beam passing distance, i.e. 3 miles.
(2) Identify the conspicuous radar target.
(3) Draw the parallel index line b - c crossing the conspicuous target.
As the ship moves from position B to C, the VRM will roll along the parallel index line.
.10 Taking appropriate actions to counteract the influence of currents
- On the straight course
As shown in Fig.3-17, in order to keep the ship on its planned route, the operator should put the
rudder to counteract the current when the current comes from portside.
- When ship is manoeuvring
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As shown in Fig.3-18, draw a parallel of the new PI when the ship is passing "wheel over" and
determine the time to alter course according to the position of target echo.
Steering
Steering course
course
054° 054°(T)
e'
Vessel alters late Parallel to new

index line
O/W Safety
margin d c Vessel alters early
g' c'
Fig.3-17 Appropriate action to counteract Fig.3-18 Appropriate action to counteract for

for current on a straight course currents when vessel is manoeuvring
.11 The use of line of turn

The distance of "wheel over" position can be approximately calculated by the following formula:
Dwheel  R  tan(C ) (3-1)

2
Where, R is radius of turn (nautical mile), generally it is the minimum distance to fixed target, ΔC
is the angle of course alteration (degree).
The required ship's rate of turn along the arc can be calculated by the following empirical formula:
w V (3-2)
R
Where, w is rate of turn (degrees per minute); V is ship's speed (knot); R is radius (nautical mile).
The ship will follow the desired arc as long as the constant rate of turn is maintained. It should be
noted that the ship cannot alter course instantaneously, and shallow water will increase the
turning diametre, and the turn will cause speed reduction.
As shown in Fig.3-19, the minimum distance between the route and fixed target is 3 nm, speed 12
knots, the course of alteration 54°. In this case, the ship's rate of turn is 4° per minute and the
distance to "wheel over" is 3×tan27°= 1.5 nm.
.12 The establishment and use of PI lines for radial turns

As shown in Fig.3-20, the operator can draw the line of turn on radar screen crossing the "wheel
over" position and make radial turns by monitoring the position of target echo.
Demonstration and practical training 3-2 PI navigation (2.0 h) (see page 96)
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Annex, page 100
054 ° (True )
C
B O/W
b
054°
A c
000 ° (True )
Fig.3-19 Line of turn Fig.3-20 Pl for radial turns
3.4 Maps, Navigation Lines and routes for radar navigation

The operator is able to manually establish or revise, save, load and display maps, navigation lines
and routes relative to the own ship or a certain geographical position. The specific symbol for
maps can be used to mark shoals, wrecks, reefs and other underwater obstacles on the screen
which cannot be detected by radar, and also can be used to set navigation limit in channel, traffic
separation schemes, etc. The operator can remove these data easily through some simple
operation. The instructor can describe this in combination with simulator operation.
.1 Using maps/navigation lines/routes

Maps, navigation lines and routes consist of lines, symbols and reference points, and the
appearance, colours and symbols meet the requirement of IMO Circulation SN/Circ. 243. The
position of maps/navigation lines/routes can set wrecks, reefs, shoals and other underwater
obstacles by referring to the own ship's position or a certain geographical position. The
Fig.3-19 Line
Approximate
of turn
coastline Separation zone
Planed route
Waypoints Heading line
Anchorage
Shoals
Route alarm line
Fig.3-21 Radar map navigation
corresponding symbol should be established by marking the geographical position. The

established maps/navigation lines/routes can be revised, saved and called if necessary.
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The operator can draw the simple navigational maps defined by user on the radar screen and
realise the personalised navigation by setting the planned route of the own ship and making shoal
limit line, anchor position and other special symbols in the ground-stabilised presentation, as
shown in Fig.3-21.
.2 Removing maps (marks/lines)

The maps/navigation lines/routes marks should not significantly clutter the radar information. The
radar maps may cover the echoes, small fishing boats and some weak targets. The operator
keeps radar screen clear by activating or removing a certain kind of mapping element according
to the requirement of navigation and also considers the requirement of radar navigation and radar
observation. The mapping elements can be removed temporarily by using "synthetics off" button
and also can be removed by using "maps off" button, which makes the targets hiding in the
mapping elements be observed easily.
Demonstration and practical training 3-3 Radar maps/navigation lines/routes navigation

(2.0 h) (see page 97)
3.5 Electronic chart and radar picture overlay navigation

In the working display area, radar system provides the method to display ENC and other vector
chart information and continual and real-time ship position monitoring. The electronic chart
information display can be eliminated by one-button operation.
ENC display and other vector chart information is an optional function of radar according to radar
performance standards. The ENC data that meet the IHO relevant standards are the basic source
of information, while the other chart information sources should be marked permanently. The data
sources and correction information can be acquired.
.1 ENC and other vector chart information display

(1) Display electronic chart when radar is in transmitting status. (Only North-Up presentation or
Course-Up presentation is optional.)
(2) Electronic chart information adopts the same datum and coordinate system with radar/AIS
including datum, scale, orientation, and reference point and stabilisation mode.
(3) The ENC information appropriate to the prevailing circumstance and condition is selected
according to category or layer, and radar information should be displayed first. ENC information
display should not cover, mix up or weaken radar information significantly.
.2 Switching off the electronic chart display on radar screen

Radar is used as the main electronic navigational aid to assist collision avoidance. The ENC
information should not obstruct the OOW to assess the situation. One-button operation can
remove electronic chart display information on the radar screen.
.3 Picture Frozen alarm and signal source or sensor failure alarm
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(1) Picture Frozen alarm
Radar hardware, software, or sensor failure may result in radar picture not being updated timely,
and then Picture Frozen appears on the radar screen. The visual alarm (ALARM ACK key blinks
in red) and audible alarm appears in the status of Picture Frozen. The audible alarm will be
cancelled when the "ALARM ACK" button is pressed down, but the visual alarm will maintain until
the cause for alarm is no longer present.
(2) "Signal source or sensor failure" alarm
Any failure of signal source or sensor, including THD sensor, SDME sensor, and EPFS sensor will
trigger alarm. The audible alarm is cancelled when the "ALARM ACK" button is pressed down,
then the system will be in "emergency" mode and the displayed information is restricted.
Demonstration and Practical training 3-1

Radar position fixing (1.0 h)
Through the instructor's demonstration and the trainees' practical training, the objective is to help
the trainees to be proficient in the basic knowledge for radar position fixing, to understand the
echoes' characteristics of different targets, to grasp the method to improve measurement
accuracy, and understand the reasons that cause errors.
(2) Training mode
Trainees complete the typical training programmes on the simulator set by the instructor.
Training programmes include isolated island or two or more targets appropriate for position
fixing.
The measurement of range and bearing (0.3 h)
Position fixing on the chart, including single target range/bearing fixing; multi-targets ranges fixing;
multi-targets bearings fixing; multi-targets mixed fixing; (0.5 h)
Comparing radar position with GPS position (0.2 h).

PI line navigation (2.0 h)
the trainees establish and use PI in various navigation environment and be acquainted with the
key factors which can affect the navigation accuracy in the practical training process.
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(2) Training modes
Trainees complete the typical training programs on the simulator set by the instructor.
Training scenarios include isolated island or dangerous water area.
Set up parallel index lines (0.3 h);
Use PI for navigation (0.8 h)
Use PI to alter course (0.7 h);
Set safety margin (0.2 h).

Radar maps, navigation lines and routes navigation (2.0 h)
the trainees to know well the relevant knowledge of radar maps, navigation lines and routes
navigation and have the ability to ensure safe navigation by using modern navigational aid.
(2) Training mode
Trainees complete the typical training programmes on the simulator set by the instructor.
Training programmes include TSS, reefs, shoals, anchor position and other targets that cannot
be detected and training water with heavy traffic.
Establish maps (marks/lines) (0.5 h)
Establish maps relative to the own ship (marks/lines)
Select suitable marks/lines according to the target's type;
Enter "maps" interface;
Move cursor to the proper position according to the target's range and bearing relative to the own
ship, establish special marks/lines on radar screen.
Establish maps (marks/lines) relative to the geographical position:
Select suitable marks/lines according to the target's type;
Enter "maps" interface;
Select the geographical position input mode (L/L) as the marks/lines input mode, and input the
latitude and longitude of targets;
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Move cursor to the proper position according to the target's range and bearing relative to the own
ship, establish special marks/lines on radar screen.
Change maps (marks/lines) (0.3 h)
Move a certain kind of marks or lines individually;
Remove a certain kind of marks or lines individually;
Correct a certain kind of marks or lines individually;
Remove a certain kind of marks or lines collectively.
Save maps (marks/lines) (0.2 h)
Select "file management" function button in "maps" menu after establishing maps (marks/lines);
Select "flash card" position in "file management" function area;
Select "save" menu;
Input file name;
Select "save" button.
Load maps (marks/lines) (0.2 h)
Enter radar mapping interface and select "file management" function button;
Select "flash card" position in "file management" function area;
Select "flash card mark display" button;
Select the file to be loaded.
Display maps (marks/lines) (0.2 h)
Display (switch on) maps (marks/lines) individually;
Set mapping display by type, set to activate maps by type (marks/lines);
Set mapping display by colour, set to activate maps by colour (marks/lines);
Set the marked font size, the marked fonts are displayed in small size or standard size;
Set the font size of note, the font of note is displayed in small size or standard size.
Establish routes (0.5 h)
Establish the waypoints according to the latitude and longitude;
Planned route, plan the route between the waypoints (automatically calculated);
Planned speed, plan the speed between the waypoints (manual input);
Set (arrival) waypoint alarm circle;
Set route (deviation) alarm line, the alarm line display the distance from the plan route to
determine the deviation alarm.
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Remove maps (marks/lines) (0.1 h)
Remove (switch off) a certain kind of maps (marks/lines).
Remove (switch off) all maps (marks/lines).
Remove maps (marks/lines) temporarily, the "graphics off" function of the advanced radar sets
can make the graphics (including maps, marks, lines and routes) on the radar screen hide
temporarily except VRM, EBL, HL and range rings, so as to facilitate the observation for those
targets maybe influenced by the graphics.
test, practical operation, discussions and class records, etc. in order to assess whether a trainee
satisfies the required performance. Focusing on radar position fixing and navigation skills in this
topic, the trainee shall
(1) have comprehensive theoretical knowledge and practical ability to conduct radar position fixing;
and
(2) use parallel index lines, maps, navigation lines, routes and ECDIS for navigation.
Radar position fixing and navigation is a major duty for officers in charge of a navigational watch.
While in class, the instructor shall emphasise that there are corresponding methods for position
fixing and navigation in different radar presentations. Also it shall be stressed that, in the present
context of position fixing, navigation and timing (PNT) system with high precision, the radar
position fixing and navigation possess a quality of autonomy and irreplaceability. Trainees shall
be reminded that nowadays OOWs have the tendency to reduce the use of the full functions of the
radar for navigational purpose since they do not have enough practices to update their knowledge.
It is necessary to raise awareness of information-integrated navigation to make full use of all the
functions of radar position fixing and navigation to ensure the navigational safety.
(1) Regarding radar position fixing method, the following should be highlighted: it is of high
accuracy for radar range measurement but low for bearing measurement; when the target is close,
the radar range measurement accuracy is high, but the bearing measurement accuracy is high
when the target is far; multi-targets range fixing should be used if practicable; position fixing
operation should be done as quickly as possible.
(2) In order to improve the accuracy of PI navigation, the targets close to the ship's beam should
be chosen if practicable. Targets should be renewed in time when it comes to a long route.
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Annex, page 106
(3) In use of maps, navigation lines and routes, layers should be selected according to the
prevailing circumstances and conditions so as to reduce the shade of radar picture. Attention
should be paid to the following:
 Maps, navigation lines and routes may obstruct small targets, such as small fishing boats.
These maps, navigation lines and routes should be removed at appropriate intervals temporarily
according to prevailing navigational circumstances and conditions at that time.
 When maps, navigation lines and routes are established, types and colours of the
marks/lines should be selected according to the different targets, in order to activate or remove
some particular marks/lines to keep the radar screen clear.
(4) When the ENC is loaded, position references should be checked and radar pictures should
overlap with electronic chart completely. If the ENC information interferes with radar function, it
should be cancelled immediately.
(5) Plans for the practice exercises should be targeted, enabling the trainees to develop a good
knowledge and understanding of using parallel index line, maps, navigation lines and routes while
keeping proper lookout and conducting radar observation and position fixing. At the end of the
training, the instructor should review and evaluate the performance of the trainees, and point out
the key points in operation.
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4 Manual radar plotting
This topic mainly includes the basic principles of manual radar plotting and the application of these
principles to acquire the motion data of the target ship and the changes of its course and speed.
Manual radar plotting is based on the basic operation of radar and the results can be used in ship
collision avoidance.
4.1 Relative motion triangle
.1 The meanings of the relative motion triangle, various vectors and angles
A relative motion triangle consists of the own ship's true vector, target ship's true vector and the
relative motion vector.
The own ship's true vector indicates the speed and course of the own ship's true motion. Target
ship's true vector indicates the speed and course of target ship's true motion. The relative motion
vector indicates the speed and direction of the target echo's movement observed in relative
motion presentation.
In the relative motion presentation, the extension line of the target's track within a period of
observation time is the relative motion line (RML) of the target; the direction of motion is the
direction of the relative motion vector of the target ship; the moving distance is the length of the
relative motion vector. Relative motion vector indicates the movement tendency of target echo on
the radar. The distance between the radial scan centre (position of the own ship) and the RML
can indicate possible risk of collision of the target ship and the own ship.
.2 Construction of a relative motion triangle on a plotting chart

The relationship of these three vectors in a relative motion triangle is shown in Formula 4-1 and
Fig.4-1:
tv  ov  rv (4-1)
where
ov —— the own ship's true vector; rv

ov
tv —— target ship's true vector;

tv
Fig.4-1 Relative motion triangle

rv —— relative motion vector.
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4.2 Course, speed and aspect of target ship
.1 Measuring the range and bearing of a target at an appropriate interval and frequency
(1) The bearing and range of a target echo on radar can be measured in this way: the range of
target can be obtained by making the inner edge of VRM tangent with the inner edge of target
echo on the radar. The bearing as indicated by the EBL on the tangent point is the bearing of the
target. The bearing and range can be obtained simultaneously by the ERBL on modern radar.
(2) To ensure accuracy, the range and bearing of the target ship should be measured with a
frequency of three times or more, and with equivalent intervals of normally 3 or 6 minutes. If the
observed positions of these target echoes on the plotting chart are equally spaced on one line, it
indicates that the own ship and the target ship both keep their courses and speeds during the
observation period.
.2 The course, speed and aspect of a target ship in a relative presentation (of stabilised or
unstabilised mode)
(1) The course and speed of a target ship in a relative
E1
presentation can be obtained as shown in Fig.4-2.
E2
To plot the observed positions (E1, E2, E3) of the target
ship on the plotting chart.
E3
To start from the starting position of the target ship W
(E1) first, then plot reciprocal distance (E1W) that the own Fig.4-2 Relative motion plotting
ship travelled through the water during the observation,
and finally connect it to the end position of the target ship E1
(E3). E2
C E3
W
Then, the length of WE3 is the tracking distance of the
target ship in course of the observation. Thus the speed
of the target ship can be calculated, with the direction of
WE3 as the course of the target ship.
O
(2) Aspect can be obtained as indicated in Fig.4-3
Fig.4-3 Aspect
To get the true vector of target ship WE3 as mentioned in (1) above.
The angle CE3O, which is the angle between the extension line E3C of WE3 and the
bearing line OE3, is the aspect.
.3 The course, speed and aspect of a target ship in true presentation

(1) The course and speed of a target ship in true presentation can be obtained as shown in
Fig.4-4.
To draw the route of the own ship on plotting chart based on its course.
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To plot positions (W1, W2, W3) of the own ship on the route corresponding to the observation
time.
C
To plot positions (A1, A2, A3) of the target ship A3 based
on the observed bearing and range corresponding W3 to
positions of the own ship on the plotting chart. A2
W2
Then, the length of A1A3 is the moving distance of the
A1
target ship within the observation interval. The speed
W1
of the target ship can thus be calculated and the
direction of A1A3 is the course of the target ship.
Fig.4-4 True motion plotting
(2) The aspect can be determined as shown in
Fig.4-4.
A3C is the extension line of targe route A1A3.
Angle CA3W3, which is the angle between the course of the target ship and the bearing line,
is the aspect.
.4 Factors affecting the accuracy of derived course, speed and aspect

The factors that affect the accuracy of plotting include:
(1) Inappropriate mode of radar presentation;
(2) Error of observed bearing and range of target ship;
(3) Error of the own ship's course and speed;
(4) Inappropriate plotting scale, error of plotting and calculation.
.5 Determination of the set and drift of current by observations of a fixed target

The set and drift of current can be obtained by the
E1
observation of a fixed target, as shown in Fig.4-5.
(1) To plot the echo of a fixed target (E1, E2, E3) on the
E2
plotting chart.
(2) To draw the relative motion triangle (△E1WE3) in the W

E3
same way of obtaining the course and speed of target
Fig.4-5 Set and drift of current
ships by relative motion plotting as mentioned above.
Thus, the length of E3W is the drifting distance of current in the interval of observation. The drift of
current can thus be calculated, but the direction of is the drifting direction, i.e. the set of
currents.
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4.3 Determination of CPA and TCPA
.1 Determination of CPA and TCPA in relative presentation (stabilised and unstabilised)

CPA and TCPA of a target ship in a relative presentation
can be obtained as shown in Fig.4-6. E1
E2
(1) To plot the observed positions (E1, E2, E3) of the target
E3
ship on the plotting chart.
(2) To get the RML (E1E3) of the target ship by connecting

these positions and extend the line towards the direction of
E1E3.
P
(3) To draw a perpendicular from the own ship's position O O
to the extension line until the foot point P.

Fig.4-6 CPA and TCPA from RP
Then, the length of OP is CPA and the time needed for the
target ship to arrive at the foot point P is TCPA.
.2 Determining CPA and TCPA in true presentation

CPA and TCPA of a target ship in true presentation can be obtained as shown in Fig.4-7.
(1) To plot the course and speed of the target ship in a

P
true presentation as mentioned above.
A3
A
(2) To plot the relative motion triangle (△A1AA3) based
W3
on the track (A1A3) of the target ship, and obtain the A2 RML
(AA3) of the target ship. W2
(3) To draw a perpendicular from the own ship's A1

W1
corresponding position W3 to the extension of the RML
AA3, and get the foot point P.
Fig.4-7 CPA and TCPA from TP
Then, the length of W3P is the CPA, and the time
needed for the target ship to arrive at the foot point P is the TCPA.
.3 Factors affecting the accuracy of CPA and TCPA

The factors that affect the accuracy of CPA and TCPA include:
(1) Inappropriate mode of radar presentation;
(2) Error of observed bearing and range of targets;
(3) Inappropriate plotting scale, error of plotting and calculation.
Demonstration and practical training 4-1 Acquiring motion elements of target ships
(1.0 hour) (see page 108)
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4.4 Effects of course alteration and speed change
.1 Effects of course alteration and/or speed change of a target ship

Course alteration and/or speed change of a target ship normally leads to changes of initial CPA
and TCPA when the own ship keeps its speed and course.
As shown in Fig.4-8, WE3 is the true vector of the target ship. The target ship turns to starboard
with Angle α (with no speed change) at the moment E3 while the own ship keeps the course and
speed. Then the RML changes accordingly, which means changes of CPA, TCPA, relative course
and speed of the target ship. Similarly, effects of changes in CPA, TCPA, relative course and
speed of the target ship can be obtained while it keeps course but changes speed or changes
both course and speed.
E1
E2
E3'
W α
E3
W
W
P1
P
O
Fig.4-8 Plotting of the relative movement vectors for both ships

(the target ship making a turn while the own ship keeping the course and speed)
.2 Radar observation V.S. visual look-out

Radar observation has advantages for long range targets and high measurement accuracy and it
is less influenced by visibility. Although motion data of a target ship can be obtained by radar
plotting, it takes longer time. In terms of finding a target ship manoeuvre, there exists a time delay.
It is difficult to find small course alteration and/or speed change in particular.
Visual look-out is the most basic and important means to maintain a proper look-out for officers
and should be abandoned in no case. Visual look-out is simple, convenient and intuitive, which
helps the officers to make a full appraisal of the situation and of the risk of collision, but the
accuracy is poor in estimating target ship motion data. Visual look-out could be easier than radar
observation in finding a manoeuvre of the target ship earlier according to the course alteration
and/or speed change.
.3 Time delay between change in the course or speed and detection of that change
Through continuous observation, course alteration and/or speed change of a target ship can be
obtained from the change of the RML. But it is difficult to estimate changes of course and speed of
the target ships within a short observation time, because the change of the RML of target ships is
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Annex, page 112
not obvious in such situation. Therefore, there should be enough continuous observation time for
the tetection of the changes in target course and speed.
.4 Advantages of bearing stabilisation in a relative motion presentation

In order to determine the risk of collision and ensure the stability of the radar picture after taking
collision avoiding actions, manual radar plotting in a relative presentation mode with bearing
stabilisation is normally applied. This display mode is conducive to reducing error and improving
the plotting accuracy. Moreover the state of echo of target ship remains steady and continuous
when the own ship alters course.
.5 Effects on target ship motion data by the own ship's course alteration or speed change
As shown in Fig.4-9, the new RML changes when the own ship makes a turn to starboard with an
angle of α at moment E3 (with no speed change), which also leads to the subsequent changes of
CPA, TCPA, as well as the relative course and speed of the target ship. Similarly, it is also
possible to obtain the changes of new CPA, TCPA, relative course and relative speed while the
own ship changes speed alone or changes both speed and course.
E1 E '1
E2
E3 
P1 W
P
O
Fig.4-9 Relative movement vectors of both ships (the own ship making a turn, with the target ship keeping her
course and speed)
.6 Effects of small changes of course and/or speed on finding changes of true vector of the
target ship and on the accuracy of these changes
It is more difficult to find small changes of true vector of a target ship compared with large
changes when manual radar plotting is used to find changes of true vector of the target ship and
the accuracy of these changes.
The changes of the true vector of target ship are presented by changing RML on radar plotting.
When both ships have similar speeds, it is difficult to detect the changes of RML if the target ship
has small changes in course or speed. Therefore, adequate collision avoidance actions should be
taken in order to be detected by other ships. Usually, adequate action means that one-time
change of course should reach at least 30 degrees or even 60 to 90 degrees in poor visibility; and
the reduction of speed should not be less than half of the initial.
Demonstration and practical training 4-2 Effects on RML by altering course of the own ship
(1.0 hour) (See Page 109)
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Demonstration and practical training 4-3 Effects on RML by speed change of the own ship
(1.0 hour) (See Page 100)
4.5 Radar plotting data

The importance of manual radar plotting report should be fully understood and procedures of
manual radar plotting report should be made clear.
Manual radar plotting report should include the following data: bearing, range, CPA, TCPA,
course, speed and aspect.
The report should start from finding a target on radar, and then bearing, range, CPA, TCPA,
course, speed and aspect. Continuous observation should be maintained and the frequency of
reporting should be adjusted with the development of the situation. Following the collision
avoidance action, reporting should be maintained until the other ship is finally past and clear.
Demonstration and practical training 4-4 Manual radar plotting report (1.0 hour) (see Page
112)

Acquiring motion elements of target ships (1.0 hour)
With this training, trainees should understand the meaning of relative vector triangle, different
vectors and angles and also should know how to acquire the course, speed, aspect, CPA and
TCPA of target ships. Moreover, trainees should know the factors affecting the accuracy of motion
elements.
(2) Training mode
Demonstration and practical training should be carried out on radar simulators.
Power on radar and adjust the radar simulator to its optimal display status.
Plot the motion data of target ships on plotting charts based on radar observation.
Training report
The own ship Target ships

Data of observation Motion elements
Course Speed
Time Bearing Range Course Speed CPA TCPA Aspect
(4) Training guidance
Instructors
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. Requirements of training scenarios: target ships may include ships with same speed and
course, anchoring ships, head-on ships, crossing ships, overtaking ships and ships being
overtaken, etc. At the same time, the target ships should be located at different bearings of the
own ship.
. Demonstrate the right methods of using manual radar plotting tools.
. Demonstrate the ways to plot the positions of target ships on plotting chart and ways to
acquire the motion elements.
. Summarise and assess the performance of trainees at the end of the training.
Trainees
. Pay attention to the difference of bearings in different radar presentations.
. Keep course and speed while plotting.
. Note that too short intervals of observation may cause major deviation while too long intervals
may prolong the plotting time.

Effects of course alterations on RML (1.0 hour)
Based on in-depth class discussions, trainees should be able to by means of demonstration and
practical training, attain the knowledge regarding the influences of the own ship's course alteration
on CPA, TCPA and the RML, and acquire the skills of altering course to avoid collision in different
situations.
(2) Training mode
Take collision avoidance actions in different encounter situations based on radar observation.
Record the changes of the RML after each course alteration and analyse the changes of RML
following the own ship's actions towards different target ships.
Training report
The own ship Target ships Course change action

Course Speed No. Bearing Range New Course Change direction of RML
1
2
Instructor
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. Requirements of training scenarios: target ships may include ships with the same speed and
overtaken, etc. At the same time, the target ship should be located at different bearings of the own
ship.
. Demonstrate how to take collision avoidance actions by altering the course on radar simulator,
as well as how to maintain course and speed.
. Demonstrate the ways to determine the changing direction of RML after taking collision
avoidance actions.
Trainees
In order to manifest the influence of course alteration on RML, the own ship can turn to
starboard or port side.
During the simulation training, the target ship should keep its speed and course and the own
ship keeps its speed.
After course alteration, the course and speed of the own ship should be made steady as soon
as possible.

Effects of speed changes on RML (1.0 hour)
Based on in-depth discussion in class, trainees should be able to by means of demonstration and
practice, attain the knowledge regarding effects of the change of the own ship's speed on CPA, TCPA
and the RML, and acquire the skills of changing speed to avoid collision in different situations.
(2) Training mode
Demonstrations and practical training will be carried out on radar simulators.
Take collision avoidance actions in different encounter situations based on radar observation.
Record the changes of the RML after taking each changes of speed to avoid collision and
analyse the changes of RML following the own ship's actions towards different target ships.
Training report
The own ship Target ships Speed change action

New Change direction of
Course Speed No. Bearing Range
speed RML
1
2
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Instructor
. Requirements of trainging scenarios: target ships may include ships with the same speed and
overtaken, etc. At the same time, the target ship should be located at different bearings of the own
ship.
. Demonstrate how to take collision avoidance actions by changing the speed, as well as how to
maintain its course and speed.
. Demonstrate the ways to determine the direction of RML change after taking collision
avoidance actions.
Trainees
The own ship can speed up or slow down in order to manifest the influence of speed change
on RML.
During the simulation training, the target ship should keep speed and course and the own ship
maintains its course.
After changing speed, the own ship should make the course and speed steady as soon as
possible.

Manual radar plotting report (1.0 h)
Through demonstration and practice, trainees should be able to understand the importance of
manual plotting report and make clear the contents of the report and the procedures of the
operation.
(2) Training mode
To measure the range and bearing of the target ship by radar observation.
To acquire course, speed, CPA, TCPA of target ships by radar plotting.
To report the manual plotting data according to the report procedure.
Instructor
Demonstrate the manual plotting report procedures including report contents and frequency
which change with situations.
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Summarise and assess the performance of the trainees after the training.
Trainees
Continuous observation should be maintained. The reporting frequency should be adjusted with
the changes of the situation and the reporting should be maintained after taking collision
avoidance actions and until the target ship is past and clear.
test, practical operation, class discussions and records, etc. in order to assess whether a trainee
satisfies the required performance. Focusing on basic concept of vector triangle in collision
avoidance and the formation of motion vectors in encounter situations in this topic, the trainee
shall
(1) have the primary knowledge and practical ability to determine the motion data of target ships
by fast plotting under the relative or true motion presentation,
(2) interpret the effects of the action to avoid collision on the RMLs of target ships, and
(3) complete the procedures of manual radar plotting reports correctly.
This topic is mainly about the technique of manual radar plotting and its application. After the
learning, demonstration and practical training, trainees should develop an expertise of manual
radar plotting technique and establish the concept of relative motion. Knowledge regarding the
effects of collision avoidance actions on CPA and TCPA should also be acquired.
It should be highlighted that even with the comprehensive auto-tracking functions of radar, it is still
important for the officer in charge of a navigational watch to acquire manual plotting knowledge
and skills. The principles and approaches are the theoretical foundation of radar target tracking
technique. Expertise of manual plotting is conducive to the establishment of a complete concept
of vector triangle in collision avoidance and the formation of motion vectors in encounter situations.
This in turn assists full comprehension and application of ARPA in providing collision avoidance
information. It should be particularly highlighted that trainees should make clear assessments
regarding the CPA changes and developments of target ships based on the patterns of RML
changes so as to predict the effects of the collision avoiding actions for the benefit of the
coordination of ships encountered.
The concept of vector triangle is the key point of this topic. The instructor should try all effective
means to assist the trainees in establishing the concept of vector triangle so that they may
develop a comprehensive understanding of the effects on CPA and TCPA of motion vector
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changes of both the own ship and the target ship. Automatic target tracking and AIS reporting
functions may be integrated in the instruction of plotting principles and approaches to strengthen
trainees' understanding of vector triangle. Detailed interpretation and analysis should be made
regarding different encounter situations between ships, such as the same speed and course ships,
anchoring ships, head-on ships, crossing ships, overtaking ships and ships being overtaken.
In this topic, situational awareness is emphasised. Demonstration and practical training should be
the focal parts in the whole process. A training plan should be developed by instructors with rich
navigation experience. Real-time plotting practices on radar simulators may help the trainees to
develop good understanding of plotting geometry and relative motions, thus improving their
plotting techniques.
The instructor should play a leading role in delivering the course. Demonstration of the plotting
procedures should be based on detailed explanations. Effective training can be achieved by
frequent practices on radar simulators. In this topic, demonstration and practical training should
be designed step by step from the easier to the more complex. Trainees could begin from the
simplest exercise, and make gradual progress to meet the requirements of the STCW Convention.
Demonstration and practical training may be conducted synchronically with classroom instructions
or conducted after the instructions. Practical training time for trainees should be no less than three
quarters of the total demonstration and practical training time.
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5 ARPA system or radar target tracking (TT) and AIS reporting

functions
The ARPA system or TT and AIS reporting functions can obtain collision avoidance information
between targets and the own ship. Based on the MSC. 192(79) PS, ARPA has evolved from a
stand-alone automatic radar plotting aid to an essential and indispensable functional module in
radar video data processing, which is referred to as TT. The AIS sensor provides information of
AIS reported targets to assist collision avoidance.
This topic deals with radar application for collision avoidance which is a significant part of safe
navigation. The teaching objectives include:
(1) The display characteristics of radar tracking targets;
(2) The display characteristics of AIS reported targets;
(3) The basic concept of the association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets;
(4) IMO performance standards for ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions;
(5) Criteria for acquisition of ARPA or TT targets and activation of AIS reported targets;
(6) Radar tracking capabilities and limitations;
(7) Processing delay of target tracking and information delay of AIS reported targets.
This topic, based on the theoretical foundation established in Topics 1 and Topic 4, enables
trainees to develop a full understanding of the principles of ARPA and TT and AIS reporting
functions. Effective use of ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions helps them to perform the
watchkeeping duties competently.
5.1 Display characteristics of ARPA systems or TT
.1 Vectors
Originating from the target position (target tracking position or AIS reported position) and the
CCRP position of the own ship, vector is a line segment to predict the motion of the target and the
own ship in a period (the length of time can be adjusted by the operator). Specifically, the direction
of the line segment predicts the motion direction of the target and the own ship, and the length of
the line segment represents the predicted motion distance in the set period. Once the unit time is
selected, the length of the vector will represent the predicted speed of the target.
With vectors, the operator can quickly obtain the target's motion trends, evaluate the collision risk,
interpret the encounter situation, determine and take measures to avoid collision.
Vector modes include relative vector (RV) and true vector (TV).
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(1) Relative Vector
The meaning of relative vector
The originating point of the relative vector is the current position of the target and the direction
represents the motion direction of the target with respect to the observing ship; the length of the
vector represents the motion distance within the setting time with respect to the observing ship;
and the tail end of the vector indicates the relationship of position between target and the own ship
after the set time (provided there are no manoeuvres for the observing ship and target ship within
the set time).
Features of relative vector
I The relative vector is target motion vector with respect to the observing ship and the extension
of relative vector is essentially equivalent to the target Relative Movement Line (RML), as T1 and
Dangerous
Safe T2 T3
T1
T1Safe
T2
CCRP T3 Dangerous
TCPA CPA
T4
TCPA
CPA LIM CPA
CPA LIM
CCRP T4
(a) RM.RV. (b) TM.RV.
T2 T3
T1
T1 T2
T4
T3
CCRP
CCRP T4
(c) RM.TV. (d) TM.TV.
Fig.5-1 图 vectors
The relative 7-2-2 相对矢量与真矢量示意图
and true vectors
T3 shown in Fig.5-1 (a) and (b).
II In the water area not affected by wind and current, the direction of relative vector of a fixed
target is opposite to the compass course of the observing ship and the velocity value represented
is equal to the speed value of observing ship, as T4 shown in Fig.5-1 (a) and (b). While in the
water area with wind and current, the direction of the fixed target relative vector is opposite to the
track of the own ship, and the value is equal to the tracking speed of the own ship.
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III There is no relative vector on the own ship as shown in Fig.5-1 (a) and (b), and targets
possessing the same speed and course with the own ship have no relative vectors as well, as T2
shown in Fig.5-1 (a) and (b).
IV The perpendicular line segment from the own ship to relative vector or its extension line is
called CPA and the target navigation time from the start point of the target relative vector to the
perpendicular foot is TCPA, as shown in Fig.5-1 (a) and (b).
V There is no relationship between relative vector and radar orientation modes (H-up, N-up, C-up,
etc.) or motion modes (TM, RM), as shown in Fig.5-1 (a) and (b).
(2) True vector
The meaning of true vector
Both the observing ship and target ship have true vectors. The originating point of the true vector
is the current position of the target or CCRP of the own ship and the direction represents the
course of the target or the observing ship. The length of the vector represents the true motion
distance within the set vector time, and the tail end of the vector indicates the ship position after
the set time (provided there are no manoeuvres for both the observing and target ship within the
set vector time).
The features of true vector
I Both the observing ship and target ship have true vectors (It is assumed that the speeds of the
observing and target ship are not zero). The ratio of the true vector lengths between the own ship
and the target ship is actually the speed ratio, as the own ship and targets T1, T2, T3 shown in
Fig.5-1 (c) and (d), among which T2 has the same speed and course with the own ship.
II The features of true vector depend on the own ship's speed input mode. When SOG is selected,
the true vector is the vector relative to the ground and radar pictures are generally suitable for
coastal and narrow waters taking consideration of both collision avoidance and navigation; when
STW is selected, the true vector is the vector relative to water and the radar presentations are
generally suitable for ship collision avoidance. In the water area free of the affection of wind and
current, the SOG equals to STW. In other words, there is no deference between the true vector
relative to the ground and to the water.
III There is no relationship between true vector display and radar orientation modes (H-up, N-up,
C-up, etc.), as well as motion modes (TM, RM), as shown in Fig.5-1 (c) and (d).
Slides or other forms of visual presentation may be adopted in the course, with emphasis on the
significance of using vector to obtain target predicted motion and assess the risk of collision, so
that the officers will be well informed of the encounter situations and take collision avoidance
measures. Also it is important to note that the alternate use of different modes of vector is
significant for obtaining comprehensive information about collision avoidance and that false vector
identification mode causes serious consequences.
.2 Graphics
For each radar tracked target, the following symbol graphics should be presented in graphical
form: radar acquired target, radar tracking target, and dangerous target, etc.
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The significance of familiarity with graphical symbols of radar tracking target should be
emphasised in the course. It is preferable that all symbol graphics in Table 2 of Appendix I-7 be
illustrated with the live radar screenshots or the graphics illustrated in radar operation manual.
.3 Alphanumeric data output

The display alphanumeric data of the tracked target required by IMO performance standards
include the relative range/bearing (or true bearing), CPA/TCPA, true course/speed, and Bow
Crossing Range (BCR)/Bow Crossing Time (BCT) which are also available in many radar sets.
The relevant symbols and data of targets from radar should be clearly identified.
.4 PADs
PADs is an acronym for "Predicted Area of Danger", which is the possible collision area of the own
ship with the target under the condition that the target keeps the speed and course and the own
ship keeps the speed only.
(1) The features of PADs
PAD is presented as an arbitrary closed area. As an

example, the popular hexagonal PADs on radar screen is
shown as the symmetrical hexagon " " in the true T2
T1
vector line, as shown in Fig.5-2. The axis represents the Safe Dangerous
true course line of the target and the length of the axis is
T0
associated with the speed ratio of the targets and the O
observing ship, and the width of PADs is twice that of
CPA LIM.
(2) The relationship between PADs and vector
When switching over to PADs mode, only the true vectors Fig.5-2 PAD
are displayed.
(3) The number of PADs
Different speed ratio and encounter situations between the own ship and targets will lead to a
variety of number of PADs, 0,1,2, as shown T0, T1, T2.in Fig. 5-2.
5.2 Display characteristics of AIS reported targets

AIS provides basic knowledge in the course. The instructor may review the basic concepts of AIS
in an interactive way, focusing on the fact that the radar display terminal provides optimum display
platform for the application of AIS information in collision avoidance.
AIS reported targets is a required function of radar according to the MSC. 192(79) PS.
AIS reported targets should be presented with their relevant symbols according to the
performance standards for the Presentation of Navigation-related Information on Shipborne
Navigational Displays adopted by the IMO and SN/Circ.243.
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AIS targets that are displayed should be presented as sleeping targets by default.
.1 Vectors
The course and speed of AIS reported targets should be indicated by a predicted motion vector.
The vector time should be adjustable and valid for the presentation of any target regardless of its
source. AIS presentation status is specified in TABLE 4 of Appendix I-3.
A permanent indication of vector mode, time and stabilisation should be provided.
.2 Graphics
AIS reported targets should be identified with their relevant graphics. The AIS reported target
symbols are specified in Table 2 of Appendix I-7.
.3 Alphanumeric data output

For each selected AIS target, ship information should be displayed in alphanumeric mode as
follows:
(1) Static information includes ship's name, MMSI, dimension and ship type.
(2) Dynamic information includes ship's position, ROT (it is compulsory for all ships of 50,000
gross tonnage and upwards are applicable), and navigation status.
(3) Voyage related information includes ship's draught, destination, voyage plan, etc.
These information may inform the officer of the characteristics and movements of the targets, so
that they can assess the encounter situations and the risks of collision, and take corresponding
actions.
The current target data should be displayed and continue to be updated before selecting another
target data display or window to close. In addition, a method for displaying the AIS data of the ship
is also provided.
If more than one target is selected for data display, the relevant symbols and corresponding data
should be clearly identified.
5.3 Association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets
.1 The concept of the association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets
As required in the MSC. 192(79) PS, an automatic target association function based on
harmonised criteria avoids the presentation of two target symbols for the same physical target.
The information of the target positions, courses, speeds respectively from the radar sensors and
AIS sensors have various degrees of accuracy. Based on the association criteria (e.g. time,
position, course and speed), making full use of these information, the radar optimises and outputs
the consolidated and optimal dynamic information about the target as required by the officer. This
process is called the association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets.
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(1) Independence
Radar target tracking information and AIS target reported information come from different
independent sources with independent communication and access channels without
synchronisation. Thus there exist information errors.
(2) Interdependency
For the same target, there exists a good interdependency between radar tracking and AIS
reported target information.
.2 Association principles of tracked and AIS reported targets and factors affecting
association criteria setting
If the target data from AIS and radar tracking are both available and if the association criteria (e.g.
position, motion) are fulfilled, the AIS and radar information are considered as one physical target.
Then in a default condition, the activated AIS target symbol and the alphanumeric AIS target data
should be automatically selected and displayed.
The instructor should point out that factors affecting association setting include traffic density, the
precision of the equipment and the accuracy of nautical instruments affected by weather/sea
conditions, etc., e.g.,
(1) At open sea, the distance between ships is normally more than 1.5 nm. Even in coastal waters
with heavy traffic, it is not less than 0.8 nm generally.
(2) According to the MSC. 192(79) PS (5.25.4.7.1) and IEC 62388 standards, under the
circumstance of ship rolling within ±10°, the measured target range and bearing should be within
50 m or ±1% of target range, whichever is greater, with a precision of 2°.
(3) The reported interval of AIS dynamic data may vary from the requirements of the performance
standards due to the fact that performance of equipment from different manufacturers differs and
that AIS VHF Data Link (VDL) environment varies.
(4) When a tracked target has achieved a steady state, the true speed accuracy of the target is
within 0.5 kn or 1% of target speed (whichever is greater) and the true course accuracy is within
5° provided by radar tracker. But considering the actual sea conditions, especially in adverse
weather and rough sea conditions, the actual tracking accuracy may be lower than the
requirements of the standards.
5.4 IMO performance standards for ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions
This sub-topic focuses on related content of the MSC. 192(79) PS. For the ARPA system, please
refer to Appendix I-5. Prior to the instruction, relevant materials should be prepared and
distributed to the trainees.
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.1 IMO performance standards for ARPA and TT relating to accuracy

Automatic tracking accuracy should be achieved when the tracked target has achieved a steady
state, assuming the sensor errors are within the range specified by the relevant performance
standards of the IMO.
For ships (HSC typically) capable of up to 30 kn true speed, the tracking facility should present,
within 1 min steady state tracking, the relative motion trend and after 3 minutes, the predicted
motion of a target, the accuracy values (95% probability) are specified in TABLE 3 of Appendix I-3.
Accuracy may be significantly reduced during or shortly after acquisition, a manoeuvre of the own
ship, a manoeuvre of the target, or any tracking disturbance and is also dependent on the own
ship's motion and sensor accuracy.
Measured target range and bearing should be within 50 m (or ±1% of target range, whichever is
greater) and 2°.
For ships capable of speeds in excess of 30 kn (typically High-Speed Craft (HSC)) and with
speeds of up to 70 kn, there should be additional steady state measurements made to ensure that
the motion accuracy, after 3 minutes of steady state tracking, is maintained with target relative
speeds of up to 140 kn.
.2 The requirements for acquisition and tracking of targets

TT facilities should be available on at least the 3, 6, and 12 nm range scales. Tracking range
should be extended to a minimum of 12 nm.
Manual acquisition should be provided with provision for acquiring at least the number of target
specified in TABLE 1 of Appendix I-3.
Automatic acquisition should be provided where specified in TABLE 1 of Appendix I-3. In this case,
the operator can define the boundaries of the auto-acquisition area.
When a target is acquired, the system should present the trend of the target's motion within 1
minute and the prediction of the targets' motion within 3 minutes.
TT should be capable of tracking and updating the information of all acquired targets
automatically.
The system should continue to track radar targets that are clearly distinguishable on the display
for 5 out of 10 consecutive scans or equivalent.
The TT design should be such that target vector and data smoothing is effective, while target
manoeuvres should be detected as early as possible.
The possibility of tracking errors, including target swop, should be minimised by design.
Separate facilities for cancelling the tracking of any one and of all target(s) should be provided.
Automatic tracking accuracy should be achieved when the tracked target has achieved a steady
state, assuming the sensor errors allowed by the relevant performance standards of the IMO.
A ground referencing function, based on a stationary tracked target, should be provided. Targets
used for this function should be marked with the relevant symbol defined in SN/Circ.243.
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.3 Operational alarms of ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions

Instructors may first introduce the significance of the ARPA or TT and AIS operational alarms in
ensuring the safety of navigation. Discussion of alarm criteria can be done from the point of view
of ensuring navigation safety, with an emphasis on the necessity of a clear indication of the cause
for all alarm criteria.
The preset CPA/TCPA limits applied to targets from radar and AIS should be identical. If the
calculated CPA and TCPA of a tracked target or activated AIS target are less than the set limits
(1) a CPA/TCPA alarm should be given;
(2) the target should be clearly indicated.
As a default state, the CPA/TCPA alarm functionality should be applied to all activated AIS targets.
On user request the CPA/TCPA alarm functionality may also be applied to sleeping targets.
If a user defined acquisition/activation zone facility is provided, a target previously not

acquired/activated entering the zone, or detected within the zone, should be clearly identified with
the relevant symbol and an alarm should be given. It should be possible for the user to set ranges
and outlines for the zone.
The system should alert the user if a tracked radar target is lost, rather than excluded by a
pre-determined range or pre-set parameters. The target's last position should be clearly indicated
on the display.
It should be possible to enable or disable the lost target alarm function for AIS targets. A clear
indication should be given if the lost target alarm is disabled.
If the following conditions are met for a lost AIS target:
(1) The AIS lost target alarm function is enabled.
(2) The target meets lost target filter criteria.
(3) A message is not received within a period of set time according to the nominal reporting rate of
the AIS target.
Then:
(1) The last known position should be clearly indicated as a lost target and an alarm be given.
(2) The indication of the lost target should disappear if the signal is received again, or after the
alarm has been acknowledged.
(3) A means of recovering limited historical data from previous reports should be provided.
.4 Alphanumeric data of ARPA or TT and AIS targets

It should be possible to select any tracked radar or AIS target for the alphanumeric display of its
data. A target selected for the display of its alphanumeric information should be identified by the
relevant symbol. If more than one target is selected for data display, the relevant symbols and the
corresponding data should be clearly identified. There should be a clear indication to show that
the target data is derived from radar or from AIS.
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For each selected tracked radar target, the following data should be presented in alphanumeric
form: source(s) of data, actual range of target, actual bearing of target, predicted target range at
the closest point of approach (CPA), predicted time to CPA (TCPA), true course of target, true
speed of target.
For each selected AIS target the following data should be presented in alphanumeric form: source
of data, ship's identification, navigational status, position where available and its quality, range,
bearing, COG, SOG, CPA and TCPA. Target heading and reported rate of turn should also be
made available. Additional target information should be provided on request.
If the received AIS information is incomplete, the absent information should be clearly indicated as
"missing" within the target data field.
.5 Effects of sensor errors on ARPA or TT

In compliance with IMO performance standards, automatic tracking accuracy should be achieved
when the tracked target reaches a steady state, assuming the sensor errors allowed by the
relevant performance standards of the Organisation. Therefore, if the sensor error is beyond the
allowance, the accuracy of ARPA or TT will be affected.
Sensor errors include basic radar errors, THD errors, SDME errors, EPFS errors and AIS errors.
The basic radar error will result in the error of all output data of radar tracked target. THD heading
error, SDME and SDME speed (STW or SOG) error affects the radar tracked target data,
including true course, true speed, true vector, PADs and other alphanumeric data and graphical
data error. AIS error has no effect on radar tracking data, but the ship's position deviation of EPFS
and AIS error may lead to incorrect association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets.
.6 The performance standards for THD, SDME, EPFS and AIS inputs
The radar system should be capable of receiving the required input information from:
(1) a gyro-compass or transmitting heading device (THD);
(2) a speed and distance measuring equipment (SDME);
(3) an electronic position fixing system (EPFS);
(4) an Automatic Identification System (AIS); or other sensors or networks providing equivalent
information acceptable to the Organisation.
The radar should be interfaced to relevant sensors required by these performance standards in
accordance with recognised international standards.
When the ship is free from shallow water effect and from the effects of wind, current and tide,
errors in the indicated speed should not exceed 2% of the speed of the ship, or 0.2 knots,
whichever is greater.
If the accuracy of SDME is likely to be affected by certain conditions (e.g. sea state and its effects,
water temperature, salinity, sound velocity in water, depth of water under the keel, heel and trim of
ship), details of possible effects may be found in the equipment manual.
GPS information supplied to radar includes:
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-A new position should be generated and outputted at least once every 2 seconds;
-The minimum resolution of position of latitude and longitude should be 0.001 minutes.
The AIS should be capable of receiving information of the other ship automatically and with the
required accuracy and frequency, see Part D 5.2.
IMO performance standards for THD, see R19.
IMO performance standards for SDME, see R8.
IMO performance standards for GPS, see R17.
IMO performance standards for AIS, see R11.
.7 The performance standards for range and bearing accuracy and discrimination
The requirements of radar system range and bearing accuracy are described in Part D 1.7.2.
Range and bearing discrimination are described in Part D 1.7.3.
.8 The performance standards for association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported
targets
The description in the performance standards about the definition and association criteria of target
association is listed in 5.3.
If the target data from AIS and radar tracking are both available and if the association criteria (e.g.
position, motion) are fulfilled such that the AIS and radar information are considered as one
physical target, then as a default condition, the activated AIS target symbol and the alphanumeric
AIS target data should be automatically selected and displayed.
The user should have the option to change the default condition to the display of tracked radar
targets and should be permitted to select either radar tracking or AIS alphanumeric data.
For an associated target, if the AIS and radar information become sufficiently different, the AIS
and radar information should be considered as two distinct targets and one activated AIS target
and one tracked radar target should be displayed. No alarm should be raised.
By showing live radar screenshots, the instructor can better explain how the presentation of two
target symbols for the same physical target leads to data redundancy.
5.5 Criteria for acquisition of ARPA or TT targets and activation of AIS reported
targets
.1 The criteria for target acquisition of ARPA and TT and activation of AIS reported targets
The acquisition of ARPA or TT target is divided into manual acquisition and automatic acquisition.
In consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of manual and automatic acquisitions, the
officer should make target acquisition plans on the basis of the navigational needs.
There should be an indication when the capacity of processing/display of AIS targets is about to
be exceeded.
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A means to activate a sleeping AIS target and to deactivate an activated AIS target should be
provided. To reduce display clutter, a means to filter the presentation of sleeping AIS targets
should be provided; it should not be possible to remove individual AIS targets from the display. If
zones for the automatic activation of AIS targets are provided, they should be the same as for
radar automatic target acquisition. The sleeping AIS targets in automatic activation zones may be
automatically activated. Sleeping AIS targets may be manually activated.
The operation to activate/deactivate AIS reported targets are described in Part D 6.2.6.
.2 Different ways for target acquisition

The tracker will record the coordinates of leading edge of the acquired target and mark an
acquisition symbol centred with the position on the screen.
(1) The manual acquisition
The observer moves the cursor onto a concerned target, presses the acquisition button, and then
the screen coordinates of the cursor is recorded as the initial target position, and acquisition
symbol is displayed on the screen. If the target can be detected in the subsequent acquisition
window, the symbol will centre with the leading edge of the target and follow the movement of the
target. The radar initiates target tracking. According to the Radar Performance Standards, the
motion trends of the target will be given within 1 minute.
(2) The automatic acquisition
When the operator sets a closed acquisition area on the screen, those targets within or intrude the
region will trigger the criteria of automatic acquisition. The red acquisition symbols (see Table 2
2.1 b of Appendix I-7) will flash and an alarm will be given.
There should be means such as acquisition zones and exclusion zones for the user to define the
boundaries of the auto-acquisition area.
Guard/acquisition zones
The setting of guard/acquisition zones are shown in Fig.5-3, those targets which are within the
zones and intrude the zones from external will trigger guard/acquisition criteria. The alarm/acquire
(a) Annular zones (b) Annular/sector zones (c) Polygon and exclusion zones
Fig.5-3 The setting of guard/acquisition zones
zones can be set in various patterns. The guard/acquisition zones can be set as a variety of
graphics area, Fig.5-3 (a) shows annular guard/acquisition zones, usually up to two
guard/acquisition zones. If necessary, the guard/acquisition zones can be limited by the sectors
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shown in Fig.5-3 (b). Fig.5-3 (c) is an example of adjustable polygon (irregular) and exclusion
zones, every vertex of which can be adjusted freely.
The exclusion zone
Exclusion area is also known as the restricted zone on radar screen, where target automatic
acquisition is rejected. The purpose of setting exclusion zone is to prevent radar automatically
acquiring those targets which do not need to be tracked, including land, islands, clutters and very
short-range targets, so as to improve the purpose of automatic acquisition, to enable better
utilisation of capacity resources, and to enhance the readability of information of important targets
on screen. Within the exclusion zone, the office can also acquire target manually if necessary.
.3 Criteria for automatic selection of targets specified in the manual

Automatic acquisition is a supplementary to manual acquisition for open sea with good weather
and sea conditions. The automatic acquisition is not suitable for complicated situation which
requires more selectivity. But for any encounter situation, the appropriate settings of automatic
acquisition and exclusive zones are recommended. The automatic acquisition operations are
clearly illustrated in the specific equipment operational manual. Instructors should emphasise that
officers who use the equipment for the first time after a handover onboard a new shhip should
read the operational manual carefully, and be familiar with the equipment operation environment.
.4 Criteria for manual acquisition of targets

Manual acquisition is an indispensable function to facilitate collision avoidance and suitable for all
waters and encounter situations.
In general, for manual acquisition, the officer should follow the criteria of giving priority to the most
concerned targets, i.e. bow, starboard and short-range targets in sight, and bow, starboard in
restricted visibility. There is no particular order among bow, starboard and short-range targets, and
specific order should take into consideration according to the actual situation at sea. With
reference to radar collision avoidance practice at sea, the priority principle of target acquisition
can be illustrated by using drawings on the blackboard, slides, videos, etc.
.5 Target number acquired by ARPA or TT and reported by AIS reporting

In accordance with the requirements in SOLAS, in fulfilment of the radar performance standards
for various tonnages, types of ship, refer to TABLE 1 of Appendix I-3 for the minimum TT
acquisition targets and activated AIS targets.
For the number requirements of ARPA acquisition, refer to Appendix I-5 and R5.
.6 Targets that may be deleted if posing no potential threat (when tracking limit has been
reached)
TT facilities can be operated to delete all or one of the tracked targets.
The target with relative speed of 100 kn (or 140 kn of high-speed vessel) can be deleted
manually.
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In case of an indication when the target tracking capacity is about to exceed, the operator can
delete the target with lower collision risk manually.
The targets beyond tracking range may be deleted automatically.
.7 The tracking results of targets in acquisition, guard and exclusion zones

In guard/acquisition zones defined by the user, the symbols and alarms should be given when the
non-acquired/activated target are entering the zones or detected inside the zones. This zone can
be applied for radar targets and AIS reported targets or be set for alarm purpose only, not for
acquiring radar target and activating AIS target. The officer can acquire targets by manual
acquisition, or acknowledge (use ACK button) the alarm of the targets that do not need to be
acquired.
In some cases, automatic acquisition may not be able to obtain the desired results, e.g. the
automatic acquisition of sea clutter, rain clutter, noise and interferences. Especially, the
acquisition of mass of land echoes will quickly fill up the available tracking channels and trigger
the overflow alarm. Therefore, the exclusion zones are required to be set. False targets (such as
clutter) are captured and may be lost soon, and the 'lost target' alarm can be triggered.
Better teaching effect can be achieved if the instructor use radar screenshots and audio, video
resources.
5.6 Tracking capabilities and limitations
.1 Target tracking
The whole computing process, in which radar tracks successive position changes of targets,
predicts target motion and obtains motion parameters, is known as target tracking. For target
tracking function of radar, there are three steps as follows:
(1) Target detection
The process of finding the targets under the background of the noises and clutters is referred to as
target detection. In order to improve the reliability of automatic target detection, the officer should
carefully adjust the image to optimum. Especially in the adverse weather and rough sea
conditions, anti-clutter should be adjusted with prudence to improve chances of target detection.
(2) Target acquisition
The target acquisition is a process prior to the process that the tracker records initial position of
the target, then start the detection and tracking the successive changes of target position and
finally predict target motion. The acquisition may be manual or automatic. For ships less than 10
000 GT, the automatic acquisition is an optional function.
(3) Target tracking
Target tracking process is completed by the tracker automatically. In accordance with the filtering
algorithm, with each antenna scan, the tracker detects the presence of the target within the
tracking window, calculates the target's position, and then moves the tracking window to predict
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target motion. The process contains target acquisition, tracking window setting, tracking window
adjusting, target relative motion trend, and target motion prediction. In this process, the size of the
tracking window is gradually reduced and finally keeps a constant smaller size. In other words, the
accuracy of target tracking is gradually increased until the tracking is stable. If the own ship and
the target ship manoeuvre, the above mentioned tracking process should be restarted.
.2 Target lost and alarm

(1) Conditions of target lost
The radar Performance Standards state that the system should continue to track radar targets
that are clearly distinguishable on the display for 5 out of 10 consecutive scans or equivalent.
Otherwise, radar gives target lost alarm.
(2) Causes of target lost
The tracked target is unstable clutter of sea or rain.
Target echo is too weak.
OS (the own ship) or target in close range manoeuvres rapidly.
The tracked target is obstructed.
(3) Alarm of target lost
There should be a clear indication of the lost target in operational display area.
There should be an audible alarm which can be switch on and off by the user.
The alarm needs to be acknowledged by the user and stops after acknowledgement.
.3 Common circumstances leading to "target swop"

(1) Conditions of target swop
In the course of the target tracking, if the echoes of two adjacent targets fall into the same tracking
window at one certain scan, the radar may easily give up the tracked target and turn to track
another target. This phenomenon of wrong tracking is known as the target swop.
(2) Causes of target swop
The tracked target is close to unstable strong sea/rain clutters or other interferences.
Two or multiple targets navigate extremely closely in dense traffic.
The tracked target is close to large fixed targets, e.g. land and islands.
.4 Effects of "target swop" on displayed data

(1) Anomalies of target vectors
On the stabilised and continuous radar presentation mode, target swop may cause anomalies of
vector.
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(2) Target lost
When target swop happened between unstabilised clutter and tracked target, a target lost alarm
may be triggered.
(3) Anomalies of target alphanumeric data
After target swop, there are anomalies of target alphanumeric data within the target data field.
(4) Anomalies of target past positions
After target swop, there are anomalies of target past positions.
5.7 Delay of TT processing and AIS reported information
.1 Delay in the display of tracked target data

The interval, from the target acquisition, data collection, data processing, automatic computing to
the display of a variety of data and information, is known as radar processing delay.
According to the Radar Performance Standards, when a target is acquired, the system should
present the trend of the target's motion within 1 minute and the prediction of the targets' motion
within 3 minutes. For most radar, the range and bearing can be displayed after target acquisition,
and CPA is displayed after 30 s, while TCPA, true course and speed are displayed within no more
than 3 minutes. Therefore, target data within 3 minutes after acquisition may be not accurate
enough for use. It is only for reference.
.2 Delay of data display when the target ship manoeuvres

The processing delay influences the target tracking all the time. Firstly, the collection of target
data is not continuous due to the sweeping period of radar antenna. Secondly, the precision and
reliability of tracked data can only be achieved by sufficient detection updates. The motion of
tracked target is always regarded as constant speed and course during the process of target
tracking, so processing delay is required to rebuild the stable tracking after a manoeuvre of the
target. The more manoeuvrable the target is, the greater the target deviates from the
mathematical model, and the worse the tracking quality. In other words, the graphical information
at operational display area and alphanumeric data from readout window are all processed data
with processing delay. If there is no change of speed and course of targets, the influences of
processing delay to data is small. However, if the target is in manoeuvring state, the more
manoeuvrable the target is, the greater the target tracked data deviates from real target data and
the larger data deviation.
.3 Possible delay of up to three minutes before full accuracy of the derived information
may be attained after acquisition or a manoeuvre of the target
Based on target tracking principle, there will be a processing delay of up to 3 min for the tracking
process to settle after acquisition or a manoeuvre of the target. The tracking symbols and
alphanumeric data of target are incorrect during the delay period. The more manoeuvrable the
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target is, the greater the target deviates from the mathematical model, and the worse the tracking
quality.
.4 The delay in the display of dynamic information of AIS reported targets

(1) Owing to the effect of various interference factors on VDL and the diversity of AIS equipment,
the nominal information reported interval cannot be maintained all the time, which is beyond the
requirements in AIS protocol.
(2) The information from AIS equipment may not be updated in time as they can automatically
suspend the position reports temporarily when the VDL is busy.
(3) According to the SOTDMA protocol, when time slot resource strains, the information reception
of weak AIS reported targets at long-range would be abandoned automatically.
In consideration of the required performances in Topic 5 and 6 involve comprehensive and
systematic theoretical knowledge and practical ability, it is impractical to recommend separate
assessment for Topic 5. Therefore, please refer to assessment techniques in Topic 6.
A good understanding of the basic principles of radar automatic tracking system and the
development trend of radar information technology would facilitate the proper use of the target
tracking and AIS reporting functions to acquire proper navigation information. With the integrated
information from the sensors, radar automatic target tracking system fulfils the following functions:
 manually or automatically acquiring and automatically tracking targets;
 obtaining and predicting key collision avoidance parameters of target, which include range,
bearing, speed, course, CPA and TCPA;
 automatically appraising the risk of collision and providing a collision avoidance strategy.
All of these functions contribute to reduce the heavy workload of watchkeeping officers and
improve the reliability and efficiency in danger assessment. Fast developments in satellite
positioning, sensor networks, digital communication and information processing make it possible
for modern radar system to identify targets automatically with the aid of AIS. A marine radar
system has become an indispensable integrated information platform on a modern bridge.
Based on the navigation information processing platform, the OOW needs no longer to obtain
information from individual sensors, but to set up the radar system based on the current
navigation tasks. Thus, the system setup and management should be highlighted in the course of
instruction. A properly setting system is able to provide optimal navigation information. On the
contrary, improper setting could mislead the officer and even leads to close-quarters situations.
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Target tracking begins from acquisition. There should be discussions to explore the advantages
and disadvantages between manual and automatic acquisition, and with emphasis on the
importance of manual acquisition. A trainee should develop a comprehensive understanding of
automatic acquisition by setting the guard zones, acquisition zones and exclusive zones.
Additionally, the trainee should be reminded that even if the automatic acquisition is used,
monitoring cannot be neglected. Moreover, manual acquisition should be used as a
supplementary way as appropriate.
Limitations of the information system and the counter-measures should be highlighted in teaching.
Automatic target tracking is based on radar target detection. Echo fluctuation, clutters and
interferences would definitely cause some undesired problems or errors, for instance,
miss-acquiring, miss-tracking, target lost and target swop, etc. The above mentioned problems or
errors are likely to happen if the working environment of the radar has any perceptible or
imperceptible changes, e.g. clutters and interferences, target blocking, target manoeuvring, and
human factors like improper operation and setting of the equipment, or the failure to keep the
radar in an optimal way to ensure proper automatic target tracking.
One of the difficulties in this topic is how to help the trainees to develop a good understanding of
the "processing delay" in automatic target tracking system. In accordance with radar performance
standards, the automatic target tracking should be designed both processing the target data
smoothly and effectively and detecting a target manoeuvre as early as possible. This data
smoothing is referred to as "processing delay", which is necessary for processing of radar
integrated information during radar automatic target tracking. During this process, by
accumulating the past records of target, filtering errors of sensor, and smoothing the influences of
ship movement and sea and weather, the radar is able to predict speeds and courses, and output
the optimal motion data of targets according to given programmes. "Processing delay" exists not
only in a steady state tracking, but also in the whole tracking process. When the tracked target
manoeuvres, the radar system may not be able to indicate and forecast the manoeuvre timely. It is
why the processing delay happens. Therefore, the automatic tracking function performs well in
stable state tracking when targets and the own ship maintain their courses and speeds. Vessel
rapid manoeuvres affect the accuracy of radar tracking data to a great extent. In fact, the
smoothing process of target information and early detection of a target manoeuvre form a
contradiction that is to be compromised to some extent.
In this topic, for radar systems satisfying the MSC. 192(79) PS, the key and difficult part lies in the
understanding of the relationship between radar tracked targets and AIS reported targets,
especially the association of radar tracked and AIS reported targets. As a sensor of the radar
system, AIS provides the key information for radar target identification, and contributes to an
effective communication between the own ship and target ships. Meanwhile, AIS also provides the
key data regarding the dynamic and collision avoidance information. AIS is able to report the
targets which the radar fails to detect because of sheltering or poor reflection with a discrimination
far better than that of the radar. However, it should be noted that AIS is not autonomous detection
equipment and has no integrity monitoring information. Therefore, the accuracy of information
cannot be determined in the receiving end. The transmission of dynamic AIS information is
subject to the quality of the communications. The update interval of dynamic information may be
longer than what is required by IMO performance standards, which might lead to major errors in
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irregular communication environment. It should be aware that AIS is not the acknowledged
independent device in the COLREGs, and it can just be used as an aid for ships to avoid collision.
Thus, for collision avoidance, the focus should be laid on the complementary function of AIS for
the radar. The association of AIS reported targets and radar tracked targets are key issues to
Vector is an important concept in target automatic tracking systems. A good understanding of

vectors is the basis for collision-avoidance. The instructors should, through presentations and
demonstrations, help trainees to learn the related knowledge of vectors (relative vectors and true
vectors), develop an understanding of vectors' characteristics and applications, and achieve the
proficiency of acquiring the navigation information by using vectors in practical operations. What's
more, the trainees should be constantly aware of the current vector mode and the risk of using
fixed or improper vector modes. Proper use of the vectors is one of the key elements for
assessing the competency of the trainees.
Theoretically, trial manoeuvre can provide collision avoidance decisions for the OOW. However,
based on the principles of trial manoeuvre, there are still some limitations in simulating the
dynamic characteristics, so the results of trial manoeuvre can only be taken as a reference rather
than a source of information to rely on fully.
PADs are not the required function by IMO performance standards. Due to the complex graphical
lines, the use of PADs is very limited in practice, and it is not suitable for narrow waters, fishing
areas, and coastal waters. The radar systems with PADs function are uncommon in recent years.
Automatic target tracking performance as specified in IMO radar performance standards are the
minimum requirements. The actual function and performance of radar equipment should not be
below the requirements. It should be noted that the manufacturers' user manual should be
referred to so that the radar can work at its full capacity and effectiveness.
When designing the lesson plans, the instructors are recommended to demonstrate by simulating
the real scenarios. As the radar equipment fitted onboard is manufactured in different generations,
their performance standards are different as well. The instructors should prepare the lesson plans
in accordance with the requirements of the competent administration. For example, with respect
to the radar equipment conforming to IMO ARPA performance standards and on the basis of
meeting the KUP tables in STCW regulations, the instructor can design the lesson plans as per
IMO resolution A. 823(19) and the previous IMO ARPA performance standards, without coverage
of the AIS reporting functions in this topic. If all the topics involved are to be covered, the lesson
plan should follow the related requirements in the MSC. 192(79) PS.
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6 Operation of ARPA or radar target tracking (TT) and AIS reporting

functions
The major content of this topic covers the operation of ARPA or radar target tracking (TT) and AIS
reporting functions, as well as practical exercises and training sessions on the target tracking
radar/ARPA simulators. This topic focuses on the required competent performances for the
trainees in the application of ARPA or TT radar with AIS reporting functions.
A good understanding of this topic assists to the trainees in making proper decisions and taking
proper measures for collision avoidance.
Through the study of radar principles, demonstrations and practical training, trainees should be
qualified with the operation of ARPA or radar TT function. The should know the association
method of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets. They should understand the factors
which influence the accuracy and performance of the system, and the limitations of radar target
tracking. As a navigation aid, over-reliance on the information provided by radar is unsafe due to
possible errors and misinterpretation of information.
6.1 Setting up and maintaining ARPA or TT display

Setting up and maintaining TT or ARPA display is essential to ensure radar target tracking.
Trainees should know that proper presentation mode should be used to suit the actual situation
instead of personal preference.
.1 Adjusting radar sensor for the optimum display of echoes

Prior to using the function of target tracking, the radar menus and controls should be adjusted,
including the brilliance, gain, manual/automatic tuning, pulse length and manual or auto clutters
suppressions (sea and rain clutters) so that the echoes are displayed optimally. Except under
necessary circumstances, do not use the correlation, echo average, echo expansion, and
automatic clutters suppression. Avoid using all the anti-clutter controls simultaneously. Refer to
2.1 of Part D for details.
.2 Setting up and confirming of THD and SDME sensors

(1) The setting of the own ship's THD
Make sure the gyrocompass readings of the radar or readings from the gyrocompass repeater are
the same with the readings of THD.
Check the data integrity of THD before using it. The method is to check whether the data are
marked as invalid or unavailable by the equipment. Do not use unavailable data of THD. If the
equipment cannot provide integrity monitoring information, the integrity and validity of heading
data should be checked by comparing them with another THD (if provided).
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(2) The setting of the own ship's SDME
Make sure the own ship's speed shown on radar is the same with the readings of SDME.
For collision avoidance, the STW should be adopted. One way of setting STW is by the speed-log
in water-tracking mode and the other is manual speed input. Manual speed input is used in case
of speed-log failure. However, the performance and function of radar may be affected in this
circumstance.
For navigation, SOG should be used. The methods of setting SOG are as follows: log in
bottom-tracking mode, SOG from EPFS, SOG based on a stationary tracked target as the ground
reference and SOG calculated by set and drift which are input manually. The radar performance
may be affected by using the last method.
Check the integrity of the SDME before using it. The method is to check whether the data are
marked as invalid or unavailable data by the equipment. Do not use unavailable data of SDME.
Once no integrity monitoring information is provided by the equipment, the integrity and validity of
speed data should be checked by comparing them with another SDME (if available).
.3 Setting up an appropriate display mode (relative and true motion, HL orientation, range
scale, past positions, relative and true vector, PADs)
(1) Motion mode
Relative motion
Relative motion is applicable for collision avoidance in almost all waters.
True motion
Check and confirm THD and SDME first. Refer to 6.1.2 of Part D for details.
True motion with sea stabilisation is applicable for determining target movement, assessing
encounter situations and making the right decisions for collision avoidance. True motion with the
ground stabilisation is applicable for navigation and collision avoidance in near-coastal waters and
narrow channels.
(2) Orientation mode
The azimuth-stabilised orientation mode should be selected, such as N-up or C-up. Moreover,
the azimuth-unstabilised mode should be avoided as much as possible. For modern radar, the TT
function is often prohibited when the azimuth-unstabilised mode is selected.
In order to identify the target, it is better to select N-UP mode for position fixing and navigation
by radar with paper chart, when the ship is engaged in coastal navigation.
It is better to select C-up mode for the ship altering course or yawing, when the ship is
navigating in harbour waters or narrow channels.
C-up is convenient for position fixing and navigation by radar with ECDIS.
Unstabilised H-up presentation should be avoided. For modern radar, target tracking function
is usually prohibited under the H-up mode.
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(3) Range scale
In accordance with the IMO radar performance standards, the range scales of the target tracking
include at least 3, 6 and 12 nm; most modern radars are from 0.75 to 24 nm. Normally, officers
are able to acquire the targets and evaluate collision risks at the scales of 6 to 12 nm, and make a
plan for collision avoidance at the scale of 6 nm, and take actions to avoid collision and assess the
effectiveness at 3 nm scale.
Range scales should be switched at a proper time during a voyage to optimise the presentation of
information adapting to the current encounter situations. The 12 nm range scale is recommended
for acquiring and tracking the targets to provide officers with the opportunity to take control of the
overall situation, and allow them to take actions to avoid collision risks in ample time. The use of
shorter range scales is preferred when engaged in narrow passages.
(4) Past positions
There are two kinds of past position modes. One is true past position mode and the other is
relative past position mode. It is recommended to select the appropriate past position mode
according to the actual purpose. Refer to 6.3.3 of Part D for details.
(5) Vector mode
There are two kinds of vectors. One is relative vector and the other is true vector. Refer to 6.3 of
Part D for details.
Use relative vector to obtain CPA/TCPA and make a collision risks assessment.
Use true vector to assess encounter situation and make decisions for collision avoidance.
Select the appropriate vector mode at any time when it is necessary, taking into consideration
of the present encounter situations and collision risks.
In collision avoidance with a single target ship, the true vector time should be adjusted to
manage collision risk assessment, collision avoidance decision and actions to be taken at the
same time.
(6) PADs
The trainees may refer to 5.1.4 of Part D for the concept of PADs and 6.3.4 of Part D for
interpretation of PADs information. PADs are applicable for open seas. The instructor should
emphasise that it is inappropriate to use PADs in crowded waters with multiple targets, such as
harbour waters and narrow channels, etc.
.4 Setting up CPA LIM/TCPA LIM

The safety limitations of CPA LIM/TCPA LIM should be adapted to the present navigation
situation but not the officer's personal preference. Many factors should be considered while
setting the CPA LIM and TCPA LIM, including the own ship's tonnage and manoeuvrability, the
seamanship of the bridge team, the enclosure of the navigation waters and traffic density, sea
state and weather conditions, etc.
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.5 Acquiring and monitoring targets manually

Refer to 5.5.2 of Part D for the criteria of manual acquisition. For navigation in crowded waters,
the true trail function is helpful to distinguish moving targets from stationary targets, and to identify
the encounter situations, and hence to acquire the critical targets according to the manual
acquisition criteria.
.6 Setting up automatic guard/acquisition and exclusion zone

Automatic acquisition function is realised by setting up automatic guard/acquisition and exclusion
zone (Refer to 5.5.2 Part D).
Generally, it is recommended that guard zones can be set at ranges of 8 to 12 nm, acquisition
zone at 6 nm, and ranges of less than 1.5 nm should be set as the exclusion zone. In addition,
according to the situation of the navigational waters, comprehensive and reasonable setting of
guard/acquisition and exclusion zones by circle, sector or polygon can be considered.
The setup of exclusion zones may avoid spurious interferences and prevent targets from being
acquired, e.g. lands, islands, clutters, and others which need not to be tracked by the radar.
6.2 Setting up and maintaining AIS display

According to the MSC. 192(79) PS, AIS is one of the required sensors of the radar. The trainees
should have full understanding of the setting up and maintaining AIS reported target display.
.1 Setting up and confirmation of EPFS sensor

The plausibility and accuracy of AIS reported targets are linked with the plausibility and accuracy
of the own ship's EPFS, the accuracy of targets' sensors, and the situation of AIS VHF data link
(VDL). OOW should check and confirm the accuracy and integrity of the own ship's EPFS,
communicate with target ship in an active and effective manner, and verify the reliability of target
ships' AIS information.
.2 Setting up and confirmation of THD sensor

Refer to 6.1 of Part D for setting up THD sensors. In the absence of THD signals, AIS reported
target information will not be displayed on the radar.
.3 Setting up and confirmation of SDME sensors

Refer to 6.1 for setting up SDME sensors. Although the speed of the own ship can be inputted
manually, the display of AIS reported target on the radar may be affected. According to IEC 62388
radar performance standards, AIS reported targets will be displayed as CTW and STW when the
radar speed sensor mode is sea stabilised. AIS reported targets will be displayed as COG and
SOG when the radar speed sensor is in the ground stabilised mode.
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.4 Checking the own ship's AIS information

Operators should check the own ship's static, dynamic and voyage related information on AIS
device to ensure that the own ship's AIS information is correct.
.5 The verification of AIS reported targets

Whenever it is necessary, operators should communicate with the concerned target ship by VHF
radio telephone or AIS safety messages to confirm the information of AIS reported targets.
.6 The selection of display mode for AIS targets (sleeping targets, activated targets,
selected targets, vector, past positions, sea stabilised and ground stabilised)
The function of AIS reported target facilitates radar tracking. It should be regarded as a matter of
principle that no interference with radar information should be caused when setting the display
mode of AIS reported target. Full use should be made of all the AIS display mode for optimal
effect in a particular environment. Refer to Table 2 of Appendix I-7 for AIS reported target symbols
displayed on the radar.
(1) Setting up filtering of AIS sleeping targets
The criteria for filtering of sleeping targets may vary with different manufacturers. The current
methods of filtering AIS targets are as follows: one is to set up filtering status based on target's
range, CPA/TCPA or target class (class A, B, etc.); the other is to set up controlled zones, with the
targets located inside the zones as activated AIS targets and the others located outside the zones
as sleeping targets.
(2) Operating activated targets
Operation of automatically activated targets
There are two basic methods to activate the targets. The first one is setting up filter status by the
user, e.g. target range, CPA/TCPA and target class (class A, B, etc.). The other is setting up the
controlled zones. IMO radar Performance Standard has specified that if zones for the automatic
activation of the AIS targets are provided, they should be the same for radar automatic target
acquisition (see 5.26.4 in the MSC. 192(79) PS). For radar automatic target acquisition, refer to
6.1.6 of Part D.
Activate AIS targets manually
Move cursor and click the selected AIS targets.
(3) Deactivating activated targets as sleeping targets
The operation of deactivating AIS activated targets as sleeping targets varies from different
manufacturers. Refer to manufacturer's operation manual for details.
(4) Operating selected targets
Move the cursor and select any AIS activated targets. The target will present information in
alphanumeric and graphical form. Refer to Table 2 of Appendix I-7 for details.
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(5) Selecting vector modes
The vector of AIS activated target is used to predict the movement of the target. The setting of
vector length for AIS targets is the same as radar tracked target.
(6) Setting AIS past positions
The time interval between past positions of an AIS activated target is equal to that of radar tracked
targets.
(7) Setting up sea stabilised mode and ground stabilised mode
The motion mode of AIS reported target is the same as that of tracked target. Where sea
stabilisation mode is selected, the CTW and STW shall be presented in place of COG and SOG
(refer to 5.28.3 in the MSC. 192(79) PS).
6.3 Operating ARPA or TT and AIS functions to obtain target information

The trainees should be able to operate ARPA or TT and AIS functions to obtain target information
properly after they are familiar with the setting up of these functions. The target information of
ARPA or TT and AIS is obtained from two mutually independent sensors. The trainees should
develop the skills of associating radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets.
.1 Operating display in relative and true modes to obtain relative and true vectors in each
display mode
Refer to 2.9 of Part D for the concept, features and operation of relative motion and true motion.
Operate to display relative vector and true vector in respective motion mode respectively.
(1) Relative vector
Refer to 5.1.1 of Part D for the concept and features of relative vector.
Operate relative vector to obtain relative course and speed of target. Based on the setting time
and the length of relative vector, the OOW can determine the approaching speed of targets in a
short time.
Adjust length of relative vector to obtain CPA and TCPA of target. As shown in Fig.5-1 (a) and (b),
the perpendicular line segment from the own ship to relative vector of target or its extension line is
called CPA; the target navigation time from the start point of the target relative vector to the foot of
CPA is TCPA. By adjusting the vector time, the operator can estimate the target CPA and TCPA
directly from the screen within a short time, and compare them with the CPA LIM and TCPA LIM
so as to assess collision risks.
By operating relative vector, the operator can determine whether there are risks of collision with
multiple target ships. The operation procedures include the following steps: draw a CPA LIM circle
on the display by using VRM. The centre of the circle is CCRP and the radius is CPA LIM. If the
relative vector of the target or its extension line intersects with the CPA LIM circle, a risk of
collision exists, as T3 shown in Fig.5-1 (a) and (b). However, if the relative vector of the target or
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its extension line is far from the CPA LIM circle, it is a safe target, as T1 shown in Fig.5-1 (a) and
(b). To facilitate the observations, the length of the vector should be adjusted as required.
(2) True vector
Refer to 5.1.1 of Part D for the concept and features of true vector. When SOG is selected in the
radar, the true vector is the vector relative to the ground. When STW is selected, the true vector is
the vector relative to the water.
Through operating true vector, true speed of target ship can obtained according to the length
of the vector.
Under the true vector mode, the officer can visually assess the encounter situations between
the own ship and the target ships, as well as that among the target ships, ascertain the
responsibilities and obligations in the situation, and make collision avoidance decisions according
to the encounter situations and the COLREGs. As shown in Fig.5-1 (c) and (d), the own ship and
the target T1 constitute a crossing situation, in which the own ship is the stand-on ship and T1 is
the give-way ship; the own ship and T2 are in the same course and speed, and do not affect each
other; the own ship and the target T3 constitute a crossing situation, in which the own ship is the
give-way ship; T3 is the stand-on ship and T4 is a fixed target.
Collision risks can be assessed by operating the true vector, namely, adjust the vector time
continuously, change the vector length, and then observe the end of the true vector between the
own ship and the target ship. If the minimum range between the end of the own ship's vector and
target vector is less than CPA LIM, then the risk of collision between the own ship and the target
ship exists. The area close to the vector end is the possible collision waters.
In an overtaking situation, the process of overtaking can be shown directly by continuously

adjusting the length of true vector, so as to estimate the time and water areas of overtaking. This
can be used as reference for ships manoeuvring in bend and narrow channels, especially for
ships entering the areas where overtaking is prohibited.
The true vector of the own ship can help ship to berth in poor visibility in the best way.
.2 Importance of switching between true and relative vectors

On the basis of an understanding of the concept of relative vector and true vector, the encounter
situation and the risks of collision is assessed by using vector. For this purpose, the relative vector
is used in the stage of assessing collision risks, and the true vector is used in the stage of collision
avoidance decision-making. In taking action to avoid collision, the two types of vectors could be
switched over when necessary giving consideration to both the encounter situations and the
assessment of risks.
(1) Application of relative vector
By operating relative vectors, the risks of collision with multiple target ships can be determined
simultaneously within a short time.
In the case of the own ship being manoeuvred, relative vector cannot be used to determine the
manoeuvre situation of the target, so it is not applicable for collision avoidance.
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(2) Application of true vector
In making collision avoidance decisions, the encounter situations between the own ship and
target ships may be assessed directly by true vector, and then collision avoidance actions will be
taken according to the encounter situations and the COLREGs.
The true vector relative to water is applicable for ship collision avoidance. The true vector
relative to the ground is applicable for collision avoidance giving consideration to both navigation
in coastal waters and narrow channels.
(3) Switching between relative and true vectors
Relative vectors are helpful to assess the risks of collision, and true vectors are helpful to make
collision avoidance decisions. It is noted that vector modes should be switched over when
appropriate.
.3 Obtaining information from past positions

(1) Past position mode
There are true past position and relative past position modes. For old types of radar, past position
modes are consistent with radar motion modes, i.e. true past positions are displayed on true
motion presentation mode, and relative past positions on relative motion presentation mode.
However, past position modes are always consistent with vector modes for the latest radars, i.e.
true past positions are displayed under the true vector mode, while relative past positions are
displayed under the relative vector mode.
(2) Application of past position function
Selection of past position function
In case of the own ship keeping the present speed and course, relative past position function
facilitates in estimating the target motion relative to the own ship and the target manoeuvre
situation over a past period of time. The true past positions stabilised relative to the water is
helpful to assess the target navigation status in collision avoidance. While the true past positions
stabilised to the ground is useful for position monitoring in navigation.
Application in collision avoidance
When the target true past positions relative to the water is not on a straight line, it indicates that
the target has altered course. When the intervals of the adjacent past positions increase or
decrease, it indicates that the target has speeded up or slowed down. The true past positions
relative to water are shown in Fig.6-1. The own ship "O" keeps the speed and turns to starboard
(equal spaced past positions to water in a curved line); target T1 keeps the course and speed
(equal spaced past positions relative to water in a straight line); target T2 keeps the course with
speed increasing (beginning with intensive then sparse past positions relative to water in a
straight line); target T3 keeps the speed with turning to starboard (equal spaced past positions
relative to water in a curved line); target T4 is floating on the water (no past positions and true
vector).
Verification for radar tracking performance
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Under the conditions that the own ship keeps the present speed and course, when past positions
of all targets are not presented in proper order, there may be problems in the process of target
tracking which resulted in the presentation of unreliable tracking data.
.4 The graphical display of PADs

PADs is an acronym for "Predicted Areas of Danger", which are the possible collision areas of the
own ship with the target under the condition of the target keeping the speed and course and the
own ship keeping the speed. The size of PADs is in connection with target's relative position,
target's speed and course, the own ship's speed and CPA LIM. If the heading line of the own ship
intersects with the target's PADs, the own ship and the target have a risk of collision, as shown
with target T2 in Fig.5-2 (refer to 5.1.4). If the heading line of the own ship does not intersect with
the PADs of the target, the own ship and the target have no risks of collision, as shown with the
target T1 in Fig.5-2.
Cautions to use PADs:
(1) When switching to PADs mode, only the true vectors will be displayed. The range between
target and the centre of a PAD is not the true vector of target.
(2) When STW is selected, PADs will indicate safety course; when SOG, is selected, PADs will
indicate safety course over ground.
(3) The PADs can be used for the prediction of collision risks between the own ship and targets
only, but not for the encounters among target ships.
(4) In the case of multiple targets and PADs, complex graphics will be involved. As a result, PADs
are not applicable for narrow channels, fishing areas and
the waters with frequently manoeuvred targets.
T5
(5) The functions of PADs are neither a compulsory
requirement in radar Performance Standards, nor T1 T2
available on most radars currently.
T3
.5 The information of AIS reported target O
(1) AIS reported targets T4

O
AIS reported targets provide graphical and
Fig.6-1 TM/TV past positions
alphanumeric display modes:
AIS reported target graphical presentation
Graphical display presents AIS target types (sleeping, activated, selected, dangerous, lost and
true scaled outline), the position to the own ship, and to indicate the course and speed of the AIS
target by predicted vector. The comparison between AIS target and radar targets is shown in
Tab.6-1. The instructor should emphasise the features of AIS targets and the differences with the
tracked targets.
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Tab.6-1 Reported AIS target symbols and tracked radar target symbol
Reported AIS target Tracked radar target

Target type Symbol Target type Symbol
Sleeping Radar target Echo paint
Activated Tracked
Selected Selected
Dangerous Dangerous
18
Lost Lost
True scaled True scaled

outlines outline
AIS reported target alphanumeric display
The following data should be presented in alphanumeric form: Source of data, ship's identification,
(MMSI), navigational status, position where available and its quality, range, bearing, COG, SOG,
CPA and TCPA, target heading, turning rate, and other requested information. Where sea
stabilisation is selected, the CTW and STW shall be presented in place of COG and SOG. If the
received AIS information is incomplete, the absent information should be clearly indicated as
"missing" within the target data field. The data should be displayed and continually updated, until
another target is selected for data display or until the window is closed.
(2) The application of AIS reported target on radar
Setting AIS reported target
Refer to 6.2 of Part D for setting and maintaining normal AIS reported target display.
Association of radar tracked with AIS reported targets
Refer to 6.3.6 of Part D for association of radar tracked with AIS reported targets.
Setting AIS reported target alarm
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Refer to 6.3.10 of Part D for setting AIS alarm.
.6 Association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets

Refer to 5.3 of Part D for the association concept and criteria of radar tracked targets with AIS
reported targets.
(1) Principles of TT and AIS targets association
The accuracy of AIS reported target is greater than that of radar TT, especially in the frequently
used ranges (3, 6 and 12 nm). Taking AIS information as reference is the basic principle of
association when the system accuracy meets the relevant requirements.
When the range scale is less than 1.5 nm, and the system accuracy meets the relevant
requirements, the accuracies of radar TT and AIS system are equivalent. In this condition, either
the AIS reported targets or the radar tracked targets can be set as the default association
condition for the purpose of safe navigation.
In case of doubt about the accuracy of AIS reported information, or when the GNSS deviation of
the own ship is large, i.e. the positions of TT and AIS targets have more deviations, the operator
should set the tracked target as default association condition.
(2) Methods of setting up association criteria
Refer to 5.3 and 5.4.8 of Part D for the methods of setting up association criteria.
.7 Assessment of encounter situation and collision risks by associated targets'

information
The encounter situation and collision risks will be assessed after associating radar tracked with
AIS reported targets. Described below are the methods used to identify the dangerous targets.
(1) Data comparison
Officers are required to confirm and compare the tracked target's CPA/TCPA with the set CPA
LIM/TCPA LIM, so as to evaluate the encounter situation and assess collision risks as early as
possible. Details are as follows:
CPA CPA LIM, non-dangerous target;
CPA≤CPA LIM, TCPA>CPA LIM, non-imminently dangerous target, the officers in charge of
navigation should pay attention to the change of TCPA;
CPA≤CPA LIM, TCPA≤TCPA LIM, imminent dangerous target exists. The radar will give sound
and visual alarm to draw attention. Collision avoidance measures should be taken at once.
(2) Vectors
Vectors can be used to evaluate the risk of collision in a short time, which is the essential for
trainees to use. The primary operation in using this method is switching over between true vector
and relative vector with the aid of the circle of CPA LIM when appropriate. The relative vector is
useful to determine the risks of collision; the true vector is to assist making decisions to avoid
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collision. Switching over between relative and true vector is recommended in collision avoidance
action. Details have been discussed in Sub-topic 6.3.2 of Part D.
(3) PADs
Refer to 6.3.4 for details.
The training institutions with equipment meeting the recommendations annexed to resolution A.
422(XI) and resolution A. 823(19) only, may skip the parts concerning association operations.
.8 Trial manoeuvre
(1) Operation of trial manoeuvre
The functions of trial manoeuvre with the simulated time to manoeuvre and the own ships'
dynamic characteristics vary with different radar by different manufacturers. The radar operation
manual should be referred to for detailed operations. The basic operation procedures are listed
below:
Before starting the trial manoeuvre, the own ship's turning rate, turning radius and the rate of
speed change should be inputted in advance.
The own ship's new heading and/or new speed should also be inputted beforehand.
Set the simulated time to manoeuvre
The operation of trial manoeuvre with simulated time to manoeuvre and the own ship's dynamic
characteristics can be divided into three stages. First, the own ship proceeds with current heading
and the speed within the delay. Second, the own ship's dynamic characteristics will be simulated.
Finally, new course and/or speed will be simulated.
According to the manoeuvre plan, the trial manoeuvre can be divided into heading trial
manoeuvre, speed trial manoeuvre and the mixed trial manoeuvre. In collision avoidance practice,
course alteration trial manoeuvre is usually used instead of others.
Operation of trial manoeuvre without simulated time to manoeuvre and the own ship's dynamic
characteristics is a relatively simple trial manoeuvre which is used for old ARPAs. This kind of trial
manoeuvre is similar to the third stage of modern radar trial manoeuvre as mentioned above. As
an example, the third stage simulation of trial manoeuvre is illustrated here with the heading trial
manoeuvre. The operations of other two trial manoeuvres are similar to this example in principle.
Trial manoeuvre based on data comparison
Comparing the CPA/TCPA of the target with CPA LIM/TCPA LIM is one of the most accurate
methods for trial manoeuvre. Altering the own ship's trial heading gradually until the alarm is
cleared, then the simulated heading obtained at that time is the safe borderline heading.
Vector mode trial manoeuvre
Due to the fact that vector enable immediate assessment of collision risks and visual grasp of the
encounter situations, the trial manoeuvre in vector mode applies to all navigation situations. The
detailed operation is as follows:
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Firstly, assess the risks of collision in the mode of relative vector, as shown in Fig.6-2(a), the
relative vector line of the target T2 intersects with the CPA LIM circle, then a collision risk is
035 035
T2 T2
T1 T1
O O
(a) RM CU RV risk evaluation (b) RM CU TV encounter situation
050 050
T2 T2
T1 T1
O O
(c) RM CU RV trial manoeuvre (d) RM CU TV trial manoeuvre
Fig.6-2 RM CU heading trial manoeuvre
determined.
Then, switch to true vector mode, as shown in Fig.6-2(b), the own ship is the give-way ship
according to the COLREGs and should take measure for collision avoidance.
Next, start trial manoeuvre function. A letter "T" will display below on the operational display area.
Under the relative vector mode and taking consideration of the COLREGs, safe limitation course
050° is obtained, which is shown in Fig.6-2 (c). Finally, switch to true vector mode (see Fig.6-2 (d)),
verify the effect. Meanwhile, as a secondary reference, verify that all the ends of target true vector
are away from the vector-end of the own ship, which means the alarm is cleared successfully.
Trial manoeuvre in PADs mode
As the safe heading can be obtained by operating the EBL in PADs mode, the heading trial
manoeuvre is not necessary. Speed trial manoeuvre can be used for collision avoidance by
changing speed. In this case, the trial manoeuvre speed should be entered, and the own ship's
heading should not intersect with PADs.
(1) Checking validity of intended alteration of course and speed
The operation of checking intended alteration of course and speed with trial manoeuvre facility is
as follows:
Start trial manoeuvre and set trial manoeuvre course and speed as intended course and speed.
Verify the safety of the own ship on the new course and speed by the method aforementioned.
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If there is no dangerous alarm, the alteration of the course and speed is valid.
The trial manoeuvre can also be used by the own ship to predict the proper timing for resuming
the course and speed after avoidance collision.
.9 The setting and acknowledgement of ARPA or TT operational alarms (full alarm,

dangerous target alarm, new target entry alarm, lost target alarm)
(1) ARPA or TT full alarm
Refer to 5.5.5 of Part D for the capacity of radar acquired targets. There will be an indication when
the target acquisition or tracked numbers exceed the capacity of the system. In this circumstance,
the less significant targets will be cancelled so as to keep enough capacity.
(2) Dangerous target alarm
When the calculated CPA/TCPA of a tracked target is less than the CPA LIM/TCPA LIM, the
dangerous target alarm should be activated. The alarm should be acknowledged and trial
manoeuvre should be considered to make the decision for collision avoidance.
(3) New target entry alarm
Set up guard rings or guard zones. When targets enter or are within the zones, new target entry
alarms will be activated. Officers should acknowledge the alarms and then decide whether or not
to acquire the targets according to the situation. For the guard rings or guard zones which are set
up with automatic acquisition function, the targets within or entering the zones will be acquired
automatically.
(4) Lost target alarm
Lost target alarm is very likely to be activated when the target or the own ship is changing course
or speed suddenly. In this circumstance, the alarm should be acknowledged, and the decision
whether or not to acquire the target again should be made.
.10 The setting and acknowledgement of AIS operational alarms (full alarm, dangerous
target alarm, lost target alarm)
(1) AIS full alarm
According to the SOLAS Convention and the MSC. 192(79) PS, the minimum capacities of
activated and sleeping AIS targets for various sizes/categories of ship/craft are listed in TABLE 2
of Appendix I-3.
Reminder messages are available when the numbers of processing/display AIS targets exceed
the capacity of the system. The AIS target presentation status (activated or sleeping) can be
switched over. To reduce display clutter, means to filter the presentation of all sleeping AIS targets
or part sleeping AIS targets should be provided by setting the relevant filter status (e.g. target
range, CPA/TCPA or AIS target class A/B, etc.).
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(2) Dangerous target alarm
AIS dangerous target alarm is the same as that of the radar. In other words, if the calculated
CPA/TCPA of a tracked target or an activated AIS target is less than the CPA LIM/TCPA LIM, a
CPA/TCPA alarm will be activated.
The instructor should emphasise that the pre-set CPA LIM/TCPA LIM applied to targets from radar
and from AIS should be identical. As a default state, the CPA/TCPA alarm functionality should be
applied to all activated targets. On user's request, the CPA/TCPA alarm functionality may also be
applied to sleeping targets.
(3) Lost targets alarm
It should be possible to enable or disable the lost target alarm function for AIS targets. A clear
indication should be given when the lost target alarm is disabled.
The AIS lost target alarm function is enabled. The target is of interest, according to lost target filter
criteria. A message is not received for a set time, depending on the nominal reporting rate of the
AIS target. Then:
The last known position should be clearly indicated as a lost target and an alarm be given. The
indication of the lost target should disappear if the signal is received again, or after the alarm has
been acknowledged. A means of recovering limited historical data from previous reports should be
provided.
6.4 Errors of interpretation of target data

The trainees should be made aware errors are not inherent in the radar system, but result from
misunderstanding, inexperience or careless observation. The most common misunderstanding is
listed as follows:
.1 Possible errors due to improper interpretation of sensors' setting and/or adjustment

(1) Improper THD setting
Improper THD setting reduces the data accuracy from TT. The radar stops target tracking
functions without THD and can switch automatically to the unstabilised head up and relative
motion mode.
(2) Improper SDME setting
Improper SDME setting reduces the data accuracy from TT. The radar stops target tracking
functions without SDME. Misuse of STW or SOG may cause, wrong information output for
collision avoidance will be outputted from the radar and produce potential risks.
(3) Improper EPFS setting
Improper EPFS setting results in incorrect association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported
targets.
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(4) Improper AIS setting
Improper AIS setting results in incorrect association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported
targets.
(5) Improper radar setting
The maladjustment reduces the detecting ability of the radar, and weak target echoes are likely
disappear. The radar errors due to improper adjustment of the picture will degrade the accuracy of
TT. Refer to 6.1 of Part D for details.
.2 Inconsistent information deriving from alphanumeric display and information from

vector
In relative vector operation, the target speed from graphical display is relative speed, while the
speed from digital display is true speed.
.3 Possible errors due to incorrect interpretation of radar presentation and vector mode
(1) Relative vector and true vector are important functions of TT/ARPA. Confusion of relative
vector and true vector may lead to misinterpretation of encounter situations and taking incorrect
actions, which might lead close-quarters situations or even a marine accident.
(2) The display features of combined modes should be understood such as the combination of
relative motion and relative vector, true motion and true vector, relative motion and true vector,
true motion and relative vector. Misunderstanding or confusion of display features may affect the
proper use of radar.
(3) It is wrong to determine CPA and TCPA by forward extrapolation of true vector as this will
result in wrong assessment of dangerous targets and even wrong actions to take.
.4 Possible errors due to incorrect interpretations of the own ship's speed

Improper speed input may result in errors in the collision avoidance or navigation, and affect the
safety of navigation.
In most situations, radars are mainly used for collision avoidance. The influence of currents is
regarded as identical for all the ships in the waters, so STW (speed log input or manual input) is
needed. However, information from radar may be unreliable if the complex currents have notable
different influence on the own ship and targets in narrow channels. This will result in wrong
evaluation of collision situation.
In coastal or narrow channel waters, especially in waters largely affected by currents, SOG is
preferred for the ground stabilisation.
.5 Possible errors resulting from incorrect interpretation of a trial manoeuvre

The trial manoeuvre is a computer simulation to the own ship's manoeuvre. Safety margin should
be considered when setting the parameters of trail manoeuvre, because there are large deviation
between the actual movement of the ship and the simulation. Issues to consider during a trial
manoeuvre operation are as follows:
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Functions of trial manoeuvre are neither applicable to evaluate whether the trial manoeuvre
plan by the officers conforms to the COLREGs, nor to replace their valuable sea experience.
During the trial manoeuvre, new risks of collision with other non-tracked targets may occur.
During the trial manoeuvre, the operational display area presents a simulated image.
Alphanumeric data presentation is needed to monitor actual encounter situations.
Issues that should be considered when setting the simulated time to manoeuvre include the
officer's seamanship, navigation experiences, helmsman proficiency, settings of CPA LIM/TCPA
LIM, ship's size, ship's manoeuvre ability, encounter situation, and manoeuvre plan, etc.
In the use of trial manoeuvre function for decision making, sufficient safety margins should be
taken into account regarding the errors of radar tracked and AIS reported targets,
The outcomes of trial manoeuvre are effective only under the premise that there are no
manoeuvre operations for both the own ship and the target ship. If the own ship or the target ship
manoeuvres during the trial manoeuvre, the trial manoeuvre should be terminated at once. New
decisions should not be made until both ships' courses and speeds stabilise again.
.6 Reacquired "lost target" presenting false course and speed alteration

When a lost target is re-acquired, the system should present the trend of the target's motion and
its initial tracking data within 1 minute. The prediction of the target's motion and stable data and
vector of target should be presented in 3 minutes. Misunderstanding of data processing delay
may lead to misinterpretation of radar presentations and data of the tracked target. It may result in
close-quarters situations when unstable tracked data is used.
.7 PADs not indicating mutual threats between targets

PADs are the possible collisions areas based on the condition of the target keeping the speed and
course and the own ship keeping the speed. Therefore PADs displayed apply only to the own ship
and targets, and do not indicate mutual threats between targets.
.8 The length of line from target to PAD not indicating target speed
A line between the target and PADs indicates the relationship between own ship and the target
only. The length of the line is not an indicator of the target's speed.
.9 Past position displays not necessarily in the same mode as vectors

Past position modes should be consistent with the vector modes, i.e. relative past positions are
displayed under the relative vector mode and true past positions are displayed under the true
vector mode. However, for early ARPAs, past position modes are consistent with radar motion
modes. In this case, relative past positions may be combined with true vectors, and true past
positions with relative vectors. The trainees should understand that the past positions may not be
in the same mode as the vector.
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.10 A change of direction in the relative past position display not necessarily indicating a
target manoeuvre
When relative vector mode is used to display relative past positions, the change of the own ship's
course and speed may result in the change of the relative past positions of the target, so the change
of the past positions does not imply the manoeuvre of the target. Refer to 6.3.3 of Part D for details.
.11 Misinterpretation of ARPA or TT and AIS information leading to dangerous

misunderstanding
(1) The incorrect interpretation of data from ARPA or TT may lead to misunderstanding of true
course and true speed, CPA, TCPA, relative speed and course of a target. As a result a
dangerous target may be taken as a safe one, which will cause potential threats to safe navigation.
Similarly, misinterpreting ARPA or TT data may result in mistaking a safe target as a dangerous
one, which causes unnecessary tension and even inappropriate actions.
(2) The misinterpretation of AIS reported target data update interval delay may result in
misunderstanding of the target motion, especially in harbour waters, narrow channels and other
congested areas with crowded AIS equipment, which causes the update interval of AIS reported
target information to exceed the required time as per protocol. In this case, AIS reported target
information does not reflect the actual movement of target. It is dangerous for officers to evaluate the
risks by merely depending on AIS reported target and the results may bring close-quarters situations.
6.5 Causes of errors in displayed data
.1 Effects of radar sensor errors on displayed data

Errors caused by the radar sensors consist of range and bearing measurement errors. Refer to
1.4.3 of Part D for details. Radar range and bearing measurement errors affect the data accuracy
of targets' relative motion data and true motion data, including relative speed, CPA, TCPA, relative
vector, target true speed and true vector, etc.
.2 Effects of heading errors on displayed data

The own ship's heading error affects the calculation of true course and true speed of radar
tracking targets, which will result in the errors of target's "true" data, including true course, true
speed, true vector, PAD, and the corresponding alphanumerical data and graphical data.
Instructors may discuss it using velocity vector triangle as shown in Fig.6-3, where the heading
A T SHM
SHM T
E A
B A'
- V
E E'
A'
O B
F CPA
E' F
CPA O
Fig.6-3The impact of heading errors Fig.6-4 The impact of speed error
error of θ is wrongly indicated as TA' vector, rather than the correct vector TA.
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.3 Effects of speed errors on displayed data

The own ship's speed error affects the calculation of true course and true speed of radar tracking
targets, which will also result in the errors of target's "true" data, including true course, true speed,
true vector, PAD, and the corresponding alphanumeric data and graphical data. Instructors may
discuss it using velocity vector triangle as shown in Fig.6-4, where the speed error of –ΔV is
wrongly indicated as TA' vector, rather than the correct vector TA. This may mislead the officer to
make the same wrong collision avoidance decision as described with gyrocompass error.
.4 Unreliable indications with manoeuvres by both the own ship and the target ship
Topic 5 describes the basic principles of radar target tracking and outlines the processing delays.
The displayed data is unreliable when the target is initially tracked or when the own ship or the
target ship has just altered its course or speed. Refer to 5.5 of Part D and 5.6 of Part D for details.
.5 Satisfactory tracking by ARPA or TT as indicated by smoothness of the displayed past

positions
Correct understanding of information from radar past positions is described in 6.3.4 of Part D. The
function can be used to check the reliability of ARPA or TT data.
(1) On the basis of stable and continuous tracking, under the preconditions that the own ship
keeps speed and course, the tracker may have some problem if past positions of all targets have
irregular or unstable presentations.
(2) Past position function can also be used to test radar tracking performance in response to the
own ship's manoeuvres. If manoeuvres of the observing or a target ship result in tracked target
lost, the manoeuvre parameters at that moment represent the limitation to maintain a normal
tracking. In this circumstance, the record of past positions can visually indicate the limitation of
target tracking in manoeuvre conditions.
.6 Causes of data errors for AIS reported target

AIS reported target and relative functions are described in 5.2 of Part D. Errors of the displayed
data arise possibly from the following factors:
(1) Uncertainty of the accuracy of ship's position by AIS
The core of AIS is the GNSS. The accuracy of AIS may decline due to the declining accuracy of
the GNSS. The accuracy of the GNSS is related to the system, environment, or other factors.
Refer to IMO Model Course 1.34 for details.
(2) The lack of integrity indication of AIS data
At the receiving end, the operator cannot verify the accuracy and integrity of data from the
sensors of the target. So the accuracy of AIS reported data is hard to determine.
(3) Limitation of AIS dynamic data updating interval by the AIS principle and VHF Data Link
(VDL)
The updating interval of AIS dynamic data is influenced by the ship's manoeuvreability, normally
from 2 seconds to 3 minutes. Meanwhile, owing to VDL affected by various interference factors
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and the diversity of AIS equipment, the nominal information reported interval often cannot be
maintained.
(4) Improper setting for AIS reported information
The irregular setting possibly involves improper setting of GNSS antenna location, static
information, etc. This will result in data errors.
(5) Effects of the error of AIS reported information on collision avoidance data
The error of AIS reported target information (such as GNSS error, setting error of GNSS antenna
location) directly influences the accuracy of collision avoidance data (CPA/TCPA).
6.6 System operational tests to determine data accuracy
.1 System diagnosis to test system status (including errors, troubles, etc.)

(1) Activate self-diagnostic test routine automatically or at the request of the operator, according to
the work flow of the corresponding device manual
(2) Establish regular maintenance schedule to ensure radar performance.
(3) Pay attention to the life expectancy of main part such as the magnetron.
.2 Performance check by the aid of system test programmes against known solutions
According to IMO resolution A.823(19), operators should be able to evaluate system status using
prepared test programmes.
(1) Be familiar with prepared test programmes and related operational regulations for special
device.
(2) Evaluates ARPA performance at regular intervals against known solutions as described by
5.25.4.7.1 of the MSC. 192(79) PS.
(3) Related symbols should be shown and identified by operators when test programmes are
working.
.3 Performance check by manual plotting, including a trial manoeuvre

Radar target tracking performance can be checked through manual radar plotting. The
recommended flow is as follows:
(1) Tracks a clear and stable target ship by means of ARPA or TT, reads tracked data and
simulates the target motion data based on the own ship's trial manoeuvre.
(2) Manually plots the above target simultaneously and calculates target motion information and
the changed target motion information after the own ship's manoeuvre.
(3) Check radar tracking performance by comparing the above calculated target motion
information with the target motion information from ARPA or TT.
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.4 Anomaly of ARPA or TT and AIS reported information

Proper action should be taken when data accuracy of ARPA or TT and AIS reported target does
not meet relevant performance standards.
(1) Calibration of errors caused by radar sensor
Errors caused by the radar sensor consist of range and bearing measurement errors. Refer to
2.2.5 of Part D for check and calibration on the errors.
(2) Calibration of error caused by THD and SDME
When data accuracy of heading and speed does not meet the relevant performance standards, it
is necessary to calibrate heading in THD and speed in SDME according to equipment operation
manual, or to terminate radar tracking and apply for repair service.
(3) Proper management of malfunction of radar target tracking
According to the basic principles of radar target tracking, the phenomenon of target lost and target
swop often occur in target tracking, which will result in the malfunction in displayed data and
correct action should be taken by OOW. Refer to 5.6 of Part D for details.
(4) Calibration of errors caused by AIS reported targets
Malfunction of AIS reported target relates to the own ship's sensors, AIS reported target and VDL
of AIS. The information of the own ship's EPFS, THD and SDME should be verified, together with
the information of AIS reported target in accordance with 6.2 of Part D.
In case of any abnormalities in AIS presentation, the AIS reporting functions should be switched
off for repair service.
6.7 Risks of over-reliance on ARPA or TT and AIS reported information
.1 Limitations of ARPA or TT and AIS reported information

(1) Limitations of radar tracking
Tracking reliability.
Target lost and target swop were described in 5.6 of Part D. Limitations of processing delays was
summarised in 5.7 of Part D.
Capacity
The capacity and availability of radar picture information are restricted by the size and
discrimination of the display. Meanwhile, hardware conditions also limit the maximum tracking and
displaying capacity of targets.
Tracking range and speed
In accordance with the radar performance standards, target tracking facilities should be available
on at least the 3, 6, and 12 nm range scales. Tracking range should extend to a minimum of 12
nm when the targets proceed beyond the maximum designed tracking distance (e.g. 12 nm), the
radar will automatically give up tracking for the target.
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Speed limit exists for radar target tracking, and the maximum relative speed of the normal tracking
is about 100 kn (normal speed vessel) or 140 kn (high speed craft).
(2) Possible errors in interpreting target data
Possible errors of interpretation of target data were outlined in 6.4 of Part D. The instructor should
emphasise that the errors are not inherent in the radar system, but result from misunderstanding,
inexperience or careless observation by the operator.
(3) Possible errors in displayed data of ARPA or TT
Possible factors that might cause errors in displayed data were identified and explained in 6.5 of
Part D. Due to the accuracy limitations in displayed data of ARPA or TT; the OOW should not be
over-reliant on displayed data of ARPA or TT and should comply with basic principles in keeping a
navigational watch.
(4) Limitations of the application of AIS reported targets on radar
Based on the description of AIS reported target in 5.2, 5.3, 6.2, 6.3 of Part D, the instructor should
emphasise the limitations of AIS reported target.
Limitations of AIS reported targets
I. Errors in displayed data of AIS reported target
Errors in displayed data of AIS reported targets were described in 6.5.6 of Part D. Refer to 6.5.6 of
Part D for details.
II. No panorama of navigation situations by AIS
AIS, as non-autonomous detection equipment, cannot indicate islands, shorelines, or navigation

objects without equipped with AIS devices. Not all the vessels are equipped with AIS devices, and
those equipped may power it off at any time.
III. The reliability of AIS data used in collision avoidance
The assessment of the risk of collision should be based on the relative motion of targets with
respect to the own ship, and the manoeuvre of collision avoidance should have reference to water.
However, AIS adopts geographical coordinates WGS-84, and indicates targets' true motion to
ground.
Limitations of AIS assisting radar in preventing collisions
I. Display interference
In dense traffic waters, the AIS symbols may complicate and overload screen information, or even
cover up weak target echoes, and affect the normal radar observations.
II. Complicated operation
The integration of AIS information results in complex human-machine interface and increment of
information. It requires more ongoing training for a radar operator to understand the function of
collision avoidance of the modern radar.
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III. Data redundancy
On the radar display without association of tracked and reported targets, and owing to the
different data sources, processing methods and accuracies, there will be differences between
radar tracking data and AIS reported data for the same physical target, which will result in the
screen data (including graphical and alphanumeric data) redundancy. This produces difficulties
for the OOW to properly assess the encounter situations.
IV. Lost target
It is likely that both radar and AIS have undetectable or lost targets. For example, it is possible for
a small ship in clutters and equipped without AIS device to remain undetected either by radar
sensors or by AIS sensors.
(5) Limitations of association of radar tracked and AIS reported targets
Many factors influence the association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported target, including
errors in radar tracking data and AIS reported data, association algorithm, and the setting of
association criteria, all of which can cause association anomalies.
Anomalies in association of individual or partial targets
These are usually caused by AIS data errors of targets. The difference between radar tracking
data and AIS reported data may also contribute the phenomena. For example, in case of larger
difference between the positions of a radar tracked target and a AIS reported target or for large
target vessel of LOA longer than 250 m, with a distance of more than 200 m between the leading
edge of radar echo return and AIS target reported position (master GNSS antenna), in addition to
the influence of weather/sea conditions and radar system errors and other factors, the difference
between radar tracked and AIS reported position may exceed 300 m.
The actual update interval of AIS reported information may be longer than the nominal values as
affected by the specific equipment performance and communication environment at sea. This
might cause delayed update of AIS reported position.
No associations for all targets
If all the AIS symbols deviate a fixed range from the radar echoes, this is probably due to all the
sensor errors of own radar system. For example, the association cannot be realised due to the
errors of the radar detection or the errors of own ship's EPFS, even though the positions of AIS
reported target (the GNSS positions of target ship) are correct.
.2 Proper reactions to operational alarms

The operational alarms of ARPA or TT and AIS functions are based on the principles of radar
target tracking and the proper application of the related functions under special navigational
situation.
(1) Reasonable operational alarms by setting reasonable parameters.
Set up reasonable guard zones, acquisition zones, restricted zone and exclusion zone on the
basis of the navigational situation and need, in order to attain or restrict new target alarms. Refer
to 6.1.6 of Part D for details.
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Sets up reasonable safety threshold value of CPA LIM/TCPA LIM in order to attain reasonable
dangerous target alarm. Refer to 6.7.3 of Part D for details.
(2) Reasonable acquisition mode
The operator should determine reasonable acquisition mode according to actual navigation
need since manual acquisition and automatic acquisition have their own advantages and
disadvantages respectively.
Automatic acquisition, as a supplementary mean to manual acquisition, is suitable for open

sea with good weather and sea conditions.
The automatic acquisition is not suitable for complicated echo environment which need more
selection for targets.
For any encounter situation, appropriate settings of automatic acquisition assisted with
exclusive zones are recommended.
(3) Ways to deal with operational alarms
Refer to 6.3.9 of Part D for basic ways to deal with operational alarms. The operational alarms
include target full alarm, target lost alarm, new target entry alarm and target dangerous alarm. For
dangerous targets, the operator may avoid collision by means of trial manoeuvre. Refer to 6.3.8 of
Part D for details.
.3 Avoiding small predicted passing distances (CPA and BCR (bow crossing ranges))
In order to avoid risk of radar target tracking as much as possible, small predicted passing
distances (CPA or BCR) should be avoided in any case.
Appropriate safety threshold value of CPA LIM/TCPA LIM should be set up in order to attain
reasonable dangerous target alarm.
Many factors need to be considered while setting the CPA LIM and TCPA LIM. Refer to 6.1.4 of
Part D for details. In consideration of practical navigation environment and the COLREGs, the
referenced values of CPA LIM and TCPA LIM are as follows:
In open waters, the CPA LIM is usually about 2 nm with TCPA LIM over 18 minutes.
For costal navigation, CPA LIM is from 1 to 2 nm with usually more than 12 minutes TCPA LIM.
In narrow channels, CPA LIM has to be less than 0.8 nm.
.4 Sensor input alarms only valid for failure of input and not responding to inaccurate
inputs
The sensor input alarms only occur on input failure and do not respond to inaccurate inputs. So
trainees should be cautious in making use of manual input.
(1) Radar sensor
When a radar sensor does not work, the sensor input alarms will occur and there are no targets or
clutters on the radar screen. In this case, the service technician needs to replace magnetron or
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MIC or maintain bearing system according to the related examination results, and correct range
and bearing error. And the whole maintenance should be recorded in radar logbook.
In case of inaccurate inputs, the alarms will not occur. However it will affect the accuracy of radar
ranging and bearing measurements, even the association of radar tracked targets with AIS
reported targets. The errors of radar ranging and bearing measurements should be checked and
calibrated. Refer to 2.2.5 of Part D for details.
(2) THD sensor
When the gyrocompass or THD does not work, the sensor input alarms will occur. According to
the MSC. 192(79) PS, the equipment should switch automatically to the unstabilised head up
mode within 1 minute after the azimuth stabilisation has become ineffective. So the function of
radar target tracking and AIS reported will stop working. The other THD sensor should be inputted
if available. The malfunction should be reported to the company or the cause of the malfunction
should be checked.
In case of inaccurate THD inputs, the alarm will not occur. Proper actions should be taken,
referring to 6.6.4 of Part D for details. When data accuracy of THD gets lower, the true data of
radar TT and relative data of AIS reported targets have errors. This influences association of radar
tracked targets with AIS reported targets.
(3) SDME sensor
When SDME or speed log does not functional, the sensor input alarms will occur. ARPA or TT will
automatically stop functioning in limited time. In this situation, the operator may input speed
manually in order to make ARPA or TT keep functioning. The malfunction should be reported to
the company and the cause of the malfunction should be checked.
In case of inaccurate SDME inputs or inaccurate manual speed inputs, the alarm will not occur.
Proper actions should be taken, referring to 6.6.4 of Part D for details. When data accuracy of
SDME gets lower, the true data of radar TT and relative data of AIS reported targets have errors.
This influences the association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported targets.
(4) EPFS sensor
When EPFS does not work, the sensor input alarms will occur. Time and position is absent for
radar system, which causes the function of AIS reported targets and navigation with ECDIS to
cease working. The other EPFS sensor should be inputted if available. The malfunction should be
reported to the company or the cause of the malfunction should be checked.
In case of inaccurate inputs of EPFS sensor, the alarm will not occur. This might affect the data
accuracy of time and position of radar system, as well as the accuracy of AIS reported targets.
Proper actions should be taken and refer to 6.6.4 of Part D for details.
(5) AIS sensor
When AIS does not work, the sensor input alarms will occur. AIS reported targets cannot be
shown on the radar screen. The OOW should try to find out the cause of the failure and report to
the company as soon as possible.
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In case of inaccurate inputs of AIS reported targets, the alarm will not occur. However it will affect
the accuracy of AIS reported targets and the association of radar tracked targets with AIS reported
targets. Proper actions should be taken and refer to 6.6.4 of Part D for details.
Demonstration and practical training 5 & 6 -1

Operation of ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions (15.0 h)
To help trainees to consolidate the theory part and to achieve proficiency in using ARPA or TT and
AIS reporting functions for collision avoidance.
(2) Training mode
Demonstrate and operate hands-on on radar simulator.
set up and maintain ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions correctly (2.0 h)
operate radar target tracking function correctly (4.0 h)
use radar target tracking function to assess encounter situation and collision danger (4.5 h)
associate tracked targets with AIS reported targets (3.0 h)
operate trial manoeuvre (1.5 h)

Detailed practice items and timetable
Demonstration
Procedure Item and practical
training time h
1 describe the preparatory work for radar start up 0.2

set up and maintain
ARPA or TT and 2 start radar and maintain the optimum display of echoes 0.8
AIS reporting 3 select range scale, presentation mode, and describe cautions 0.2
functions correctly
4 set up and check sensor and system parameters 0.8
5 manual acquisition: describe the criteria of manual acquisition,

0.5
advantages and disadvantages as well as applicable situation
6 automatic acquisition: set up automatic guard/acquisition and

operate radar target exclusive zone, record target acquisition/alarm, describe the criteria
0.5
tracking function of automatic acquisition, advantages and disadvantages as well as
correctly applicable situation
7 select relative vector or true vector, describe their characteristics

and functions, and record each condition with change in 1.5
speed/course
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Demonstration
Procedure Item and practical
training time h
8 record the display of past positions of target, make alteration in

time interval and record again, describe the status of past positions 1
of target
9 cancel target tracking 0.2
10 record target lost and the corresponding environment/condition 0.3
11 graphically record the procedures of determining the safe,

dangerous, and imminently dangerous targets in association with
2.5
relative vector and CPA circle and determine encounter situation by
use radar target
means of true vector
tracking function to
determine 12 simultaneously record the data of safe, dangerous, and
1
encounter situation imminently dangerous targets in alphanumeric display
and collision danger
13 record the procedures of determining the safe, dangerous, and
imminently dangerous target and determining encounter situation 1
by means of PADs (if applicable)
14 record and compare the radar tracking data and AIS reported
associate tracked 1
data of the safe, dangerous, and imminently dangerous target
targets with AIS
15 record and compare the association of radar tracked targets
reported targets 2
with AIS reported targets in different association criteria
Operate trial
16 record the use of trial manoeuvre 1.5
manoeuvre
Notes:
 All the above 16 items cover the MSC. 192(79) PS.
 The remaining 14 items except Item 14 and 15 only cover A. 823(19) and A. 422(XI) ARPA
performance standards.
Assessment upon completion of the Topic 5 and 6 can be conducted in forms of written
examination, oral test, practical operation, discussions and class records, etc. in order to assess
whether a trainee satisfies the required performance. Focusing on the application on radar
collision avoidance both in principals and practical training, the trainee shall
(1) have the knowledge about the basic principles of ARPA or the association of radar tracked
targets with AIS reported targets;
(2) understand the limitations of radar automatic tracking system and AIS sensor;
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(3) have practical ability to set and maintain ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions in the optimal
working condition;
(4) acquire targets manually and automatically;
(5) associate radar tracked target with AIS reported target appropriately;
(6) assess the encounter situation and the risk of collision by using ARPA or TT and AIS reporting
functions;
(7) have an extensive knowledge of the possible mistakes when interpreting the target information;
and
(8) identify and explain the causes of error in display data; be aware of the risk of over-reliance on
ARPA or TT and AIS reported information.
The operation of radar target tracking is a crucial part of competence of the officer in charge of a
navigational watch. When giving classes, the instructor should emphasise that improper setting,
adjustment, and incorrect operations of radar video processing control will affect radar detection
performances and impose adverse influences to radar target tracking. Particularly, some
operations, such as the setting of radar system and the checking of sensors information as well as
the setting of CPA LIM/TCPA LIM, are critically important for the OOW to obtain collision
avoidance information. Besides, the instructor should also emphasise that the setting of CPA
LIM/TCPA LIM may be subject to restriction in narrow channels and complex waters with multiple
targets.
It is advised that the instructor assist the trainees to select proper presentation mode by
demonstration. The azimuth unstabilised H-up orientation presentation mode is not applicable for
the functional operation of ARPA or target tracking; N-up true motion presentation mode is better
when a radar is used for navigation purpose; while C-up relative motion presentation mode is
better applicable for collision avoidance. Therefore, when the vessel is engaged in both collision
avoidance and navigation situations, the true motion C-up or N-up presentation mode should be
selected based on the main application of radar.
In class, the instructor should help trainees understand the significance of the principles of data
smoothing for radar target tracking. Processing delay, on the one hand, is necessary data
processing for a TT facility; and on the other hand is one of the main radar limitations as well.
Proper use of vector is the key for ARPA or TT application and also for teaching. The
characteristics of relative and true vector should be emphasised during collision avoidance, both
vectors should be flexibly switched to take both collision risks and collision avoidance decisions
into account.
The instructor should attach the importance and significance to comprehensive consideration of
both tracked and reported information in collision avoidance situations. AIS only provides
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supplementary information and should not substitute radar tracked target information in collision
avoidance. AIS information might not meet the requirements of the AIS protocol, information
update interval might delay, information might be incomplete or erroneous. Therefore, many
factors could affect the accuracy of the AIS reported information. Because AIS reported
information has no integrity monitoring, the information should be confirmed by the user prior to
use.
It might be the difficult part for trainees to apply the information of both radar tracked target and
AIS reported target for collision avoidance. The instructor should focus on the limitations of AIS
information and demonstrate the influences to the AIS reported targets presentation when the
radar has a lack of information from various sensors. Radar tracking information and AIS reported
information come from two different sensors. When radar tracked targets and AIS reported targets
are associated, the plausibility of AIS data should be verified first. If the verification is passed, the
accuracy of AIS reported data is generally higher than that of radar tracked data. It is advised that
the instructor clearly explain the effects on the association of radar tracked target and AIS
reported target when different association criteria is set. If the association criteria are set
appropriately, radar tracked targets and AIS reported targets may be associated properly; if the
association criteria are inappropriate, radar tracked targets and AIS reported targets could be
rendered as two distinct targets. The latter will cause screen data redundancy, making it difficult
for the officer to appraise the encounter situations.
In teaching, emphasis should be laid on the fact that the past positions only indicate target (or the
own ship) positions within a period of time in the past by smoothing techniques, but not the
present or future movement. In order to understand and illustrate the dynamic movement of a
tracked target, comprehensively considerations should be taken regarding past positions in
combination with the information of vectors of present tracked target. The true vector in
combination with past positions can be used to determine the manoeuvring of a target ship, while
the relative vector associated with past positions cannot clearly indicate the manoeuvre state of
the target.
Focus in class should be on the fact that the purpose of using trial manoeuvre before the actual
manoeuvre is to simulate the action effectiveness. This function should be used as early as
possible in accordance with regulation 8 of the COLREGs. The trial manoeuvre can assist
navigators to assess the encounter situations in advance so as to avoid close-quarters situations
and reduce the ship's deviation. If it is safe and practicable, the ship should resume the original
course and speed after the collision risks have been lifted.
Throughout this course, the instructor should remind the trainees that TT/ARPA can only be used
as an aid to assist navigators to avoid collision and reduce workload during bridge watch, but it
cannot exempt or eliminate navigators' look-out responsibility.
This course meets the MSC. 192(79) PS. Training institutions whose equipment meet ARPA
standards only may skip the parts about AIS reported targets.
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7 Application of the COLREGs when using radar
This topic covers the following major issues: proper use of radar to keep a proper lookout, factors
affecting safe speed in association with radar, methods and its characteristics for sufficient radar
information acquisition, and the COLREGs requirements to take actions based on radar
information.
This topic represents a comprehensive application of prior knowledge. The key information of a
target ship can be acquired by means of radar target tracking, radar target tracking assisted by
AIS reported information and radar plotting, etc. Appropriate actions may be taken to avoid
collision or close-quarters situations on the basis of the system analysis and application of the
information.
7.1 Proper use of radar and complete interpretation of radar information

Radar is useful in determining the bearing and range of a target ship, even when they cannot be
determined by other means. What is more, with radar target tracking (ARPA or TT), AIS reported
information or manual plotting, the key and accurate information for collision avoidance such as
CPA, TCPA, course and speed of the target ship can be obtained to assist the officer in handling
collision avoidance or close-quarters situations. It is highly necessary and important to determine
risks or potential risks of collision through systematic radar observation and complete
interpretation of the radar information. For proper use of radar, the following shall be fulfilled:
(1) Full account shall be taken of the characteristics, efficiency and limitations of the radar;
familiarisation should be developed with the function of every switch and button on the control
panel and operation menu of radar; familiarisation should also be developed with the methods
and measures to eliminate all kinds of interferences. It is important to possess the ability to make
a correct estimate of the errors with radar. It should be noted that: small or weak echoes may not
be detected; incorrect operations may cause undiscovered targets or lost tracked targets;
inappropriate configuration of radar or radar sensors may produce insufficient collision avoidance
information.
(2) Proper range scale should be selected appropriate to the prevailing circumstance and
conditions, and the range scales should be switched at sufficiently frequent intervals to make it
possible to avoid missing small targets in the vicinity and obtain early warning of the risk of
collision. Therefore, the trainee is able to read radar information correctly and sufficiently and
make a full appraisal of the situation and the risk of collision.
(3) A good command of the characteristics, advantages and limitations of radar display modes
should be achieved. Proper display should be selected appropriate to the prevailing
circumstances and conditions, i.e. correct selection of true motion or relative motion presentation
under effective azimuth stabilization, such as north-up presentation or course-up presentation.
This is very important for systematic radar observations and complete interpretation of radar
information. The trainees will probably have their own individual preferences when starting the
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course but should be encouraged to become familiar with a variety of display modes so that they
can manage the usage of the equipment to certain circumstances.
(4) Skilful and proper use of fixed rang ring (RR), VRM, EBL, parallel Index Line, cursor, and the
mechanical bearing scale (if available) on the radar screen should be maintained.
(5) The systematic radar observation must be continuous and uninterrupted.
(6) Visual look-out must be maintained when using radar, even in restricted visibility.
7.2 Radar related factors affecting safe speed

Safe speed refers to a speed in which a ship can take proper and effective action to avoid collision
and be stopped within a distance appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
Every ship shall use safe speed at all times. Safe speed is a relative concept, which varies with
the ship state and the circumstances and conditions. The following factors (but not limited) to shall
be taken into account for ships with operational radar when determining a safe speed:
(1) The characteristics, efficiency and limitations of the radar equipment. For example, radar
observation cannot provide as much direct and large amount of information as visual look-out. It
costs more time to track or plot target, and radar responds slowly while the target ship is
manoeuvring. All the information from radar has a certain error, etc.
(2) Constraints imposed by the radar range scale in use. For example, when using the longer
range scale, the target echo is poor and discrimination is low and small targets in the vicinity are
less likely to be detected. The target ship in long distance cannot be detected in a timely manner
and it is difficult to give early alarm when using short range scales.
(3) The effects on radar detection of sea state, weather and other sources of interference. It
mainly refers to the effects on radar detection by sea clutter, rain and snow clutter, radar
interference, multiple echoes, indirect echoes, side-lobe echoes, and abnormal propagation, etc.
If serious, even the echo of large vessels cannot be identified, which is very dangerous for ship
(4) The possibility that boats, ice and other floating objects may not be detected by radar at a
modest range. These small targets have weak electromagnetic wave reflection ability.
(5) The number, location and movement of ships detected by radar reflect traffic density and the
relationship between the own ship and other target ships.
(6) An assessment of visibility can be made when radar is used to determine the range of ships or
other objects in the vicinity. It is very important when the visibility may change or at night.
7.3 Methods and characteristics of acquiring sufficient radar information

According to the requirements of the COLREGs, "radar plotting or equivalent systematic
observation of detected objects" should be used to determine whether risk of collision exists. With
the development of radar technology, the utilisation of manual plotting is decreasing, and radar
target tracking is more and more widely used. After the Resolution MSC. 192(79) took effect, AIS
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as the required sensor of radar system makes it possible to establish the association of radar
tracked targets with AIS reported targets. As a result, application of radar in collision avoidance
becomes more and more improved. As a matter of course, the use of either manual plotting, or
radar target tracking, or AIS reporting, or the association of tracked targets with AIS reported
targets, on the premise of correct use of the radar, provides sufficient information for situation
awareness and ship collision avoidance. The trainees should understand and master the following
approaches as much as possible:
(1) Radar plotting. Through systematical and continuous Observation of the bearings and
distances of radar echoes of the coming ship, plotting on radar screen (if fitted with reflection
plotting equipment) or on manual plotting paper can be done to acquire the collision avoidance
information, such as course, speed, CPA, TCPA, measures and timing of collision avoidance, and
the timing of resuming original motion status, etc. This plotting takes long time and can only plot a
small number of targets. In case of any action taken the plotting should be recommended after the
ships are in stable moment conditions. The training of manual plotting is useful for developing
spatial thinking in situation appraisal, predicting for the movement trend of target ship after the
own ship takes action to avoid collision and for coordination with other ships in encounter
situations. In this way, the effectiveness of collision avoidance can be guaranteed. This training is
compulsory for beginners.
(2) Target tracking. Radar tracking equipment can predict and update target ship tracks and
optimum motion data based on synthesis processing and continuous calculation of relevant
sensors' information. This method acquires the key information for collision avoidance, handles
more targets in a short time, and tracks continuously with high data accuracy, which is the primary
approach for ship collision avoidance at sea.
(3) AIS reported targets. AIS reported targets provide graphical and alphanumeric display modes
on radar screen. Graphical display presents the types of AIS target , the positions to the own ship,
and indicates the course and speed of the AIS target by predicted vetors. The following data
should be presented in alphanumeric form: source of data, MMSI, navigational status, position
and its quality, range, bearing, course, speed, CPA and TCPA, heading, ROT, and other related
information. In case the CPA/TCPA of an AIS target is less than the CPA LIM/TCPA LIM, a danger
alarm will be activated. It is easy to use, but should be noted for its error.
(4) The association of radar tracked with AIS reported targets. Based on radar target tracking,
proper association between AIS reported targets and radar tracked target assists radar collision
avoidance, reduces the redundant information and clutters on screen, and acquires optimal
information for collision avoidance, all of which arw obvious advantages.
7.4 Actions to avoid collision in accordance with radar information and

COLREG rules
Based on radar information, the instructor should train the trainees to be able to analyse the
potential or existing risk of collision and to determine and take action to avoid the close-quarters
situations. These actions taken shall be complied with the COLREGs. Trainees should be trained
to do the following:
(1) Make sure that any action to avoid collision shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, be
positive, made in ample time and with due regard to the observance of good seamanship. Any
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alteration of course and/or speed to avoid collision shall, if the circumstances of the case admit,
be large enough to be readily apparent to another vessel observing visually or by radar; a
succession of small alterations of course and/or speed should be avoided.
(2) State the responsibilities between ships under different circumstances and conditions. For
instance, give-way vessel and stand-on vessel, vessels with same collision avoidance
responsibilities, vessel required not to impede and vessel not to be impeded.
(3) State the principles of alteration of course and/or speed and good seamanship to avoid
collision in sight of one another. For instance, in overtaking situation, head-on situation, crossing
situation and collision avoidance between the ships with different operational ability, etc.
(4) State the principles of alteration of course and/or speed and good seamanship (as shown in
Figure 7-1) to avoid collision when navigating in or near an area of restricted visibility (not in sight
of one another).
Fig.7-1 Manoeuvring diagram of radar preventing collision
(5) State the coordinated action between the own ship and the target ship in collision risk or
close-quarters situations. The coordinated action means that the changes in the course and (or)
speed of the own ship and the target ship can lead to the same changes in the relative motion line.
This means to increase the CPA at the same time, which can be verified by the trial manoeuvre
and manual plotting.
(6) The two ships in collision relationship shall check the effectiveness of action carefully until the
other ship is finally past and clear. Then the give-way vessel may determine to resume the original
course and/or speed.
Arrangement should be made to simulate the above training. Every trainee shall frequently
practice radar collision avoidance operation assisted by manual plotting, target tracking, AIS
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reported information, and target association. In these exercises, trainees shall be able to interpret
sufficient information presented on radar for collision avoidance, and to analyse the risks of
collision and take appropriate action to avoid these risks.
Simulation of previous collision incidents and study of court judgments can be an effective means
for trainees to learn from earlier navigational mistakes.
7.5 Times to use radar

In clear weather in the daylight, the officer in charge of a navigational watch shall carry out radar
practice to obtain an appreciation of equipment capabilities and limitations, to compare radar and
visual observations and obtain an assessment to the relative accuracy of information. There
should be early use of radar in clear weather at night and when there are indications that visibility
may deteriorate, so as to make a early, full appraisal of situations. The officer in charge of a
navigational watch shall use the radar whenever restricted visibility is encountered or expected,
and at all times in congested waters, but have due regard to its limitations.

Exercises for comprehensive collision avoidance (12 h)
Proper and systemic use of radar to acquire sufficient targets' information.
Correct analysis and application of the radar information, in close association with the
COLREG rules
(2) Training mode
The trainees complete typical training programs on the radar simulator set by the instructor and
answer related questions. A full mission marine simulator with visual scene is advised to use when
the trainees carry out the training programs for ship in sight of one another
Start radar simulator, select the appropriate radar presentation mode and range scale, adjust
the radar picture, and set up the radar system sensors and CPA LIM/TCPA LIM (0.4h);
Sufficient radar information of a target ship such as course, speed, CPA and TCPA can be
acquired by manual plotting, radar target tracking, AIS reporting and the association of radar
tracked with AIS reported targets. Therefore, the risk of collisions and encounter situations can be
assessed based on these information (N.B. 1. It is advised to complete the following six trainings:
overtaking situation, head-on situation and crossing situation of in sight; the approaching ship
from forward of beam in restricted visibility (not in sight); the approaching ship from abeam and
abaft the beam; and good seamanship. 2. Inadequate radar information should not be avoided. 3.
The workload of manual plotting should be moderate at first, and then increases as the trainees
gain in ability. It is advised to start with between 3 and 5 targets while avoiding close quarters
situations). (0.6 h 6)
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When the CPA of a target ship is less than the CPA LIM, the collision avoidance actions of the
own ship should be determined by manual plotting or trial manoeuvre before manoeuvre
according to the COLREGs. Meanwhile, it si necessary to determine the time for resuming the
original course and/or speed. Subsequently, any action to avoid collision shall be taken in
accordance with the COLREG rules. If the circumstances of the case admit, such action should be
large enough and made in ample time (including the use of sound and light signals). The
effectiveness of such action should be checked and the original course and/or speed should be
resumed until the other ship is finally past and clear. VHF communication shall be kept all the time.
(0.4 h×6)
Comprehensive navigation training in multi-vessel encounter situations, varied environmental

conditions in association with typical case. (4 h)
At the end of the session, the instructor is adviced to interact with the trainees about their
training experiences, gains and doubts. The instructor makes comments and offers solutions
accordingly regarding the problems and highlights in the course (by replaying training video or
retrieving training data). (1 h)
Complete the following training report. (The contents of the report are recommended, which is
subject to adjustment according to any typical training scheme.) (0.6 h)
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Tab.7-1 Training report

Own ship's action
Own ship Target ship information Target ship's action
avoidance
CPA after
collision
Action plan Practical action
Information Course Speed Course Speed Course Speed
Course Speed Bearing Distance Course Speed CPA TCPA Time Time Time
Methods alteration change alteration change alteration change
Manual plotting
Auto-plotting
AIS target
Association
(Including information acquisition method, the comparison of different methods, error and influence factors, information analysis, etc.)
radar information obtained by
Comparison and analysis of
different method
(Including the applicable rules, basis, avoidance effect and cautions, etc.)
Rules application
Note: "Action plan" is the outcome of manual plotting and trial manoeuvre of other three methods.
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Assessment upon completion of the this topic can be conducted in forms of written
examination, oral test, practical operation, discussions and class records, etc. in order to
assess whether a trainee satisfies the required performance and competence. Focusing
on the application of the COLREGs on radar collision avoidance in practical training, the
trainee shall
(1) operate radar properly and timely;
(2) maintain a proper lookout to acquire sufficient information by radar;
(3) be familiar with the COLREGs and be able to apply them correctly;
(4) complete the training report correctly.
According to the requirements of the STCW Code, "The application of the COLREGs in
radar operation" is the comprehensive applications regarding the KUPs and the
COLREGs in the previous six topics of this course. In the teaching process, it is advised
that the instructor integrate demonstration and previous collision incidents and the
trainees shall conduct frequent practices on the radar simulator for better outcome.
In this topic, the demonstration and practical training part is one of the key components.
When designing the training programme (Tab.7-2), the instructor shall take full account of
the training for proper use of radar to acquire sufficient radar information, the application
of the association of radar information and the Rules, the integration of typical cases into
the training program, the conditions of the teaching equipment and the requirements of
the competent authorities. At the beginning of the training, the instructor should make
clear the training programs, contents, requirements, notes, etc. In the course of the
training, the instructor should continuously monitor the students' operation and correct
improper ones and violations wherever appropriate. The instructor should also assume
the responsibility of the target ship collision avoidance and VHF communication, so as to
ensure students' comprehensive and proper understanding of the Rules. At the end, the
instructor should give feedbacks and comments, with emphasis on the comprehensive
and proper application of the Rules as well as the necessity of completing the training
report. The time for trainee' operation in practical training shall not be less than three
quarters of the total demonstration and practical training time.
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Tab.7-2 A sample of training programme

(It is advised to design the programme step by step, so as to be used at any time.)
Elements of training
Specific content Remarks
programme
Carry out practical training frequently according to
Use radar correctly Performance standards
different elements.
It may be in restricted waters, narrow channels,
Environmental
Open waters waterways, TTS, even fishing areas, congested
conditions
waters, etc. The radar presentation may be different.
In addition, it is suggested to set restricted visibility
Visibility Good visibility, in sight not in sight and restricted visibility in sight, which may
apply to the different Rules.
Hydrological and
Rain, snow, Clutters depression training, other interferences may
meteorological
sea wave, etc. also be considered.
conditions
Other encounter situations may be considered:
overtaking, crossing, the vessel forward of beam in
Encounter situations Head-on
restricted visibility (not in sight), the vessel abeam
and abaft beam, good seamanship, etc.
It can be from long distantce to short distantce, even
Encounter distance 7-11 nm
immediate danger.
Velocity ratio
between own and About 1:1 It may be from small too big.
the target
A dangerous target, a
ship with the same
Target ships course and the same It can be from less to more.
speed and a ship at
anchor
Close tonnage of the Different type of vessels may be selected (especially
Manoeuvrability same type of ordinary the special function vessel). Tonnages may be from
cargo ship small to big.
Typical cases Relevant information Case database can be established.
By using different effective teaching methods, such as case study, the instructor is
supposed to let trainee understand the related rules in the COLREGs and apply the Rules
properly in association with radar information. In the teaching process, the instructor
should emphasise the time and conditions to apply the Rules, the responsibilities between
two ships under different circumstances and different conditions and the coordination of
actions between the own ship and target ships. These should be priorities in the training
programme.
Safety components are too important to be neglected in teaching. The instructor and
trainees should have the safety awareness throughout the teaching process. The
instructor should carry out safety inspection before starting the radar and simulator,
compling with safety operation procedures and keeping radar and simulator in best
working state to ensure the safety of navigation.
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Examples of lesson plan
.1 An example of lesson plan for lecture

Topic 1 Describe the basic theory and operation of a marine radar system
Sub-topic 1 Describe the fundamental principles of radar correctly
Training Objective: State the configuration of a marine radar system LESSON NUMBER: Class hours: 0.6 h
Teaching Instructor Class
Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency Textbook Ref.
method guidelines hour
R1;R2
1.1.2 State the configuration of a marine radar system Lecture T1;T2 A1 0.6
R4;R6
(1) according to Fig.1-1 (the configuration of marine radar system), state the necessary sensors for radar system,
including basic radar, THD, SDME, EPFS and AIS; optional sensors: ECDIS; output devices: ECDIS and VDR. 0.1
(2) state the signals that radar sensors provide for the radar information processing system: trigger pulse, heading
0.1
line, bearing signal and video signal.
(3) state sensors of gyro-compass/THD provide heading line signal for information processing system of radar.
(4) state sensor of SDME provides STW and SOG for information processing system of radar. STW is from LOG, or 0.1
manual input; SOG is from LOG, GNSS, the TT function of radar, or manual input.
(5) state sensor of GNSS provides WGS-84 position and UTC time for information processing system of radar.
(6) state sensor of AIS provides static information, dynamic information and voyage information for information
0.05
processing system of radar.
(7) describe that ENC provides Hydrological geographic information for information processing system of radar.
(8) describe the information processing system of radar:
state the importance of the heading signal for bearing-stabilised picture display, combining the article 9.1 of
the MSC. 192(79) PS; state the importance of heading signal for normal display of ENC and AIS information;
state the importance of SOG for navigation, and the importance of STW for collision avoidance;
state radar TT function based on sensors, heading and speed information;
state the significance of GNSS information integrity for outputting data accuracy of information processing
0.25
system;
state the significance of AIS information for radar collision avoidance, and lay a foundation for radar tracked
and AIS reported target association;
state the significance of integrated information overly (which includes ENC data, radar images, tracked and
AIS reported targets) on radar display.
(9) state the significance of VDR recording radar information.
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.2 An Example of lesson plan for practical training

Topic 5 & 6 Operation of ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions LESSON NUMBER: DURATION: 0.8
h
Practical training 5 & 6 -1: Operation of ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions
Training objectives: Set up and maintain ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions correctly - Set up and check sensor and system parameters
Teaching Instructor
KUPs/Required performances Textbooks References Time h
method guidelines
6 Operate ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions/ 22/1
R1;R2
Set up and maintain ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions correctly D* P* T1;T2;T3 A1
R5;R7 D* P*
- Set up and check sensor and system parameters
(1) check OS (the own ship) course confirm the radar heading is consistent with the indication of the
√ √ 0.05 0.05
gyrocompass, otherwise make corrections according to the manufacturer's manual.
(2) check OS speed confirm the speed data of OS on radar display is STW, and is consistent with that
√ √ 0.05 0.05
of water track speed-log, otherwise make corrections according to the manufacturer's manual.
(3) check OS position confirm the position data of OS on radar display is consistent with that of EPFS,
otherwise make corrections according to the manufacturer's manual. When the position data is √ √ 0.1 0.1
checked, the integrity information of EPFS should also be confirmed.
(4) check the credibility of AIS information confirm the RAIM of OS GNSS information is satisfactory;
ensures all the AIS information is displayed; verify the AIS information of nearby ships via VHF √ √ 0.1 0.2
radio, confirms the credibility of AIS data.
(5) set up CPA LIM/TCPA LIM set up CPA LIM/TCPA LIM appropriately according to navigation
√ √ 0.1 0.2
circumstance, ship's maneuverability, etc. and give the reasons.
Teaching guidance it is a comprehensive training process to operate ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions. It should be emphasised that the
radar image should be adjusted properly before carrying out above training items.
the knowledge (3) and (4) may not be involved for those ARPAs which do not meet the requirements of the MSC. 192(79) PS.
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Part E Evaluation and Assessment
 Introduction
The effectiveness of any evaluation and assessment depends to a great

extent on the precision of the description of what is to be evaluated. The
evaluation and assessment is a way of finding out if learning has taken place.
It enables the instructor to ascertain if the trainee has gained the required
skills and knowledge needed at a given point towards a course or
qualification.
Evaluation and assessment is one of the important elements for continuous

improvement of teaching quality. It not only assists the trainees to acquire
competence capability, but also helps the instructor find any issue which may
happen during teaching and keep improving curriculum programmes.
The purpose of evaluation and assessment is to:
 assist trainee learning;

 identify trainees' strengths and weaknesses;
 appraise trainees' ability to maintain safe navigation by using radar
and ARPA;
 assess the effectiveness of a particular instructional strategy;
 assess and improve the effectiveness of curriculum programmes;
 assess and improve teaching effectiveness;
 provide feedback to instructors on trainee's learning;
 evaluate a module's strengths and weaknesses;
Part E provides the instructor with principles to choose the methods of

evaluation and assessment, the types of evaluation and assessment, some
examples of tests requiring the selection of correct or best responses from
given alternatives, the supplies of short answers or the supplies of more
extensive written responses to prepared questions. The examples are
compiled as per requirements of sections of A-II/1 and B-I/12 in STCW.
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 Types of assessment
Assessments can be classified into three types.
 Initial/Diagnostic assessment
This should take place before the trainee commences a course/qualification

to ensure he/she is on the right path. Diagnostic assessment is an
assessment of a trainee's skills, knowledge, strength and areas for
development. This can be carried out during an individual or group setting by
the use of relevant tests.
 Formative assessment
It is an integral part of the teaching/learning process and is therefore a

"continuous" assessment. It provides information on the trainee's progress
and may also be used to encourage and motivate them. The purpose of
formative assessment is to provide feedback to trainees, to motivate trainees,
to diagnose trainees' strengths and weaknesses and to help trainees to
develop self-awareness.
 Summative assessment
It is designed to measure the trainee's achievement against defined

objectives and targets. It may take the form of an examination or an
assignment. In the course, individual summative assessments are assigned
and can be interspersed as appropriate throughout the course.
As an integral part of the process, all have to be individually passed. Other

examinations, including a "final examination" may be added at the discretion
of the instructor, but they cannot replace or offset any required assessment
not passed by the trainee.
The purpose of summative assessment is to decide whether a trainee is to

pass or fail or to grade a trainee.
 Methods of assessment
Assessment planning should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic

and time-bound (SMART).
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The methods chosen to carry out an assessment will depend upon what the
trainee is expected to achieve in terms of knowledge, understanding and
proficiency of the course content.
The methods used can range from a simple question-and-answer discussion

with the trainees (either individually or as a group) to prepared tests requiring
the selection of correct or best responses from given alternatives, the correct
matching of given items, the supply of short answers or the supply of more
extensive written responses to prepared questions.
Some methods of assessment that could be used depending upon the

course/qualification are as follows and should all be adapted to suit individual
needs.
 Observation (In Oral examination, Simulation exercises, Practical

demonstration);
 Questions (written or oral);
 Tests;
 Assignments, activities, projects, tasks and/or case studies
 Simulations (also refer to section A-I/12 of the STCW code 2010);
 CBT.
All work assessed should be valid, authentic, current, sufficient and reliable;
this is often know as VACSR, "Valid assessment create standard results".
 Valid, the work is relevant to the standards/criteria being assessed;

 Authentic, the work has been produced solely by the trainee;
 Current, the work is still relevant at the time of assessment;
 Sufficient, the work covers all the standards/criteria;
 Reliable, the work is consistent across all trainees, over time and at
the required level.
It is important to note that no single method can satisfactorily measure

knowledge and skill over the entire spectrum of matters to be tested for the
assessment of competence.
Care should therefore be taken to select the method most appropriate to the
particular aspect of competence to be tested, bearing in mind the need to
frame questions which relate as realistically as possible to the requirements
of the officer's job at sea.
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 Evaluation of competence
The arrangements for evaluating competence should be designed to take

account of different methods of evaluation which can provide different types
of evidence about trainees' competence, e.g.:
 direct observation of work activities (including seagoing service);

 skills/proficiency/competency tests;
 projects and assignments;
 evidence from previous experience; and
 written, oral and computer-based questioning techniques.
One or more of the first four methods listed should almost invariably be used
to provide evidence of ability, in addition to appropriate questioning
techniques to provide evidence of supporting knowledge and understanding.
The assessment techniques in Part D can be regarded as the reference for
evaluating the competence of a trainee. It is worth noting that the competence
evaluation standards given in Part A of STCW Code should be used when
performing the evaluation programme.
 Assessment description
(1) Quality of test items
No matter what type of test is adopted, questions or test items should be as

brief as possible, since the time taken to read the questions themselves
lengthens the examination. Furthermore, the form of the questions must be
clear and complete. To ensure these, the paper needs to be revised by
another person rather than the originator. No extraneous information should
be incorporated into the paper; such inclusions can waste the time of the
candidates and tend to be regarded as 'trick questions'. In all cases, the
questions should be checked repeatedly to ensure that they can assess the
trainees objectively by which is essential to the concerning competences.
Tests for assessment include practical training test, written or oral test and
multiple choice test, etc.
Advantages and disadvantages will occur in all kinds of evaluation and

assessments. Competent authorities of the evaluation should analyse
effectively the aim of the test and the expected result. A careful selection of
the test and evaluation methods should then be made and the advanced
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method of testing should be employed. Each test shall be fit for testing the
learning outcomes or abilities of the trainees.
(2) Practical training test
Some aspects of competency can only be properly judged by having the

candidate demonstrate his ability to perform specific tasks in a safe and
efficient manner. The safety issue of the ship and the protection of the marine
environment are heavily depended on the human factors. Compared with
other forms of testing, an organized, systematic and prudent reaction capacity
of a trainee can help him/her easily get through a practical training test
incorporating the use of live radar or simulators than by any other form of
tests.
Equipments which would conform to the abilities test should be provided.

Some certain parts of the equipment can be dedicated solely for the
examinations, in economic purpose.
(3) Written or oral test
In general, written or oral tests are excellent forms to evaluate trainees'

knowledge, understanding and proficiency of the KUPs. However, if the goal
is to evaluate a broad spectrum of material using only a sample of questions,
care must be taken to protect the security of the examination from the
trainees prior to the examination period. It is only natural for the trainees to
focus on just the sample questions and not the broad spectrum of the material
if the trainees have access to an examination prior to the examination period.
Therefore, instructors should adjust the questions and format of their exams
at reasonable periods of time.
(4) Multiple choice questions
Marking or scoring is easier if multiple-choice test items are used, but in some
cases difficulties may arise in creating plausible distracters.
Detailed sampling allows immediate identification of errors of principle and

those of a clerical nature. It must be emphasised that this holds true, in
general, only if the test item is based on a single step in the overall calculation.
Multiple-choice items involving more than one step may, in some cases, have
to be resorted to in order to allow the creation of a sufficient number of
plausible distracters, but care must be exercised to ensure that distracters are
not plausible for more than one reason if the nature of the error made (and
hence the distracter chosen) is to affect the scoring of the test item.
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 Distracters
The incorrect alternatives in multiple-choice questions are called "distracters",

because their purpose is to distract the uninformed trainee from the correct
response. The distracter must be realistic and should be based on
misconceptions commonly held, or on mistakes commonly made.
The options "none of the above" or "all of the above" are used in some tests.
These can be helpful, but should be used sparingly.
Distracters should distract the uninformed, but they should not take the form
of "trick" questions that could mislead the knowledgeable trainee (for example,
do not insert "not" into a correct response to make it a distracter).
 Guess factor
The "guess factor" with four alternative responses in a multiple-choice test

would be 25%. The pass mark chosen for all selective-response questions
should take this into account.
 Scoring
In simple scoring of objective tests one mark may be allotted to each correct
response and zero for an incorrect or nil response.
A more sophisticated scoring technique entails awarding one mark for a

correct response, zero for a nil response and minus one for an incorrect
response. Where a multiple-choice test involves four alternatives, this means
that a totally uninformed guess involves a 25% chance of gaining one mark
and a 75% chance of losing one mark.
Scores can be weighted to reflect the relative importance of questions, or of

sections of an evaluation.
 Example of assessment
 An example of examination paper
. Multiple choices (choose the best or appropriate answer from the four
options)
1 Which is not the function of a radar antenna?
A. To receive microwave pulses from the transmitter.
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B. To focus transmitter pulses into beam and then send them into space.
C. To receive echo pulses coming from objects those have been struck by the
antenna beam.
D. To reflect microwave.
2 Which is not used in a modern radar?
A. EBL.
B. VRM.
C. Mechanical cursor.
D. Raster scan indicator.
3 Which typically extends from close as 0.1 nm out to 48 nm?
A. EBL.
B. VRM.
C. STC.
D. Target tracking range.
4 Although manual plotting works well for CPA, the workload can become
overwhelming when confronted with______.
A. a large number of targets
B. two targets
C. three targets
D. one target
5 PPI is the short for ______ in marine radar.
A. plan pulse indicator
B. plan point indicator
C. power pulse indicator
D. plan position indicator
6 A S band radar as compared to a X band radar of similar specifications will ______.
A. be more suitable for river and harbour navigation
B. provide better range performance on a low lying target during good weather
and calm seas
C. have a wide horizontal beam width
D. have more sea clutters during rough sea conditions
7 The correct method of switching off a marine radar is to turn power switch to ______
position first, then to______ position.
A. off; standby
B. standby; off
C. standby; ready
D. ready; standby
8 The radar control that depresses echoes from the own ship to a limited distance is
______.
A. sensitivity time control
B. receiver gain control
C. brilliance control
D. fast time control
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9 What will cause an automatic tracking radar to give a visual alarm and an audible
alarm?
A. An acquired target entering into a guard zone.
B. A tracked target lost for one radar scan.
C. CPA of a tracked target is less than the CPA LIM, TCPA more than TCPA LIM.
D. Both CPA and TCPA of a tracked target is less than the CPA LIM and TCPA LIM.
10 When using radar for position fixing, the best way is ______.
A. using tangent bearing and range of one target
B. using two radar bearings
C. using ranges, the most rapidly changing range shall be measured last
D. using ranges, the most rapidly changing range shall be measured first
11 You are observing a buoy fitted with a Racon on the radar screen. How should this
target appear on the display?
A. As a broken line from centre of radar picture to the buoy target.
B. Starting with a dash and extending radially outward from the buoy target.
C. Starting with a dash and extending to the right of the buoy target.
D. Starting with a dash and extending radially inward from the buoy target.
12 Radar pulse width varies with range scales. Which of the following is correct?
A. Short range for narrow pulse.
B. Midium range for narrow pulse.
C. Short range for wide pulse.
D. Long range for narrow pulse.
13 For ______ presentation mode, when the own ship alters course or yaws on rough
sea, radar target will be unstable and the radar image will be blurring.
A. north Up, relative motion
B. north Up, true motion
C. course Up
D. head Up
14 For N-up and C-up orientation, ______ signal shall be connected.
A. EPFS
B. COG
C. GYRO
D. SOG
15 Which of the following factor has no relationship with radar maximum detection
range?
A. Radar transmitting power.
B. VBW.
C. Antenna gain.
D. Radar transmitting wavelength.
16 The main factor governing the range discrimination is ______.
A. pulse duration
B. horizontal beam width
C. p. r. f.
D. vertical beam width
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17 Which of the following feature is false for the indirect false echo?
A. It appears in shadow zone.
B. The bearing of the indirect false echo is the same as the obstacle's bearing.
C. Indirect false echo is weaker than real echo.
D. The range of indirect false echo is less than the true target echo.
18 For modern radar, the past position mode is determined by ______ mode.
A. true motion
B. motion
C. vector
D. relative motion
19 In order to reduce sea clutter, which of the following is false?
A. Use narrow pulse.
B. Use circular polarisation antenna.
C. Use S band radar.
D. Use STC control.
20 Which of the following feature is false for radar multiple echoes?
A. Multiple echoes and true echoes can be reduced by STC control equally.
B. It appears in the direction of real echo continuously with the same range
interval.
C. The range interval of each multiple echo is equal to real echo range.
D. Multiple echoes are further; and the further the echo, the weaker the echo.
21 When a radar is used for navigation purpose, which of the following sensor shall be
connected with the radar?
A. A gyrocompass, a speed log.
B. A gyrocompass, a speed log, an EPFS.
C. A gyrocompass, a speed log, an EPFS, an echo sounder.
D. A gyrocompass, a SDME, an AIS, an EPFS.
22 Which of the following statement is a right selection order for radar manual
acquisition?
A. Bow, starboard, long range.
B. Bow, port, nearby.
C. Bow, starboard, nearby.
D. Bow, nearby, port.
23 In order to reduce rain clutters, which of the following operation is incorrect?
B. Use STC control.
D. Use a circular polarisation antenna.
24 According to the latest radar performance standards, if automatic anti-clutter
processing could prevent the detection of targets in the absence of appropriate
stabilisation, the processing should switch off automatically______ after the azimuth
stabilisation has become ineffective?
A. Within 1 minute.
B. Within 2 minutes.
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C. Within 3 minutes.
D. Within 4 minutes.
25 Which of the following statement is false for relative vector (RV)?
A. No relative vector for the own ship.
B. Fixed targets or other moving targets (except for the target which has the same
speed with the own ship) have RV.
C. RV can be used to find CPA/TCPA usually.
D. The accuracy of RV is less than TV.
26 When a radar is used for collision avoidance purpose, which of the following sensor
shall be connected with the radar?
A. A gyrocompass, a speed log.
B. A gyrocompass, a speed log, an EPFS.
C. A gyrocompass, a speed log, an EPFS, an echo sounder.
D. A gyrocompass, a SDME, an AIS, an EPFS.
27 Which one has nothing to do with automatic acquisition function?
A. Guard zone.
B. Dangerous zone.
C. Exclusive zone.
D. Acquisition zone.
28 In order to reduce sea clutters, which of the following is incorrect?
A. Use STC control.
B. Use narrow pulse.
D. Use echo stretch.
29 If there is an error from gyrocompass when a target is being tracked, which data of
the target cannot be affected?
A. CPA.
B. Course.
C. Speed.
D. TV.
30 Which of the following statement is true for true vector (TV)?
A. TV can be used to assess the encounter situations usually.
B. No true vector for the own ship.
C. TV can be used to find CPA/TCPA usually.
D. The accuracy of TV is better than the accuracy of RV.
31 You are observing the radar screen for a SART. How should this echo appear on the
display?
A. 8 spots and extending about 12 nm.
B. An echo with Morse code.
C. 12 spots and extending about 8 nm.
D. An echo without Morse code.
32 The pulse repetition frequency varies with range scales. Which of the following
descriptions is correct?
A. Midium range for high PRF.
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B. Short range for low PRF.

C. Short range for high PRF.
D. Long range for high PRF.
33 For ______ presentation mode, the radar picture orientation is consistent with the
navigational chart and the own ship is always fixed on the screen and the echo of an
island moves on the screen.
A. north Up, true motion
B. north Up, relative motion
C. course Up, relative motion
D. head Up, true motion
34 Usually, C-up presentation is used for________.
A. fixing position
B. collision avoidance
C. navigation in narrow channel
D. entering or leaving port
35 Which of the following factors has no relationship with radar minimum detection
range?
A. Radar transmitting power.
B. Pulse width.
C. Recovery time of duplexer.
D. Height of antenna.
36 The main factor governing bearing discrimination is ______.
A. HBW
B. pulse width
C. PRF
D. VBW
37 Which of the following features is true for second trace false echo?
A. It appears in shadow zone.
B. There is no distortion for second trace false echo.
C. The range of second trace false echo is same as the target's range.
D. The bearing of second trace false echo is same as the target's bearing.
38 For a modern radar, which statement is false for trial manoeuvre?
A. Trial manoeuvre is just a simulation.
B. Delay time and dynamic characteristics should be considered.
C. The COLREGs are not considered.
D. The result can be reliable when target ships changing their course and speed.
39 In order to reduce radar interferences, which of the following is true?
B. Use S band radar.
C. Use correction.
D. Use STC control.
40 Which of the following features is false for radar side false echoes?
A. The false echoes and real echo have the same range.
B. The false echoes distribute on both sides of the real echo symmetrically.
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C. The false echoes and real echo have the same bearing.
D. The strength of false echoes is weaker than the real echo's.
. Answer the following questions briefly
1 In which condition, the OOW may observe a indirect false echo? What are the
features of the indirect false echo? How to identify the indirect false echo
2 Please list the image features of true motion presentation mode. If a radar can work
on the true motion mode, which sensor should be connected?
3 What is the meaning of relative vector? Please list the applications of relative vector
and the cautions.
4 (1) Please name the symbols of AIS reported target.
_______________ _______________ _______________
_______________ _______________ ______________

(2) What is the concept of association of AIS reported and tracked targets?
(3) Please list 5 boundary parameters that could be set for the association criteria.
5 Please analyse the figures below and answer the following questions.
(1) Why T2 has no vector in figure (a) & (b)?
(2) Why T4 has no vector in figure (c) & (d)?
(3) Which figures are used to assess the risks of collision usually? Which target is the
dangerous for the own ship and why?
(4) Which figures are used to assess the encounter situations usually? There
situations between the target and the own ship are crossing encounter situation and
stand-on situation in the figures. Which one?
6. Please analyse the figures below and answer the following questions.
(1) What is the name and function of the ring in figure (a)?
(2) What are the names and how many kinds of dots the radar present in figure (b)?
What kind of dots is in figure (b)? What information can the different kinds of dots
provide to the OOW?
(3) What are the names and how many kinds of line segment radar present in figure
(b) except the HL? What kind of line segment is in figure (b)? What information can
different kinds of line segments provide to the OOW except the HL?
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(a) (b)
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 An example of assessment for practical training
Topic 6 Operation of ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions LESSON NUMBER: DURATION: 0.8 h
Practical training 5 & 6 -1: Operation of ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions
Training objectives: Set up and maintain ARPA or TT and AIS reporting functions correctly - Set up and check sensor and system
parameters
Assessment elements and criteria
KUPs/Required performances Assessment methods
6 Operate ARPA or TT and AIS
reporting functions / Set up and
maintain ARPA or TT and AIS
Assessment elements Assessment criteria
reporting functions correctly
- Set up and check sensor and
system parameters
Comparison of the radar heading with The radar heading is consistent with the indication of the gyrocompass and follow-up
1 check OS (the own ship) course
the gyrocompass smoothly. Otherwise make corrections according to the manufacturer's manual.
STW is selected and the speed indication is the same with the speed-log. Otherwise
2 check OS speed Selection of STW/SOG
make corrections according to the manufacturer's manual.
Comparison of the position data on The position data on radar display is consistent with that of EPFS and the integrity
3 check OS position
radar display with the EPFS position information of EPFS is confirmed.
4 check the credibility of AIS AIS information is verified. If necessary, the information is verified by VHF
Verification of AIS information
information radiotelephone.
Set-up at oper sea, coastal or Reasonable setting according to navigational environments, normally 0.8 CPA LIM
5 set up CPA LIM/TCPA LIM
congested waters 2 nm 10 TCPA LIM 20 min ;
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Appendix I Selections and Extracts of

Publications
This Appendix is prepared to provide the user with additional information that
can be used in the final course development and approval process. It consists
of eight documents which are selections or extracts from IMO publications
mainly.
1. Regulation 19, Chapter V, Safety of Navigation of SOLAS Convention
Carriage requirements for shipborne navigational systems and equipment

1 Application and requirements
Subject to the provisions of regulation 1.4:
1.1 Ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002 shall be fitted with navigational systems
and equipment which will fulfill the requirements prescribed in paragraphs 2.1 to
2.9.
1.2 Ships constructed before 1 July 2002 shall:
.1 subject to the provisions of paragraphs 1.2.2 and 1.2.3, unless they comply fully
with this regulation, continue to be fitted with equipment which fulfils the
requirements prescribed in regulationsV/11, V/12 and V/20 of the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 in force prior to1 July 2002;
.2 be fitted with the equipment or systems required in paragraph 2.1.6 not later than
referred to in V/12 (p) of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea,
1974 in force prior to 1 July 2002 shall no longer be required; and
.3 be fitted with the system required in paragraph 2.4 not later than the dates
specified in paragraphs 2.4.2 and 2.4.3.
2 Shipborne navigational equipment and systems
2.1 All ships irrespective of size shall have:
.1 a properly adjusted standard magnetic compass, or other means, independent of
any power supply to determine the ship's heading and display the reading at the
main steering position;
.2 a pelorus or compass bearing device, or other means, independent of any power
supply to take bearings over an arc of the horizon of 360°;
.3 means of correcting heading and bearings to true at all times;
.4 nautical charts and nautical publications to plan and display the ship's route for
the intended voyage and to plot and monitor positions throughout the voyage. An
electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS) is also accepted as
meeting the chart carriage requirements of this subparagraph. Ships to which
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paragraph 2.10 applies shall comply with the carriage requirements for ECDIS
detailed therein;
.5 back-up arrangements to meet the functional requirements of subparagraph 4, if
this function is partly or fully fulfilled by electronic means;
.6 a receiver for a global navigation satellite system or a terrestrial radio navigation
system, or other means, suitable for use at all times throughout the intended
voyage to establish and update the ship's position by automatic means;
.7 if less than 150 gross tonnage and if practicable, a radar reflector, or other means,
to enable detection by ships navigating by radar at both 9 and 3 GHz;
.8 when the ship's bridge is totally enclosed and unless the Administration
determines otherwise, a sound reception system, or other means, to enable the
officer in charge of the navigational watch to hear sound signals and determine
their direction;
.9 a telephone, or other means, to communicate heading information to the
emergency steering position, if provided.
2.2 All ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of
size shall, in addition to the requirements of paragraph 2.1, be fitted with:
.1 a spare magnetic compass interchangeable with the magnetic compass, as
referred to in paragraph 2.1.1, or other means to perform the function referred to
in paragraph 2.1.1 by means of replacement or duplicate equipment;
.2 a daylight signaling lamp, or other means to communicate by light during day and
night using an energy source of electrical power not solely dependent upon the
ship's power supply.
.3 a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS), as follows:
.1 ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective
of size constructed on or after 1 July 2011;
.2 passenger ships irrespective of size constructed before 1 July 2011, not
later than the first survey after 1 July 2012;
.3 ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2011,
not later than the first survey after 1 July 2012;
.4 ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3,000 gross tonnage
constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey after 1 July
2013; and
.5 ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage
constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey after 1 July
2014.
The bridge navigational watch alarm system shall be in operation whenever the
ship is underway at sea;
.4 a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS) installed prior to 1 July 2011
may subsequently be exempted from full compliance with the standards adopted
by the Organisation, at the discretion of the Administration.
2.3 All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of
size shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of paragraph 2.2, be fitted with:
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.1 an echo sounding device, or other electronic means, to measure and display the
available depth of water;
.2 a 9 GHz radar, or other means to determine and display the range and bearing of
radar transponders and of other surface craft, obstructions, buoys, shore lines
and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in collision avoidance;
.3 an electronic plotting aid, or other means, to plot electronically the range and
bearing of targets to determine collision risk;
.4 speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and
distance throughthe water;
.5 a properly adjusted transmitting heading device, or other means to transmit
heading information for input to the equipment referred to in paragraphs 2.3.2,
2.3.3 and 2.3.4.
2.4 All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages and
cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international
voyages and passenger ships irrespective of size shall be fitted with an automatic
identification system (AIS), as follows:
.1 ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002;
.2 ships engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002:
.2.1 in the case of passenger ships, not later than 1 July 2003;
.2.2 in the case of tankers, not later than the first survey for safety equipment
on or after 1 July 2003;
.2.3 in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 50,000
gross tonnage and upwards, not later than 1 July 2004;
.2.4 in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 300 gross
tonnage and upwards but less than 50,000 gross tonnage, not later than
the first safety equipment survey after 1July 2004 or by 31 December
2004, whichever occurs earlier; and.
.3 ships not engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002, not
later than 1July 2008.
.4 The Administration may exempt ships from the application of the requirements of
this paragraph when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within
two years after the implementation date specified in subparagraphs .2 and .3.
.5 AIS shall:
.1 provide automatically to appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships
and aircraft information, including the ship's identity, type, position, course,
speed, navigational status and other safety-related information; Refer to
regulation I/8;
.2 receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships;
.3 monitor and track ships; and
.4 exchange data with shore-based facilities.
.6 The requirements of paragraph 2.4.5 shall not be applied to cases where
international agreements, rules or standards provide for the protection of
navigational information; and
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.7 AIS shall be operated taking into account the guidelines adopted by the
Organisation. Ships fitted with AIS shall maintain AIS in operation at all times
except where international agreements, rulesor standards provide for the
protection of navigational information.
2.5 All ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the
requirements of paragraph 2.3 with the exception of paragraphs 2.3.3 and 2.3.5,
and the requirements of paragraph 2.4, have:
.1 a gyro compass, or other means, to determine and display their heading by
shipborne nonmagnetic means, being clearly readable by the helmsman at the
main steering position. These means shall also transmit heading information for
input to the equipment referred in paragraphs 2.3.2, 2.4 and 2.5.5;
.2 a gyro compass heading repeater, or other means, to supply heading
information visually at the emergency steering position if provided;
.3 a gyro compass bearing repeater, or other means, to take bearings, over an arc
of the horizon of 360º, using the gyro compass or other means referred to in
subparagraph. However ships less than 1,600 gross tonnage shall be fitted with
such means as far as possible;
.4 rudder, propeller, thrust, pitch and operational mode indicators, or other means
to determine and display rudder angle, propeller revolutions, the force and
direction of thrust and, if applicable, theforce and direction of lateral thrust and
the pitch and operational mode, all to be readable from the conning position;
and
.5 an automatic tracking aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and
bearing of other targets to determine collision risk.
2.6 On all ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, failure of one piece of equipment
should not reduce the ship's ability to meet the requirements of paragraphs 2.1.1,
2.1.2 and 2.1.4.
2.7 All ships of 3000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the
requirements of paragraph 2.5, have:
.1 a 3 GHz radar or where considered appropriate by the Administration a
second 9 GHz radar, or other means to determine and display the range and
bearing of other surface craft, obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational
marks to assist in navigation and in collision avoidance, which are functionally
independent of those referred to in paragraph 2.3.2; and
.2 a second automatic tracking aid, or other means to plot automatically the range
and bearing of other targets to determine collision risk which are functionally
independent of those referred to inparagraph 2.5.5.
2.8 All ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the
requirements of paragraph 2.7 with the exception of paragraph 2.7.2, have:
.1 an automatic radar plotting aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range
and bearing of at least 20 other targets, connected to a device to indicate speed
and distance through the water, to determine collision risks and simulate a trial
manoeuvre; and
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.2 a heading or track control system, or other means, to automatically control and

keep to a heading and/or straight track.
2.9 All ships of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the
requirements of paragraph 2.8, have:
.1 a rate-of-turn indicator, or other means, to determine and display the rate of
turn; and
.2 a speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and
distance over the ground in the forward and athwart ships direction.
2.10 Ships engaged on international voyages shall be fitted with an Electronic Chart
Display and Information System (ECDIS) as follows:
.1 passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1
July 2012;
.2 tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July
2012;
.3 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards
constructed on or after1 July 2013;
.4 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less
than 10,000 gross tonnage constructed on or after 1 July 2014;
.5 passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July
2012, not later than the first survey on or after 1 July 2014;
.6 tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2012,
not later than the first survey on or after 1 July 2015;
.7 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards
constructed before 1July 2013, not later than the first survey on or after 1 July
2016;
.8 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards but
less than 50,000 gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than
the first survey on or after 1 July 2017; and
.9 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less
than 20,000 gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than the
first survey on or after 1 July 2018.
2.11 Administrations may exempt ships from the application of the requirements of
paragraph 2.10 when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within
two years after the implementation date specified in subparagraphs .5 to .9 of
paragraph 2.10.
3 When "other means" are permitted under this regulation, such means must be
approved by Administration in accordance with regulation 18.
4 The navigational equipment and systems referred to in this regulation shall be
so installed, tested and maintained as to minimise malfunction.
5 Navigational equipment and systems offering alternative modes of operation
shall indicate the actual mode of use.
6 Integrated bridge systems shall be so arranged that failure of one sub-system
is brought to immediate attention of the officer in charge of the navigational
watch by audible and visual alarms, and does not cause failure to any other
sub-system. In case of failure in one part of an integrated navigational system,
it shall be possible to operate each other individual item of equipment or part of
the system separately.
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2. Extracts from the Manila Amendments to the STCW Convention, 1978
CHAPTER 1
Section A-I/2
Approval of training courses
6 In approving training courses and programmers, Parties should take into account that
the various IMO Model Courses identified by foot notes in part A of this Code can
assist in the preparation of such courses and programmers and ensure that the
detailed learning objectives recommended therein are suitably covered.
Section A-I/6
Training and assessment
1 Each Party shall ensure that all training and assessment of seafarers for certification
under the Convention is:
.1 structured in accordance with written programmers, including such methods
and media of delivery, procedures, and course material as are necessary to
achieve the prescribed standard of competence; and
.2 conducted, monitored, evaluated and supported by persons qualified in
accordancewith paragraphs 4, 5 and 6.
2 Persons conducting in-service training or assessment on board ship shall only do so
when such training or assessment will not adversely affect the normal operation of
the ship and theycan dedicate their time and attention to training or assessment.
Qualifications of instructors, supervisors and assessors
3 Each Party shall ensure that instructors, supervisors and assessors are appropriately
qualified for the particular types and levels of training or assessment of competence
of seafarers either on board or ashore, as required under the Convention, in
accordance with the provisions of this section.
In-service training
4 Any person conducting in-service training of a seafarer, either on board or ashore,
which is intended to be used in qualifying for certification under the Convention, shall:
.1 have an appreciation of the training programmer and an understanding of the
specific training objectives for the particular type of training being conducted;
.2 be qualified in the task for which training is being conducted; and
.3 if conducting training using a simulator:
.3.1 have received appropriate guidance in instructional techniques involving
the use of simulators, and
.3.2 have gained practical operational experience on the particular type of
simulator being used.
5 Any person responsible for the supervision of in-service training of a seafarer
intended to be used in qualifying for certification under the Convention shall have a
full understanding of the training programmer and the specific objectives for each
type of training being conducted.
Assessment of competence
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6 Any person conducting in-service assessment of competence of a seafarer, either on

board or ashore, which is intended to be used in qualifying for certification under the
Convention, shall:
.1 have an appropriate level of knowledge and understanding of the competence
to be assessed;
.2 be qualified in the task for which the assessment is being made;
.3 have received appropriate guidance in assessment methods and practice;
.4 have gained practical assessment experience; and
.5 if conducting assessment involving the use of simulators, have gained practical
assessment experience on the particular type of simulator under the
supervision and to the satisfaction of an experienced assessor.
Training and assessment within an institution
7 Each Party which recognises a course of training, a training institution, or a
qualification granted by a training institution, as part of its requirements for the issue
of a certificate required under the Convention, shall ensure that the qualifications and
experience of instructors and assessors are covered in the application of the quality
standard provisions of section A-I/8. Such qualification, experience and application of
quality standards shall incorporate appropriate training in instructional techniques,
and training and assessment methods and practice, and shall comply with all
applicable requirements of paragraphs 4 to 6.
Section A-I/12
Standards governing the use of simulators
PART 1 −PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
General performance standards for simulators used in training
1 Each Party shall ensure that any simulator used for mandatory simulator-based
training shall:
.1 be suitable for the selected objectives and training tasks;
.2 be capable of simulating the operating capabilities of shipboard equipment
concerned, to a level of physical realism appropriate to training objectives, and
include the capabilities, limitations and possible errors of such equipment;
.3 have sufficient behavioral realism to allow a trainee to acquire the skills
appropriate to the training objectives;
.4 provide a controlled operating environment, capable of producing a variety of
conditions, which may include emergency, hazardous or unusual situations
relevant to the training objectives;
.5 provide an interface through which a trainee can interact with the equipment,
the simulated environment and, as appropriate, the instructor; and
.6 permit an instructor to control, monitor and record exercises for the effective
debriefing of trainees.
General performance standards for simulators used in assessment of competence
2 Each Party shall ensure that any simulator used for the assessment of competence
required under the Convention or for any demonstration of continued proficiency so
required shall:
.1 be capable of satisfying the specified assessment objectives;
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.2 be capable of simulating the operational capabilities of the shipboard

equipment concerned to a level of physical realism appropriate to the
assessment objectives, and include the capabilities, limitations and possible
errors of such equipment;
.3 have sufficient behavioral realism to allow a candidate to exhibit the skills
appropriate to the assessment objectives;
.4 provide an interface through which a candidate can interact with the equipment
and simulated environment;
.5 provide a controlled operating environment, capable of producing a variety of
conditions, which may include emergency, hazardous or unusual situations
relevant to assessment objectives; and
.6 permit an assessor to control, monitor and record exercises for the effective
assessment of the performance of candidates.
Additional performance standards
3 In addition to meeting the basic requirements set out in paragraphs 1 and 2,
simulation equipment to which this section applies shall meet the performance
standards given here under in accordance with their specific type.
Radar simulation
4 Radar simulation equipment shall be capable of simulating the operational
capabilities of navigational radar equipment which meets all applicable performance
standards adopted by the Organisation and incorporate facilities to:
.1 operate in the stabilised relative-motion mode and sea- and ground-stabilised
true-motion modes;
.2 model weather, tidal streams, current, shadow sectors, spurious echoes and
other propagation effects, and generate coastlines, navigational buoys and
search and rescue transponders; and
.3 create a real-time operating environment incorporating at least two own-ship
stations with ability to change own ship's course and speed, and include
parameters for at least 20 target ships and appropriate communication facilities.
Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA) simulation
5 ARPA simulation equipment shall be capable of simulating the operational
capabilities of ARPAs which meet all applicable performance standards adopted by
the Organisation, and shall incorporate the facilities for:
.1 manual and automatic target acquisition;
.2 past track information;
.3 use of exclusion areas;
.4 vector/graphic time-scale and data display; and
.5 trial manoeuvres.
PART 2 −OTHER PROVISIONS
Simulator training objectives
6 Each Party shall ensure that the aims and objectives of simulator-based training are
defined within an overall training programmer and that specific training objectives and
tasks are selected so as to relate as closely as possible to shipboard tasks and
practices.
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Training procedures
7 In conducting mandatory simulator-based training, instructors shall ensure that:
.1 trainees are adequately briefed beforehand on the exercise objectives and
tasks and are given sufficient planning time before the exercise starts;
.2 trainees have adequate familiarisation time on the simulator and with its
equipment before any training or assessment exercise commences;
.3 guidance given and exercise stimuli are appropriate to the selected exercise
objectives and tasks and to the level of trainee experience;
.4 exercises are effectively monitored, supported as appropriate by audio and
visual observation of trainee activity and pre- and post-exercise evaluation
reports;
.5 trainees are effectively debriefed to ensure that training objectives have been
met and that operational skills demonstrated are of an acceptable standard;
.6 the use of peer assessment during debriefing is encouraged; and
.7 simulator exercises are designed and tested so as to ensure their suitability for
the specified training objectives.
Assessment procedures
8 Where simulators are used to assess the ability of candidates to demonstrate levels
of competency, assessors shall ensure that:
.1 performance criteria are identified clearly and explicitly and are valid and
available to the candidates;
.2 assessment criteria are established clearly and are explicit to ensure reliability
anduniformity of assessment and to optimise objective measurement and
evaluation, so that subjective judgments are kept to the minimum;
.3 candidates are briefed clearly on the tasks and/or skills to be assessed and on
the tasks and performance criteria by which their competency will be
determined;
.4 assessment of performance takes into account normal operating procedures
and any behavioral interaction with other candidates on the simulator or
withsimulator staff;
.5 scoring or grading methods to assess performance are used with caution until
they have been validated; and
.6 the prime criterion is that a candidate demonstrates the ability to carry out a
task safely and effectively to the satisfaction of the assessor.
Qualifications of instructors and assessors
9 Each Party shall ensure that instructors and assessors are appropriately qualified
and experienced for the particular types and levels of training and corresponding
assessment of competence as specified in regulation I/6 and section A-I/6.
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Table A II/1
Specification of minimum standard of competence for officers in charge of a navigation watch on
ships of 500 gross tonnage or more
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4
Competence Knowledge, understanding Methods for Criteria for evaluating
and proficiency demonstrating competence
competence
Use of radar and Radar navigation Assessment of Information obtained from
ARPA to evidence obtained radar and ARPA is correctly
maintain safety Knowledge of the from approved interpreted and analysed,
of navigation fundamentals of radar and radar simulator and taking into account the
automatic radar plotting aids ARPA simulator limitations of the equipment
Note: Training (ARPA) training plus and prevailing
and assessment in-service circumstances and
Ability to operate and to
in the use of experience conditions
interpret and analyse
ARPA is not
information obtained from
required for
radar, including the following:
those who serve
Performance, including:
exclusively on
ships not fitted
.1 factors affecting
with ARPA. This
performance and accuracy
limitation shall
be reflected in .2 setting up and maintaining
the endorsement displays
issued to the
seafarer .3 detection of
concerned misrepresentation of
information, false echoes, sea
return, etc. racons and SARTs
Action taken to avoid a close
Use, including: encounter or collision with
.1 range and bearing; course other vessels is in
and speed of other ships; time accordance with the
and distance of closest International Regulations for
approach of crossing, meeting Preventing
overtaking ships Collisions at Sea, 1972
.2 identification of critical Decisions to amend course

echoes; detecting course and and/or speed are both timely
speed changes of other ships; and in accordance with
effect of changes in own ship's accepted navigation
course or speed or both practice
.3 application of the Adjustments made to the
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competence
International Regulations for ship's course and speed
Preventing Collisions at Sea, maintain safety of navigation
1972
Communication is clear,
.4 plotting techniques and concise and acknowledged
relative- and true-motion at all times in a seamanlike
concepts Manner
.5 parallel indexing Manoeuvring signals are

made at the appropriate
time and are in accordance
with the International
Regulations
for Preventing Collisions at
Sea, 1972, as amended
Principal types of ARPA, their
display characteristics,
performance standards and
the dangers of over-reliance
on ARPA
Ability to operate and to

interpret and analyse
information obtained from
ARPA, including:
.1 system performance and

accuracy, tracking capabilities
and limitations, and
processing delays
.2 use of operational warnings
and system tests
.3 methods of target
acquisition and their
limitations
.4 true and relative vectors,
graphic representation of
target information and danger
areas
.5 deriving and analyzing
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competence
information, critical echoes,
exclusion areas and trial
manoeuvres
Section B-I/6
Guidance regarding training and assessment
Qualifications of instructors and assessors
1 Each Party should ensure that instructors and assessors are appropriately qualified
and experienced for the particular types and levels of training or assessment of
competence of seafarers, as required under the Convention, in accordance with the
guidelines in this section.
In-service training and assessment
2 Any person, on board or ashore, conducting in-service training of a seafarer intended
to be used in qualifying for certification under the Convention should have received
appropriate guidance in instructional techniques.
3 Any person responsible for the supervision of in-service training of a seafarer
intended to be used in qualifying for certification under the Convention should have
appropriate knowledge of instructional techniques and of training methods and
practice.
4 Any person, on board or ashore, conducting an in-service assessment of the
competence of a seafarer intended to be used in qualifying for certification under the
Convention should have:
.1 received appropriate guidance in assessment methods and practice*; and
.2 gained practical assessment experience under the supervision and to the
satisfaction of an experienced assessor.
5 Any person responsible for the supervision of the in-service assessment of
competence of a seafarer intended to be used in qualifying for certification under the
Convention should have afull understanding of the assessment system, assessment
methods and practice*.
Use of distance learning and e-learning
6 Parties may allow the training of seafarers by distance learning and e-learning in
accordance with the standards of training and assessment set forth in section A-I/6
and the guidance given below.
Guidance for training by distance learning and e-learning
7 Each Party should ensure that any distance learning and e-learning programme:
.1 is provided by an entity that is approved by the Party;
.2 is suitable for the selected objectives and training tasks to meet the
competence level for the subject covered;
.3 has clear and unambiguous instructions for the trainees to understand how the
programme operates;
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.4 provides learning outcomes that meet all the requirements to provide the
underpinning knowledge and proficiency of the subject;
.5 is structured in a way that enables the trainee to systematically reflect on what
has been learnt through both self assessment and tutor-marked assignments;
and
.6 provides professional tutorial support through telephone, facsimile or e-mail
communications.
8 Companies should ensure that a safe learning environment is provided and that there
has been sufficient time provided to enable the trainee to study.
9 Where e-learning is provided, common information formats such as XML (Extensible
Markup Language), which is a flexible way to share both the format and the data on
the WorldWide Web, intranets, and elsewhere, should be used.
10 The e-learning system should be secured from tampering and attempts to hack into
the system.
Guidance for assessing a trainee's progress and achievements by training by
distance learningand e-learning
11 Each Party should ensure that approved assessment procedures are provided for
any distance learning and e-learning programme, including:
.1 clear information to the students on the way that tests and examinations are
conducted and how the results are communicated;
.2 have test questions that are comprehensive and will adequately assess a
trainee's competence and are appropriate to the level being examined;
.3 procedures in place to ensure questions are kept up to date and;
.4 the conditions where the examinations can take place and the procedures for
invigilation to be conducted;
.5 secure procedures for the examination system so that it will prevent cheating;
.6 secure validation procedures to record results for the benefit of the Party.
Register of approved training providers, courses and programmers
12 Each Party should ensure that a register or registers of approved training providers,
courses and programmers are maintained and made available to Companies and
other Parties on request.
Section B-I/10
Guidance regarding the recognition of certificates
1 Training carried out under the STCW Convention which does not lead to the issue of
an appropriate certificate and on which information provided by a Party is found by
the Maritime Safety Committee to give full and complete effect to the Convention in
accordance with regulation I/7, paragraph 2 may be accepted by other Parties to the
Convention as meeting therelevant training requirements thereof.
2 Contacted Administrations should issue documentary proof referred to in regulation
I/10, paragraph 5 to enable port State control authorities to accept the same in lieu of
endorsement of a certificate issued by another Party for a period of three months from
the date of issue, providing the information listed below:
.1 seafarer's name
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.2 date of birth
.3 number of the original Certificate of Competency
.4 capacity
.5 limitations
.6 contact details of the Administration
.7 dates of issue and expiry.
3 Such documentary proof may be made available by electronic means.
Section B-I/11
Guidance regarding the revalidation of certificates
1 The courses required by regulation I/11 should include relevant changes in marine
legislation, technology and recommendations concerning the safety of life at sea,
security and the protection of the marine environment.
2 A test may take the form of written or oral examination, the use of a simulator or other
appropriate means.
3 Approved seagoing service stated in section A-I/11, paragraph 1 may be served in an
appropriate lower officer rank than the certificate held.
4 If an application for revalidation of a certificate referred to in paragraph 1 of regulation
I/11 is made within six months before expiry of the certificate, the certificate may be
revalidated until the fifth anniversary of the date of validity, or extension of the validity,
of the certificate.
Section B-I/12
Guidance regarding the use of simulators
1 When simulators are being used for training or assessment of competency, the
following guidelines should be taken into consideration in conducting any such
training or assessment.
TRAINING AND ASSESSMENT IN RADAR OBSERVATION AND PLOTTING*
2 Training and assessment in radar observation and plotting should:
.1 incorporate the use of radar simulation equipment; and
.2 conform to standards not inferior to those given in paragraphs 3 to 17 below.
3 Demonstrations of and practice in radar observation should be undertaken, where
appropriate, on live marine radar equipment, including the use of simulators. Plotting
exercises should preferably be undertaken in real time, in order to increase trainees'
awareness of thehazards of the improper use of radar data and improve their plotting
techniques to a standard of radar plotting commensurate with that necessary for the
safe execution of collision-avoidance manoeuvring under actual seagoing conditions.
General
Factors affecting performance and accuracy
4 An elementary understanding should be attained of the principles of radar, together
with a full practical knowledge of:
.1 range and bearing measurement, characteristics of the radar set which
determine the quality of the radar display, radar antenna, polar diagrams, the
effects ofpower radiated in directions outside the main beam, a non-technical
description of the radar system, including variations in the features encountered
in different types of radar set, performance monitors and equipment factors
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which affect maximum and minimum detection ranges and accuracy of

information;
.2 the current marine radar performance specification adopted by the
Organisation;
.3 the effects of the siting of the radar antenna, shadow sectors and arcs of
reduced sensitivity, false echoes, effects of antenna height on detection ranges
and of sitting radar units and storing spares near magnetic compasses,
including magnetic safe distances; and
.4 radiation hazards and safety precautions to be taken in the vicinity of antenna
and open wave guides.
Detection of misrepresentation of information, including false echoes and sea
returns
5 A knowledge of the limitations to target detection is essential, to enable the observer
to estimate the dangers of failure to detect targets. The following factors should be
emphasised:
.1 performance standard of the equipment;
.2 brilliance, gain and video processor control settings;
.3 radar horizon;
.4 size, shape, aspect and composition of targets;
.5 effects of the motion of the ship in a seaway;
.6 propagation conditions;
.7 meteorological conditions; sea clutter and rain clutter;
.8 anti-clutter control settings;
.9 shadow sectors; and
.10 radar-to-radar interference.
6 A knowledge should be attained of factors which might lead to faulty interpretation,
including false echoes, effects of nearby pylons and large structures, effects of power
lines crossing rivers and estuaries, echoes from distant targets occurring on second
or later traces.
7 A knowledge should be attained of aids to interpretation, including corner reflectors
and radar beacons; detection and recognition of land targets; the effects of
topographical features; effects of pulse length and beam width; radar-conspicuous
and inconspicuous targets; factors which affect the echo strength from targets.
Practice
Setting up and maintaining displays
8 A knowledge should be attained of:
.1 the various types of radar display mode; unstabilised ship's-head-up relative
motion; ship's-head-up, course-up and north-up stabilised relative motion and
true motion;
.2 the effects of errors on the accuracy of information displayed; effects of
transmitting compass errors on stabilised and true-motion displays; effects of
transmitting log errors on a true-motion display; and the effects of inaccurate
manual speed settings on a true-motion display;
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.3 methods of detecting inaccurate speed settings on true-motion controls; the

effects of receiver noise limiting the ability to display weak echo returns, and the
effects of saturation by receiver noise, etc.; the adjustment of operational
controls; criteria which indicate optimum points of adjustment; the importance of
proper adjustment sequence, and the effects of maladjusted controls; the
detection of maladjustments and corrections of:
.3.1 controls affecting detection ranges, and
.3.2 controls affecting accuracy;
.4 the dangers of using radar equipment with maladjusted controls; and
.5 the need for frequent regular checking of performance, and the relationship of
the performance indicator to the range performance of the radar set.
Range and bearing
9 A knowledge should be attained of:
.1 the methods of measuring ranges; fixed range markers and variable
rangemarkers;
.2 the accuracy of each method and the relative accuracy of the different methods;
.3 how range data are displayed; ranges at stated intervals, digital counter and
graduated scale;
.4 the methods of measuring bearings; rotatable cursor on transparent disc
covering the display, electronic bearing cursor and other methods;
.5 bearing accuracy and inaccuracies caused by parallax, heading marker
displacement, centre maladjustment;
.6 how bearing data are displayed; graduated scale and digital counter; and
.7 the need for regular checking of the accuracy of ranges and bearings, methods
of checking for inaccuracies and correcting or allowing for inaccuracies.
Plotting techniques and relative-motion concepts
10 Practice should be provided in manual plotting techniques, including the use of
reflection plotters, with the objective of establishing a thorough understanding of the
interrelated motion between own ship and other ships, including the effects of
manoeuvring to avoid collision. At the preliminary stages of this training, simple
plotting exercises should be designed to establish asound appreciation of plotting
geometry and relative-motion concepts. The degree of complexity of exercises
should increase throughout the training course until the trainee has mastered
allaspects of the subject. Competence can best be enhanced by exposing the
trainee to real-time exercises performed on a simulator or using other effective
means.
Identification of critical echoes
11 A thorough understanding should be attained of:
.1 position fixing by radar from land targets and sea marks;
.2 the accuracy of position fixing by ranges and by bearings;
.3 the importance of cross-checking the accuracy of radar against other
navigational aids; and
.4 the value of recording ranges and bearings at frequent, regular intervals when
using radar as an aid to collision avoidance.
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Course and speed of other ships

.1 the different methods by which course and speed of other ships can be
obtained from recorded ranges and bearings, including:
.1.1 the unstabilised relative plot,
.1.2 the stabilised relative plot, and
.1.3 the true plot; and
.2 the relationship between visual and radar observations, including detail and the
accuracy of estimates of course and speed of other ships, and the detection of
changes in movements of other ships.
Time and distance of closest approach of crossing, meeting or overtaking ships
.1 the use of recorded data to obtain:
.1.1 measurement of closest approach distance and bearing, and
.1.2 time to closest approach, and
.2 the importance of frequent, regular observations.
Detecting course and speed changes of other ships
.1 the effects of changes of course and/or speed by other ships on their tracks
across the display;
.2 the delay between change of course or speed and detection of that change;
and
.3 the hazards of small changes as compared with substantial changes of course
or speed in relation to rate and accuracy of detection.
Effects of changes in own ship's course or speed or both
15 A thorough understanding of the effects on a relative-motion display of own ship's
movements, and the effects of other ships' movements and the advantages of
compass stabilisation of a relative display.
16 In respect of true-motion displays, a thorough understanding should be attained of:
.1 the effects of inaccuracies of:
.1.1 speed and course settings, and
.1.2 compass stabilisation data driving a stabilised relative-motion display;
.2 the effects of changes in course or speed or both by own ship on tracks of other
ships on the display; and
.3 the relationship of speed to frequency of observations.
Application of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972
17 A thorough understanding should be attained of the relationship of the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 to the use of radar, including:
.1 action to avoid collision, dangers of assumptions made on inadequate
information and the hazards of small alterations of course or speed;
.2 the advantages of safe speed when using radar to avoid collision;
.3 the relationship of speed to closest approach distance and time and to the
manoeuvring characteristics of various types of ships;
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.4 the importance of radar observation reports and radar reporting procedures

being well defined;
.5 the use of radar in clear weather, to obtain an appreciation of its capabilities
and limitations, compare radar and visual observations and obtain an
assessment of the relative accuracy of information;
.6 the need for early use of radar in clear weather at night and when there are
indications that visibility may deteriorate;
.7 comparison of features displayed by radar with charted features; and
.8 comparison of the effects of differences between range scales.
TRAINING AND ASSESSMENT IN THE OPERATIONAL USE OF AUTOMATIC RADAR

PLOTTING AIDS (ARPA)
18 Training and assessment in the operational use of automatic radar plotting aids
(ARPA) should:
.1 require prior completion of the training in radar observation and plotting or
combine that training with the training given in paragraphs 19 to 35 below;*
.2 incorporate the use of ARPA simulation equipment; and
.3 conform to standards not inferior to those given in paragraphs 19 to 35 below.
19 Where ARPA training is provided as part of the general training under the 1978
STCW Convention, masters, chief mates and officers in charge of a navigational
watch should understand the factors involved in decision-making based on the
information supplied by ARPA in association with other navigational data inputs,
having a similar appreciation of the operational aspects and of system errors of
modern electronic navigational systems, including ECDIS. This training should be
progressive in nature, commensurate with the responsibilities of the individual and
the certificates issued by Parties under the 1978 STCW Convention.
Theory and demonstration
Possible risks of over-reliance on ARPA
20 Appreciation that ARPA is only a navigational aid and:
.1 that its limitations, including those of its sensors, make over-reliance on ARPA
dangerous, in particular for keeping a look-out; and
.2 the need to observe at all times the Principles to be observed in keeping a
navigational watch and the Guidance on keeping a navigational watch.
Principal types of ARPA systems and their display characteristics
21 Knowledge of the principal types of ARPA systems in use; their various display
characteristics and an understanding of when to use ground- or sea-stabilised
modes and north-up, course-up or head-up presentations.
IMO performance standards for ARPA
22 An appreciation of the IMO performance standards for ARPA, in particular the
standards relating to accuracy.
Factors affecting system performance and accuracy
23 Knowledge of ARPA sensor input performance parameters: radar, compass and
speed inputs and the effects of sensor malfunction on the accuracy of ARPA data.
24 Knowledge of:
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.1 the effects of the limitations of radar range and bearing discrimination and
accuracy and the limitations of compass and speed input accuracies on the
accuracy of ARPA data; and
.2 factors which influence vector accuracy.
Tracking capabilities and limitations
25 Knowledge of:
.1 the criteria for the selection of targets by automatic acquisition;
.2 the factors leading to the correct choice of targets for manual acquisition;
.3 the effects on tracking of "lost" targets and target fading; and
.4 the circumstances causing "target swap" and its effects on displayed data.
Processing delays
26 Knowledge of the delays inherent in the display of processed ARPA information,
particularly on acquisition and re-acquisition or when a tracked target manoeuvres.
Operational warnings, their benefits and limitations
27 Appreciation of the uses, benefits and limitations of ARPA operational warnings and
their correct setting, where applicable, to avoid spurious interference.
System operational tests
28 Knowledge of:
.1 methods of testing for malfunctions of ARPA systems, including functional
self-testing; and
.2 precautions to be taken after a malfunction occurs.
Manual and automatic acquisition of targets and their respective limitations
29 Knowledge of the limits imposed on both types of acquisition in multi-target
scenarios, and the effects on acquisition of target fading and target swap.
True and relative vectors and typical graphic representation of target information
anddanger areas
30 Thorough knowledge of true and relative vectors; derivation of targets' true courses
and speeds, including:
.1 threat assessment, derivation of predicted closest point of approach and
predicted time to closest point of approach from forward extrapolation of vectors,
the use of graphic representation of danger areas;
.2 the effects of alterations of course and/or speed of own ship and/or targets on
predicted closest point of approach and predicted time to closest point of
approach and danger areas;
.3 the effects of incorrect vectors and danger areas; and
.4 the benefit of switching between true and relative vectors.
Information on past positions of targets being tracked
31 Knowledge of the derivation of past positions of targets being tracked, recognition of
historic data as a means of indicating recent manoeuvring of targets and as a
method of checking the validity of the ARPA's tracking.
Practice
Setting up and maintaining displays
32 Ability to demonstrate:
.1 the correct starting procedure to obtain the optimum display of ARPAinformation;
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.2 the selection of display presentation; stabilised relative-motion displays and

true-motion displays;
.3 the correct adjustment of all variable radar display controls for optimum display
of data;
.4 the selection, as appropriate, of required speed input to ARPA;
.5 the selection of ARPA plotting controls, manual/automatic acquisition,
vector/graphic display of data;
.6 the selection of the timescale of vectors/graphics;
.7 the use of exclusion areas when automatic acquisition is employed by ARPA;
and
.8 performance checks of radar, compass, speed input sensors and ARPA.
System operational tests
33 Ability to perform system checks and determine data accuracy of ARPA, including
the trial manoeuvre facility, by checking against basic radar plot.
Obtaining information from the ARPA display
34 Demonstrate the ability to obtain information in both relative- and true-motion modes
of display, including:
.1 the identification of critical echoes;
.2 the speed and direction of target's relative movement;
.3 the time to, and predicted range at, target's closest point of approach;
.4 the courses and speeds of targets;
.5 detecting course and speed changes of targets and the limitations of such
information;
.6 the effect of changes in own ship's course or speed or both; and
.7 the operation of the trial manoeuvre facility.
Application of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972
35 Analysis of potential collision situations from displayed information, determination
and execution of action to avoid close-quarters situations in accordance with the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 in force.
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3. IMO Resolution MSC. 192(79) (Adopted on 6 December 2004)
THE MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE,

RECALLING Article 28(b) of the Convention on the International
Maritime Organisation concerning the functions of the Committee,
RECALLING ALSO resolution A. 886(21) by which the Assembly
resolved that the functions of adopting performance standards and technical
specifications, as well as amendments thereto, shall be performed by the
Maritime Safety Committee on behalf of the Organisation,
NOTING resolutions A. 222(VII), A. 278(VIII), A. 477(XII), MSC. 64(67),
annex 4, A. 820(19) and A. 823(19) containing performance standards
applicable to marine radars being produced and installed at different time
periods in the past,
NOTING ALSO that marine radars are used in connection/integration
with other navigational equipment required to carry on board ships such as, an
automatic target tracking aid, ARPA, AIS, ECDIS and others,
RECOGNIZING the need for unification of maritime radar standards in
general, and, inparticular, for display and presentation of navigation-related
information,
HAVING CONSIDERED the recommendation on the revised
performance standards for radar equipment made by the Sub-Committee on
Safety of Navigation at its fiftieth session,
1. ADOPTS the Revised Recommendation on Performance Standards for

radar equipment set out in the Annex to the present resolution;
2. RECOMMENDS Governments to ensure that radar equipment installed on
or after1 July 2008 conform to performance standards not inferior to those
set out in the Annex to the present resolution.
Revised Recommendation on Performance Standards for
Radar Equipment
INDEX
1 SCOPE OF EQUIPMENT
2 APPLICATION OF THESE STANDARDS
3 REFERENCES
4 DEFINITIONS
5 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE RADAR SYSTEM
6 ERGONOMIC CRITERIA
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7 DESIGN AND INSTALLATION

8 INTERFACING
9 BACKUP AND FALLBACK ARRANGEMENTS
1 SCOPE OF EQUIPMENT
The radar equipment should assist in safe navigation and in avoiding collision by providing
an indication, in relation to own ship, of the position of other surface craft, obstructions and
hazards, navigation objects and shorelines.
For this purpose, radar should provide the integration and display of radar video, target
tracking information, positional data derived from own ship's position (EPFS) and geo
referenced data. The integration and display of AIS information should be provided to
complement radar. The capability of displaying selected parts of Electronic Navigation
Charts and other vector chart information may be provided to aid navigation and for
position monitoring.
The radar, combined with other sensor or reported information (e.g. AIS), should improve
the safety of navigation by assisting in the efficient navigation of ships and protection of
the environment by satisfying the following functional requirements:
 in coastal navigation and harbour approaches, by giving a clear indication of land

and other fixed hazards;
 as a means to provide an enhanced traffic image and improved situation
awareness;
 in a ship-to-ship mode for aiding collision avoidance of both detected and
reported hazards;
 in the detection of small floating and fixed hazards, for collision avoidance and
the safety of own ship; and
 in the detection of floating and fixed aids to navigation (see Table 2, note 3).
2 APPLICATION OF THESE STANDARDS

These Performance Standards should apply to all shipborne radar installations, used in
any configuration, mandated by the 1974 SOLAS Convention, as amended, independent
of the
 type of ship;
 frequency band in use; and
 type of display,
providing that no special requirements are specified in Table 1 and that additional
requirements for specific classes of ships (in accordance with SOLAS chapters V and X)
are met.
The radar installation, in addition to meeting the general requirements as set out in
Resolution A. 694 (17), should comply with the following performance standards.
Close interaction between different navigational equipment and systems, makes it

essential to consider these standards in association with other relevant IMO standards.
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TABLE 1
Differences in the performance requirements for
Various sizes/categories of ship/craft to which SOLAS applies
500 gt to <10,000 gt All ships/craft
Size of ship/craft <500 gt
and HSC<10,000 gt =10,000 gt
Minimum operational display area diameter 180 mm 250 mm 320 mm
Minimum display area 195 x 195 mm 270 x 270 mm 340 x 340 mm
Auto acquisition of targets - - Yes
Minimum acquired radar target capacity 20 30 40
Minimum activated AIS target capacity 20 30 40
Minimum sleeping AIS target capacity 100 150 200
Trial Manoeuvre - - Yes
3 REFERENCES
References are in appendix 1.
4 DEFINITIONS
Definitions are in appendix 2.
5 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE RADAR SYSTEM
The design and performance of the radar should be based on user requirements and
up-to-date navigational technology. It should provide effective target detection within the
safety-relevant environment surrounding own ship and should permit fast and easy
situation evaluation.
5.1 Frequency
5.1.1 Frequency spectrum
The radar should transmit within the confines of the ITU allocated bands for maritime
radar and meet the requirements of the radio regulations and applicable ITU-R
recommendations.
5.1.2 Radar Sensor Requirements
Radar systems of both X and S-Bands are covered in these performance standards:
 X-Band (9.2-9.5 GHz) for high discrimination, good sensitivity and tracking
performance; and
 S-Band (2.9-3.1 GHz) to ensure that target detection and tracking capabilities
are maintained in varying and adverse conditions of fog, rain and sea clutter.
The frequency band in use should be indicated.
5.1.3 Interference susceptibility
The radar should be capable of operating satisfactorily in typical interference conditions.
5.2 Radar Range and Bearing Accuracy
The radar system range and bearing accuracy requirements should be:
Range - within 30 m or 1% of the range scale in use, whichever is greater;

Bearing - within 1°.
5.3 Detection Performance and Anti-clutter Functions
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All available means for the detection of targets should be used.
5.3.1 Detection
5.3.1.1 Detection in Clear Conditions
In the absence of clutter, for long range target and shoreline detection, the requirement for
the radar system is based on normal propagation conditions, in the absence of sea clutter,
precipitation and evaporation duct, with an antenna height of 15 m above sea level.
Based on:
 an indication of the target in at least 8 out of 10 scans or equivalent; and
 a probability of a radar detection false alarm of 10-4,
The requirement contained in Table 2 should be met as specified for X-Band and S-Band
equipment.
The detection performance should be achieved using the smallest antenna that is
supplied with the radar system.
Recognizing the high relative speeds possible between own ship and target, the
equipment should be specified and approved as being suitable for classes of ship having
normal (<30 kn) or high (>30 kn) own ship speeds (100 kn and 140 kn relative speeds
respectively).
TABLE 2
Minimum detection ranges in clutter-free conditions
Target Description Target Feature Detection Range in nm
Height above sea X-Band S-Band
Target description
level in meters nm nm
Shorelines Rising to 60 20 20
SOLAS ships (>5000 gross tonnage) 10 11 11
SOLAS ships (>500 gross tonnage) 5.0 8 8
Small vessel with radar reflector meeting IMO
4.0 5.0 3.7
Performance Standards
Navigation buoy with corner reflector 3.5 4.9 3.6
Typical Navigation buoy 3.5 4.6 3.0
Small vessel of length 10 m with no radar reflector 2.0 3.4 3.0
5.3.1.2 Detection at Close Range
The short-range detection of the targets under the conditions specified in Table 2 should
be compatible with the requirement in paragraph 5.4.
5.3.1.3 Detection in Clutter Conditions

Performance limitations caused by typical precipitation and sea clutter conditions will
result in a reduction of target detection capabilities relative to those defined in 5.3.1.1 and
Table 2.
5.3.1.3.1 The radar equipment should be designed to provide the optimum and most
consistent detection performance, restricted only by the physical limits of propagation.
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5.3.1.3.2 The radar system should provide the means to enhance the visibility of targets in
adverse clutter conditions at close range.
5.3.1.3.3 Degradation of detection performance (related to the figures in Table 2) at

various ranges and target speeds under the following conditions, should be clearly stated
in the user manual:
 light rain (4 mm per hour) and heavy rain (16 mm per hour);
 sea state 2 and sea state 5; and
 and a combination of these.
5.3.1.3.4 The determination of performance in clutter and specifically, range of first
detection, as defined in the clutter environment in 5.3.1.3.3, should be tested and
assessed against a benchmark target, as specified in the Test Standard.
5.3.1.3.5 Degradation in performance due to a long transmission line, antenna height or

any other factors should be clearly stated in the user manual.
5.3.2 Gain and Anti-Clutter Functions

5.3.2.1 Means should be provided, as far as is possible, for the adequate reduction of
unwanted echoes, including sea clutter, rain and other forms of precipitation, clouds,
sandstorms and interference from other radars.
5.3.2.2 A gain control function should be provided to set the system gain or signal
threshold level.
5.3.2.3 Effective manual and automatic anti-clutter functions should be provided.
5.3.2.4 A combination of automatic and manual anti-clutter functions is permitted.
5.3.2.5 There should be a clear and permanent indication of the status and level for gain
and all anti-clutter control functions.
5.3.3 Signal Processing

5.3.3.1 Means should be available to enhance target presentation on the display.
5.3.3.2 The effective picture update period should be adequate, with minimum latency to
ensure that the target detection requirements are met.
5.3.3.3 The picture should be updated in a smooth and continuous manner.
5.3.3.4 The equipment manual should explain the basic concept, features and limitations
of any signal processing.
5.3.4 Operation with SARTs and Radar Beacons

5.3.4.1 The X-Band radar system should be capable of detecting radar beacons in the
relevant frequency band.
5.3.4.2 The X-Band radar system should be capable of detecting SARTs and radar target
enhancers.
5.3.4.3 It should be possible to switch off those signal processing functions, including
polarisation modes, which might prevent an X-Band radar beacon or SARTs from being
detected and displayed. The status should be indicated.
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5.4 Minimum Range

5.4.1 With own ship at zero speed, an antenna height of 15 m above the sea level and in
calm conditions, the navigational buoy in Table 2 should be detected at a minimum
horizontal range of 40 m from the antenna position and up to a range of 1 nm, without
changing the setting of control functions other than the range scale selector.
5.4.2 Compensation for any range error should be automatically applied for each
selected antenna, where multiple antennas are installed.
5.5 Discrimination
Range and bearing discrimination should be measured in calm conditions, on a range
scale of 1.5 nm or less and at between 50% and 100% of the range scale selected:
5.5.1 Range
The radar system should be capable of displaying two point targets on the same bearing,
separated by 40 m in range, as two distinct objects.
5.5.2 Bearing
The radar system should be capable of displaying two point targets at the same range,
separated by 2.5° in bearing, as two distinct objects.
5.6 Roll and Pitch

The target detection performance of the equipment should not be substantially impaired
when own ship is rolling or pitching up to +/-10°.
5.7 Radar Performance Optimisation and Tuning

5.7.1 Means should be available to ensure that the radar system is operating at the best
performance. Where applicable to the radar technology, manual tuning should be
provided and additionally, automatic tuning may be provided.
5.7.2 An indication should be provided, in the absence of targets, to ensure that the
system is operating at the optimum performance.
5.7.3 Means should be available (automatically or by manual operation) and while the
equipment is operational, to determine a significant drop in system performance relative to
a calibrated standard established at the time of installation.
5.8 Radar Availability

The radar equipment should be fully operational (RUN status) within 4 minutes after switch
ON from cold. A STANDBY condition should be provided, in which there is no operational
radar transmission. The radar should be fully operational within 5 sec from the standby
condition.
5.9 Radar Measurements – Consistent Common Reference Point (CCRP)

5.9.1 Measurements from own ship (e.g. range rings, target range and bearing, cursor,
tracking data) should be made with respect to the consistent common reference point (e.g.
conning position). Facilities should be provided to compensate for the offset between
antenna position and the consistent common reference point on installation. Where
multiple antennas are installed, there should be provision for applying different position
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offsets for each antenna in the radar system. The offsets should be applied automatically
when any radar sensor is selected.
5.9.2 Own ship's scaled outline should be available on appropriate range scales. The
consistent common reference point and the position of the selected radar antenna should
be indicated on this graphic.
5.9.3 When the picture is centred, the position of the Consistent Common Reference
Point should be at the centre of the bearing scale. The off-centre limits should apply to the
position of the selected antenna.
5.9.4 Range measurements should be in nautical miles (nm). In addition, facilities for
metric measurements may be provided on lower range scales. All indicated values for
range measurement should be unambiguous.
5.9.5 Radar targets should be displayed on a linear range scale and without a range
index delay.
5.10 Display Range Scales

5.10.1 Range scales of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.5, 3, 6, 12 and 24 nm should be provided.
Additional range scales are permitted outside the mandatory set. Low metric range scales
may be offered in addition to the mandatory set.
5.10.2 The range scale selected should be permanently indicated.
5.11 Fixed Range Rings

5.11.1 An appropriate number of equally spaced range rings should be provided for the
range scale selected. When displayed, the range ring scale should be indicated.
5.11.2 The system accuracy of fixed range rings should be within 1% of the maximum
range of the range scale in use or 30 m, whichever is the greater distance.
5.12 Variable Range Markers (VRM)

5.12.1 At least two variable range markers (VRMs) should be provided. Each active VRM
should have a numerical readout and have a resolution compatible with the range scale in
use.
5.12.2 The VRMs should enable the user to measure the range of an object within the
operational display area with a maximum system error of 1% of the range scale in use or
30 m, whichever is the greater distance.
5.13 Bearing Scale

5.13.1 A bearing scale around the periphery of the operational display area should be
provided. The bearing scale should indicate the bearing as seen from the consistent
common reference point.
5.13.2 The bearing scale should be outside of the operational display area. It should be
numbered at least every 30° division and have division marks of at least 5°. The 5° and
10° division marks should be clearly distinguishable from each other. 1° division marks
may be presented where they are clearly distinguishable from each other.
5.14 Heading Line (HL)
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5.14.1 A graphic line from the consistent common reference point to the bearing scale
should indicate the heading of the ship.
5.14.2 Electronic means should be provided to align the heading line to within 0.1°. If there
is more than one radar antenna (see 5.35) the heading skew (bearing offset) should be
retained and automatically applied when each radar antenna is selected.
5.14.3 Provision should be made to temporarily suppress the heading line. This function
may be combined with the suppression of other graphics.
5.15 Electronic Bearing Lines (EBLs)

5.15.1 At least two electronic bearing lines (EBLs) should be provided to measure the
bearing of any point object within the operational display area, with a maximum system
error of 1° at the periphery of the display.
5.15.2 The EBLs should be capable of measurement relative to the ships heading and
relative to true north. There should be a clear indication of the bearing reference (i.e. true
or relative).
5.15.3 It should be possible to move the EBL origin from the consistent common reference
point to any point within the operational display area and to reset the EBL to the consistent
common reference point by a fast and simple action.
5.15.4 It should be possible to fix the EBL origin or to move the EBL origin at the velocity
of own ship.
5.15.5 Means should be provided to ensure that the user is able to position the EBL
smoothly in either direction, with an incremental adjustment adequate to maintain the
system measurement accuracy requirements.
5.15.6 Each active EBL should have a numerical readout with a resolution adequate to
maintain the system measurement accuracy requirements.
5.16 Parallel Index lines (PI)

5.16.1 A minimum of four independent parallel index lines, with a means to truncate and
switch off individual lines, should be provided.
5.16.2 Simple and quick means of setting the bearing and beam range of a parallel index
line should be provided. The bearing and beam range of any selected index line should be
available on demand.
5.17 Offset Measurement of Range and Bearing

There should be a means to measure the range and bearing of one position on the display
relative to any other position within the operational display area.
5.18 User Cursor

5.18.1 A user cursor should be provided to enable a fast and concise means to designate
any position on the operational display area.
5.18.2 The cursor position should have a continuous readout to provide the range and
bearing, measured from the consistent common reference point, and/or the latitude and
longitude of the cursor position presented either alternatively or simultaneously.
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5.18.3 The cursor should provide the means to select and de-select targets, graphics or
objects within the operational display area. In addition, the cursor may be used to select
modes, functions, vary parameters and control menus outside of the operational display
area.
5.18.4 Means should be provided to easily locate the cursor position on the display.
5.18.5 The accuracy of the range and bearing measurements provided by the cursor
should meet the relevant requirements for VRM and EBL.
5.19 Azimuth Stabilisation

5.19.1 The heading information should be provided by a gyrocompass or by an equivalent
sensor with a performance not inferior to the relevant standards adopted by the
Organisation.
5.19.2 Excluding the limitations of the stabilizing sensor and type of transmission system,
the accuracy of azimuth alignment of the radar presentation should be within 0.5° with a
rate of turn likely to be experienced with the class of ship.
5.19.3 The heading information should be displayed with a numerical resolution to permit
accurate alignment with the ship gyro system.
5.19.4 The heading information should be referenced to the consistent common reference
point (CCRP).
5.20 Display Mode of the Radar Picture

5.20.1 A True Motion display mode should be provided. The automatic reset of own ship
may be initiated by its position on the display, or time related, or both. Where the reset is
selected to occur at least on every scan or equivalent, this should be equivalent to True
Motion with a fixed origin (in practice equivalent to the previous relative motion mode).
5.20.2 North Up and Course Up orientation modes should be provided. Head Up may be
provided when the display mode is equivalent to True Motion with a fixed origin (in
practice equivalent to the previous relative motion Head Up mode).
5.20.3 An indication of the motion and orientation mode should be provided.
5.21 Off-Centring
5.21.1 Manual off-centring should be provided to locate the selected antenna position at
any point within at least 50% of the radius from the centre of the operational display area.
5.21.2 On selection of off-centred display, the selected antenna position should be

capable of being located to any point on the display up to at least 50%, and not more than
75%, of the radius from the centre of the operational display area. A facility for
automatically positioning own ship for the maximum view ahead may be provided.
5.21.3 In True Motion, the selected antenna position should automatically reset up to a
50% radius to a location giving the maximum view along own ship's course. Provision for
an early reset of selected antenna position should be provided.
5.22 Ground and Sea Stabilisation Modes

5.22.1 Ground and Sea stabilisation modes should be provided.
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5.22.2 The stabilisation mode and stabilisation source should be clearly indicated.
5.22.3 The source of own ships' speed should be indicated and provided by a sensor
approved in accordance with the requirements of the Organisation for the relevant
stabilisation mode.
5.23 Target Trails and Past Positions

5.23.1 Variable length (time) target trails should be provided, with an indication of trail time
and mode. It should be possible to select true or relative trails from a reset condition for all
true motion display modes.
5.23.2 The trails should be distinguishable from targets.
5.23.3 Either scaled trails or past positions or both, should be maintained and should be
available for presentation within 2 scans or equivalent, following:
 the reduction or increase of one range scale;

 the offset and reset of the radar picture position; and
 a change between true and relative trails.
5.24 Presentation of Target Information
5.24.1 Targets should be presented in accordance with the performance standards for the
Presentation of Navigation-related Information on Shipborne Navigational Displays
adopted by the Organisation and with their relevant symbols according to SN/Circ.243.
5.24.2 The target information may be provided by the radar target tracking function and by
the reported target information from the Automatic Identification System (AIS).
5.24.3 The operation of the radar tracking function and the processing of reported AIS
information is defined in these standards.
5.24.4 The number of targets presented, related to display size, is defined in Table 1. An
indication should be given when the target capacity of radar tracking or AIS reported
target processing/display capability is about to be exceeded.
5.24.5 As far as practical, the user interface and data format for operating, displaying and
indicating AIS and radar tracking information should be consistent.
5.25 Target Tracking (TT) and Acquisition

5.25.1 General
Radar targets are provided by the radar sensor (transceiver). The signals may be filtered
(reduced) with the aid of the associated clutter controls. Radar targets may be manually or
automatically acquired and tracked using an automatic Target Tracking (TT) facility.
5.25.1.1 The automatic target tracking calculations should be based on the measurement
of radar target relative position and own ship motion.
5.25.1.2 Any other sources of information, when available, may be used to support the
optimum tracking performance.
5.25.1.3 TT facilities should be available on at least the 3, 6, and 12 nm range scales.

Tracking range should extend to a minimum of 12 nm.
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5.25.1.4 The radar system should be capable of tracking targets having the maximum
relative speed relevant to its classification for normal or high own ship speeds (see 5.3).
5.25.2 Tracked Target Capacity

5.25.2.1 In addition to the requirements for processing of targets reported by AIS, it should
be possible to track and provide full presentation functionality for a minimum number of
tracked radar targets according to Table 1.
5.25.2.2 There should be an indication when the target tracking capacity is about to be
exceeded. Target overflow should not degrade the radar system performance.
5.25.3 Acquisition
5.25.3.1 Manual acquisition of radar targets should be provided with provision for
acquiring at least the number of targets specified in Table 1.
5.25.3.2 Automatic acquisition should be provided where specified in Table 1. In this case,
there should be means for the user to define the boundaries of the auto-acquisition area.
5.25.4 Tracking
5.25.4.1 When a target is acquired, the system should present the trend of the target's
motion within one minute and the prediction of the targets' motion within 3 minutes.
5.25.4.2 TT should be capable of tracking and updating the information of all acquired
targets automatically.
5.25.4.3 The system should continue to track radar targets that are clearly distinguishable
on the display for 5 out of 10 consecutive scans or equivalent.
5.25.4.4 The TT design should be such that target vector and data smoothing is effective,
while target maneuvers should be detected as early as possible.
5.25.4.5 The possibility of tracking errors, including target swap, should be minimised by
design.
5.25.4.6 Separate facilities for cancelling the tracking of any one and of all target(s) should
be provided.
5.25.4.7 Automatic tracking accuracy should be achieved when the tracked target has
achieved a steady state, assuming the sensor errors allowed by the relevant performance
standards of the Organisation.
5.25.4.7.1 For ships capable of up to 30 kn true speed, the tracking facility should present,
within 1 min steady state tracking, the relative motion trend and after 3 minutes, the
predicted motion of a target, within the following accuracy values (95% probability):
TABLE 3
Tracked Target Accuracy (95% probability figures)
Time of Relative Relative True True
CPA TCPA
steady state Course Speed Course Speed
(nm) (minutes)
(minutes) (degrees) (kn) (degrees) (kn)
1.5 or 10%
1 min: Trend 11 (whichever is 1.0 - - -
greater)
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Time of Relative Relative True True

CPA TCPA
steady state Course Speed Course Speed
(nm) (minutes)
(minutes) (degrees) (kn) (degrees) (kn)
0.8 or 0.5 or
3 min: Motion 3 1%(whichever is 0.3 0.5 5 1%(whichever is
greater) greater)
Accuracy may be significantly reduced during or shortly after acquisition, own ship
manoeuvre, a manoeuvre of the target, or any tracking disturbance and is also dependent
on own ship's motion and sensor accuracy.
Measured target range and bearing should be within 50 m (or +/-1% of target range) and
2°.
The testing standard should have detailed target simulation tests as a means to confirm
the accuracy of targets with relative speeds of up to 100 kn. Individual accuracy values
shown in the table above may be adapted to account for the relative aspects of target
motion with respect to that of own ship in the testing scenarios used.
5.25.4.7.2 For ships capable of speeds in excess of 30 kn (typically High-Speed Craft

(HSC)) and with speeds of up to 70 kn, there should be additional steady state
measurements made to ensure that the motion accuracy, after 3 minutes of steady state
tracking, is maintained with target relative speeds of up to 140 kn.
5.25.4.8 A ground referencing function, based on a stationary tracked target, should be

provided. Targets used for this function should be marked with the relevant symbol
defined in SN/Circ.243.
5.26 Automatic Identification System (AIS) Reported Targets

5.26.1 General
Reported targets provided by the AIS may be filtered according to user-defined
parameters. Targets may be sleeping, or may be activated. Activated targets are treated
in a similar way to radar tracked targets.
5.26.2 AIS Target Capacity

In addition to the requirements for radar tracking, it should be possible to display and
provide full presentation functionality for a minimum number of sleeping and activated AIS
targets according to Table 1. There should be an indication when the capacity of
processing/display of AIS targets is about to be exceeded.
5.26.3 Filtering of AIS Sleeping Targets

To reduce display clutter, a means to filter the presentation of sleeping AIS targets should
be provided, together with an indication of the filter status. (e.g. by target range,
CPA/TCPA or AIS target class A/B, etc.). It should not be possible to remove individual
AIS targets from the display.
5.26.4 Activation of AIS Targets

A means to activate a sleeping AIS target and to deactivate an activated AIS target should
be provided. If zones for the automatic activation of AIS targets are provided, they should
be the same as for automatic radar target acquisition. In addition, sleeping AIS targets
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may be automatically activated when meeting user defined parameters (e.g. target range,
CPA/TCPA or AIS target class A/B).
5.26.5 AIS Presentation Status

TABLE 4
The AIS presentation status should be indicated as follows:
Function Cases to be Presented Presentation
AIS processing switched AIS processing switched
Alphanumeric or
AIS ON/OFF ON/graphical presentation ON/graphical presentation
graphical
switched OFF switched ON
Filtering of sleeping Alphanumeric or
Filter status Filter status
AIS targets graphical
Activation of
Activation criteria Graphical
Targets
Function ON/OFF Function ON/OFF Alphanumeric and
CPA/TCPA Alarm
Sleeping targets included Sleeping targets included graphical
Lost Target Function ON/OFF Function ON/OFF Alphanumeric and
Alarm Lost target filter criteria Lost target filter criteria graphical
Function ON/OFF Function ON/OFF
Target
Association criteria Association criteria Alphanumeric
Association
Default target priority Default target priority
5.27 AIS Graphical Presentation
Targets should be presented with their relevant symbols according to the performance
standards for the Presentation of Navigation-related Information on Shipborne
Navigational Displays adopted by the Organisation and SN/Circ.243.
5.27.1 AIS targets that are displayed should be presented as sleeping targets by default.
5.27.2 The course and speed of a tracked radar target or reported AIS target should be
indicated by a predicted motion vector. The vector time should be adjustable and valid for
presentation of any target regardless of its source.
5.27.3 A permanent indication of vector mode, time and stabilisation should be provided.
5.27.4 The consistent common reference point should be used for the alignment of
tracked radar and AIS symbols with other information on the same display.
5.27.5 On large scale/low range displays, a means to present the true scale outline of an
activated AIS target should be provided. It should be possible to display the past track of
activated targets.
5.28 AIS and Radar Target Data

5.28.1 It should be possible to select any tracked radar or AIS target for the alphanumeric
display of its data. A target selected for the display of its alphanumeric information should
be identified by the relevant symbol. If more than one target is selected for data display,
the relevant symbols and the corresponding data should be clearly identified. There
should be a clear indication to show that the target data is derived from radar or from AIS.
5.28.2 For each selected tracked radar target, the following data should be presented in
alphanumeric form: source(s) of data, actual range of target, actual bearing of target,
predicted target range at the closest point of approach (CPA), predicted time to CPA
(TCPA), true course of target, true speed of target.
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5.28.3 For each selected AIS target the following data should be presented in
alphanumeric form: Source of data, ship's identification, navigational status, position
where available and its quality, range, bearing, COG, SOG, CPA and TCPA. Target
heading and reported rate of turn should also be made available. Additional target
information should be provided on request.
5.28.4 If the received AIS information is incomplete, the absent information should be
clearly indicated as "missing" within the target data field.
5.28.5 The data should be displayed and continually updated, until another target is
selected for data display or until the window is closed.
5.28.6 Means should be provided to present own ship AIS data on request.
5.29 Operational Alarms

A clear indication of the cause for all alarm criteria should be given.
5.29.1 If the calculated CPA and TCPA values of a tracked target or activated AIS target
are less than the set limits:
 A CPA/TCPA alarm should be given.

 The target should be clearly indicated.
5.29.2 The preset CPA/TCPA limits applied to targets from radar and AIS should be
identical. As a default state, the CPA/TCPA alarm functionality should be applied to all
activated AIS targets. On user request the CPA/TCPA alarm functionality may also be
applied to sleeping targets.
5.29.3 If a user defined acquisition/activation zone facility is provided, a target not

previously acquired/activated entering the zone, or is detected within the zone, should be
clearly identified with the relevant symbol and an alarm should be given. It should be
possible for the user to set ranges and outlines for the zone.
5.29.4 The system should alert the user if a tracked radar target is lost, rather than
excluded by a pre-determined range or pre-set parameter. The target's last position
should be clearly indicated on the display.
5.29.5 It should be possible to enable or disable the lost target alarm function for AIS
targets. A clear indication should be given if the lost target alarm is disabled.

 The AIS lost target alarm function is enabled.
 The target is of interest, according to lost target filter criteria.
 A message is not received for a set time, depending on the nominal reporting
rate of the AIS target.
Then:
 The last known position should be clearly indicated as a lost target and an alarm
be given.
 The indication of the lost target should disappear if the signal is received again,
or after the alarm has been acknowledged.
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 A means of recovering limited historical data from previous reports should be

provided.
5.30 AIS and Radar Target Association
An automatic target association function based on harmonised criteria avoids the
presentation of two target symbols for the same physical target.
5.30.1 If the target data from AIS and radar tracking are both available and if the
association criteria (e.g. position, motion) are fulfilled such that the AIS and radar
information are considered as one physical target, then as a default condition, the
activated AIS target symbol and the alphanumeric AIS target data should be automatically
selected and displayed.
5.30.2 The user should have the option to change the default condition to the display of
tracked radar targets and should be permitted to select either radar tracking or AIS
alphanumeric data.
5.30.3 For an associated target, if the AIS and radar information become sufficiently
different, the AIS and radar information should be considered as two distinct targets and
one activated AIS target and one tracked radar target should be displayed. No alarm
should be raised.
5.31 Trial Manoeuvre

The system should, where required by table 1, be capable of simulating the predicted
effects of own ships manoeuvre in a potential threat situation and should include own
ship's dynamic characteristics. A trial manoeuvre simulation should be clearly identified.
The requirements are:
 The simulation of own ship course and speed should be variable.

 A simulated time to manoeuvre with a countdown should be provided.
 During simulation, target tracking should continue and the actual target data
should be indicated.
 Trial manoeuvre should be applied to all tracked targets and at least all activated
AIS targets.
5.32 The Display of Maps, Navigation Lines and Routes
5.32.1 It should be possible for the user to manually create and change, save, load and
display simple maps/navigation lines/routes referenced to own ship or a geographical
position. It should be possible to remove the display of this data by a simple operator
action.
5.32.2 The maps/navigation lines/routes may consist of lines, symbols and reference
points.
5.32.3 The appearance of lines, colours and symbols are as defined in SN/Circ.243.
5.32.4 The maps/navigation lines/route graphics should not significantly degrade the radar
information.
5.32.5 The maps/navigation lines/routes should be retained when the equipment is

switched OFF.
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5.32.6 The maps/navigation lines/route data should be transferable whenever a relevant

equipment module is replaced.
5.33 The Display of Charts

5.33.1 The radar system may provide the means to display ENC and other vector chart
information within the operational display area to provide continuous and real-time
position monitoring. It should be possible to remove the display of chart data by a single
operator action.
5.33.2 The ENC information should be the primary source of information and should
comply with IHO relevant standards. Status of other information should be identified with a
permanent indication. Source and update information should be made available.
5.33.3 As a minimum, the elements of the ECDIS Standard Display should be made
available for individual selection by category or layer, but not as individual objects.
5.33.4 The chart information should use the same reference and co-ordinate criteria as
the radar/AIS, including datum, scale, orientation, CCRP and stabilisation mode.
5.33.5 The display of radar information should have priority. Chart information should be
displayed such that radar information is not substantially masked, obscured or degraded.
Chart information should be clearly perceptible as such.
5.33.6 A malfunction of the source of chart data should not affect the operation of the
radar/AIS system.
5.33.7 Symbols and colours should comply with the performance standards for the
adopted by the Organisation (SN/Circ.243).
5.34 Alarms and Indications

Alarms and indications should comply with the performance standards for the
adopted by the Organisation.
5.34.1 A means should be provided to alert the user of "picture freeze".
5.34.2 Failure of any signal or sensor in use, including; gyro, log, azimuth, video, sync and
heading marker, should be alarmed. System functionality should be limited to a fall back
mode or in some cases, the display presentation should be inhibited (see fallback modes,
section 9).
5.35 Integrating Multiple Radars

5.35.1 The system should safeguard against single point system failure. Fail- safe
condition should be applied in the event of an integration failure.
5.35.2 The source and any processing or combination of radar signals should be
indicated.
5.35.3 The system status for each display position should be available.
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6 ERGONOMIC CRITERIA
6.1 Operational Controls

6.1.1 The design should ensure that the radar system is simple to operate. Operational
controls should have a harmonised user interface and be easy to identify and simple to
use.
6.1.2 The radar system should be capable of being switched ON or OFF at the main
system radar display or at a control position.
6.1.3 The control functions may be dedicated hardware, screen accessed or a

combination of these; however the primary control functions should be dedicated
hardware controls or soft keys, with an associated status indication in a consistent and
intuitive position.
6.1.4 The following are defined as primary radar control functions and should be easily
and immediately accessible:
Radar Standby/RUN, Range scale selection, Gain, tuning function (if applicable),
Anti-clutter rain, Anti-clutter sea, AIS reporting function on/off, Alarm acknowledge, Cursor,
a means to set EBL/VRM, display brightness and acquisition of radar targets.
6.1.5 The primary functions may also be operated from a remote operating position in
addition to the main controls.
6.2 Display Presentation

6.2.1 The display presentation should comply with the performance standards for the
adopted by the Organisation.
6.2.2 The colours, symbols and graphics presented should comply with SN/Circ.243.
6.2.3 The display sizes should conform to those defined in Table 1.
6.3 Instructions and Documentation

6.3.1 Documentation Language
The operating instructions and manufacturer's documentation should be written in a clear
and comprehensible manner and should be available at least in the English language.
6.3.2 Operating Instructions

The operating instructions should contain a qualified explanation and/or description of
information required by the user to operate the radar system correctly, including:
 appropriate settings for different weather conditions;

 monitoring the radar system's performance;
 operating in a failure or fall-back situation;
 limitations of the display and tracking process and accuracy, including any
delays;
 using heading and SOG/COG information for collision avoidance;
 limitations and conditions of target association;
 criteria of selection for automatic activation and cancellation of targets;
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 methods applied to display AIS targets and any limitations;

 principles underlying the trial manoeuvre technology, including simulation of own
ship's manoeuvring characteristics, if provided;
 alarms and indications;
 installation requirements as listed under section 7.5;
 radar range and bearing accuracies; and
 any special operation (e.g. tuning) for the detection of SARTs ; and
 the role of the CCRP for radar measurements and its specific value.
6.3.3 Manufacturer's Documentation
6.3.3.1 The manufacturer's documentation should contain a description of the radar
system and factors that may affect detection performance, including any latency in signal
processing.
6.3.3.2 Documentation should describe the basis of AIS filter criteria and AIS/radar target
association criteria.
6.3.3.3 The equipment documentation should include full details of installation information,
including additional recommendations on unit location and factors that may degrade
performance or reliability.
7 DESIGN AND INSTALLATION
7.1 Design for Servicing

7.1.1 As far as is practical, the radar system should be of a design to facilitate simple
fault diagnosis and maximum availability.
7.1.2 The radar system should include a means to record the total operational hours for
any components with a limited life.
7.1.3 The documentation should describe any routine servicing requirements and should
include details of any restricted life components.
7.2 Display
The display device physical requirements should meet those specified in the performance
standards for the Presentation of Navigation-related Information on Shipborne
Navigational Displays adopted by the Organisation (SN/Circ.243) and those specified in
Table 1.
7.3 Transmitter Mute

The equipment should provide a mute facility to inhibit the transmission of radar energy
over a preset sector. The mute sector should be set up on installation. An indication of
sector mute status should be available.
7.4 Antenna
7.4.1 The antenna should be designed to start operating and to continue to operate in
relative wind speeds likely to be encountered on the class of ship on which it is installed.
7.4.2 The combined radar system should be capable of providing an appropriate

information update rate for the class of ship on which it is installed.
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7.4.3 The antenna side lobes should be consistent with satisfying the system
performance as defined in this standard.
7.4.4 There should be a means to prevent antenna rotation and radiation during
servicing, or while personnel are in the vicinity of up-mast units.
7.5 Radar System Installation

Requirements and guidelines for the radar system installation should be included in the
manufacturers' documentation. The following subjects should be covered:
7.5.1 The Antenna

Blind sectors should be kept to a minimum, and should not be placed in an arc of the
horizon from the right ahead direction to 22.5 abaft the beam and especially should
avoid the right ahead direction (relative bearing 000 ). The installation of the antenna
should be in such a manner that the performance of the radar system is not substantially
degraded. The antenna should be mounted clear of any structure that may cause signal
reflections, including other antenna and deck structure or cargo. In addition, the height of
the antenna should take account of target detection performance relating to range of first
detection and target visibility in sea clutter.
7.5.2 The Display

The orientation of the display unit should be such that the user is looking ahead, the
lookout view is not obscured and there is minimum ambient light on the display.
7.6 Operation and Training

7.6.1 The design should ensure that the radar system is simple to operate by trained
users.
7.6.2 A target simulation facility should be provided for training purposes.
8 INTERFACING
8.1 Input Data

The radar system should be capable of receiving the required input information from:
 a gyro-compass or transmitting heading device (THD);

 a speed and distance measuring equipment (SDME);
 an electronic position fixing system (EPFS);
 an Automatic Identification System (AIS); or
 other sensors or networks providing equivalent information acceptable to the
Organisation.
The radar should be interfaced to relevant sensors required by these performance
standards in accordance with recognised international standards.
8.2 Input Data Integrity and Latency

8.2.1 The radar system should not use data indicated as invalid. If input data is known to
be of poor quality this should be clearly indicated.
8.2.2 As far as is practical, the integrity of data should be checked, prior to its use, by
comparison with other connected sensors or by testing to valid and plausible data limits.
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8.2.3 The latency of processing input data should be minimised.
8.3 Output Data

8.3.1 Information provided by any radar output interface to other systems should be in
accordance with international standards.
8.3.2 The radar system should provide an output of the display data for the voyage data
recorder (VDR).
8.3.3 At least one normally closed contact (isolated) should be provided for indicating
failure of the radar.
8.3.4 The radar should have a bi-directional interface to facilitate communication so that
alarms from the radar can be transferred to external systems and so that audible alarms
from the radar can be muted from external systems, the interface should comply with
relevant international standards.
9 BACKUP AND FALLBACK ARRANGEMENTS
In the event of partial failures and to maintain minimum basic operation, the fallback
arrangements listed below should be provided. There should be a permanent indication of
the failed input information.
9.1 Failure of Heading Information (Azimuth Stabilisation)

9.1.1 The equipment should operate satisfactorily in an unstabilised head-up mode.
9.1.2 The equipment should switch automatically to the unstabilised head up mode
within 1 minute after the azimuth stabilisation has become ineffective.
9.1.3 If automatic anti-clutter processing could prevent the detection of targets in the
absence of appropriate stabilisation, the processing should switch off automatically within
1 minute after the azimuth stabilisation has become ineffective.
9.1.4 An indication should be given that only relative bearing measurements can be
used.
9.2 Failure of Speed through the Water Information

A means of manual speed input should be provided and its use clearly indicated.
9.3 Failure of Course and Speed Over Ground Information

The equipment may be operated with course and speed through the water information.
9.4 Failure of Position Input Information

The overlay of chart data and geographically referenced maps should be disabled if only a
single Reference Target is defined and used, or the position is manually entered.
9.5 Failure of Radar Video Input Information

In the absence of radar signals, the equipment should display target information based on
AIS data. A frozen radar picture should not be displayed.
9.6 Failure of AIS Input Information

In the absence of AIS signals, the equipment should display the radar video and target
database.
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9.7 Failure of an Integrated or Networked System

The equipment should be capable of operating equivalent to a stand alone system.
Appendix 1 – References
IMO SOLAS chapters IV, V and X Carriage rules.

IMO resolution A. 278(VII) Supplement to the recommendation on PS for
navigational radar equipment.
IMO resolution A. 424(XI) Performance standards for gyro-compasses.
IMO resolution A. 477(XII) Performance standards for radar equipment.
IMO resolution A. 694(17) General Requirements for shipborne radio equipment
forming part of the global maritime distress and
safety system and for electronically navigational aids.
IMO resolution A. 817(19)
asamended Performance standards for ECDIS.
IMO resolution A. 821(19) Performance standards for gyrocompasses for
high-speed craft.
IMO resolution A. 824(19) Performance standards for devices to indicate speed
and distance.
IMO resolution MSC. 86(70) Performance standards for INS.
IMO resolution MSC. 64(67) Recommendations on new and amended
performance standards (Annex 2 revised by MSC.
114 (73)).
IMO resolution MSC. 112(73) Revised performance standards for ship borne global
positioning (GPS) receiver equipment.
IMO resolution MSC. 114(73) Revised performance standards for shipborne DGPS
and DGLONASS maritime radio beacon receiver
equipment.
IMO resolution MSC. 116(73) Performance standards for marine transmitting
heading devices (THD).
IMO MSC Circ.982 Guidelines on ergonomic criteria for bridge
equipment and layout.
IHO S-52 appendix 2 Color and symbol specification for ECDIS.
IEC62388 Radar Test Standard (replacing 60872 and 60936
series of test standards).
IEC60945 Maritime navigation and radio communication
equipment and systems – General requirements –
Methods of testing and required test results.
equipment and systems – Digital interfaces.
equipment and systems – Electronic chart display
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and information system (ECDIS) – Operational and

performance requirements, methods of testing and
required test results.
IEC62288 Presentation and display of navigation information.
ISO 9000 (all parts) Quality management/assurance standards.
Appendix 2 – Definitions
Activated AIS target A target representing the automatic or manual activation

of a sleeping target for the display of additional
graphically presented information. The target is
displayed by an "activated target" symbol including:
-a vector (COG/SOG);
-the heading; and
-ROT or direction of turn indication (if available) to
indicate initiated course changes.
Acquisition of a radar target Process of acquiring a target and initiating its
tracking.
Activation of an AIS target Activation of a sleeping AIS target for the display
of additional
graphical and alphanumerical information.
Acquired radar target Automatic or manual acquisition initiates radar
tracking. Vectors and past positions are displayed
when data has achieved a steady state condition.
AIS Automatic Identification System.
AIS target A target generated from an AIS message. See activated
target, lost target, selected target and sleeping target.
Associated target If an acquired radar target and an AIS reported target
have similar parameters (e.g. position, course, speed)
complying with an association algorithm, they are
considered to be the same target and become an
associated target.
Acquisition/activation zone A zone set up by the operator in which the system
should automatically acquire radar targets and activate
reported AIS targets when entering the zone.
CCRP Consistent Common Reference Point: A location on own
ship, to which all horizontal measurements such as
target range, bearing, relative course, relative speed,
closest point of approach (CPA) or time to closest point
of approach (TCPA) are referenced, typically the conning
position of the bridge.
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CPA/TCPA Closest Point of Approach/Time to the Closest Point of

Approach: Distance to the closest point of approach
(CPA) and time to the closest point of approach (TCPA).
Limits are set by the operator related to own ship.
Course Over Ground (COG) Direction of the ship's movement relative to the earth,
measured on board the ship, expressed in angular
units from true north.
Course Through Water (CTW) Direction of the ship's movement through the water,
defined by the angle between the meridian through its
position and the direction of the ship's movement
through the water, expressed in angular units from true
north.
Dangerous target A target whose predicted CPA and TCPA are violating
the values as preset by the operator. The respective
target is marked by a "dangerous target" symbol.
Display modes Relative motion: means a display on which the
position of own ship remains fixed, and all targets
move relative to own ship.
True motion: a display across which own ship moves
with its own true motion.
Display orientation North up display: an azimuth stabilised presentation
which uses the gyro input (or equivalent) and north is
uppermost on the presentation.
Course up display: an azimuth stabilised
presentation which uses the gyro input or equivalent
and the ship's course is uppermost on the
presentation at the time of selection.
Head up display: an unstabilised presentation in
which own ship's heading is uppermost on the
presentation.
ECDIS Electronic Chart Display and Information System.
ECDIS Display Base The level of information which cannot be removed from
the ECDIS display, consisting of information which is
required at all times in all geographic areas and all
circumstances. It is not intended to be sufficient for safe
navigation.
ECDIS Standard Display The level of information that should be shown when a
chart is first displayed on ECDIS. The level of the
information it provides for route planning or route
monitoring may be modified by the mariner according to
the mariner's needs.
ENC Electronic Navigational Chart. The database
standardised as to content, structure and format
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according to relevant IHO standards and issued by, or

on the authority of, a government.
EPFS Electronic Position Fixing System.
ERBL Electronic bearing line carrying a marker, which is
combined with the range marker, used to measure
range and bearing from own ship or between two
objects.
Evaporation duct A low lying duct (a change in air density) that traps the
radar energy so that it propagates close to the sea
surface. Ducting may enhance or reduce radar target
detection ranges.
Heading Direction in which the bow of a ship is pointing expressed
as an angular displacement from north.
HSC High-speed craft (HSC) are vessels which comply with
the definition in SOLAS for high speed craft.
Latency The delay between actual and presented data.
Lost AIS target A target representing the last valid position of an AIS
target before the reception of its data was lost. The target
is displayed by a "lost AIS target" symbol.
Lost tracked target Target information is no longer available due to
poor, lost or obscured signals. The target is
displayed by a "lost tracked radar target" symbol.
Maps/Nav lines Operator defined or created lines to indicate channels,
Traffic Separation Schemes or borders of any area
important for navigation.
Operational display area Area of the display used to graphically present chart and
radar information, excluding the user dialogue area. On
the chart display this is the area of the chart presentation.
On the radar display this is the area encompassing the
radar image.
Past positions Equally time-spaced past position marks of a tracked
or reported target and own ship. The past positions'
track may be either relative or true.
Radar (Radio direction and ranging) A radio system that
allows the determination of distance and direction of
reflecting objects and of transmitting devices.
Radar beacon A navigation aid which responds to the radar
transmission by generating a radar signal to identify its
position and identity.
Radar detection false alarm The probability of a radar false alarm represents the
probability that noise will cross the detection threshold
and be called a target when only noise is present.
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Radar target Any object fixed or moving whose position and motion
is determined by successive radar measurements of
range and bearing.
Radar target enhancer An electronic radar reflector, the output of which is an
amplified version of the received radar pulse without
any form of processing except limiting.
Reference target Symbol indicating that the associated tracked stationary
target (e.g. a navigational mark) is used as a speed
reference for the ground stabilisation.
Relative bearing Direction of a target's position from own ship's reference
location expressed as an angular displacement from own
ship's heading.
Relative course Direction of motion of a target relative to own ship's
direction. (Bearing.)
Relative motion Combination of relative course and relative speed.
Relative speed Speed of a target relative to own ship's speed data.
Rate of turn Change of heading per time unit
SART Search And Rescue Transponder.
SDME Speed and Distance Measurement Equipment.
Selected target A manually selected target for the display of detailed
alphanumeric information in a separate data display area.
The target is displayed by a "selected target" symbol.
Sleeping AIS target A target indicating the presence and orientation of a
vessel equipped with AIS in a certain location. The
target is displayed by a "sleeping target" symbol. No
additional information is presented until activated.
Stabilisation modes Ground stabilisation: Display mode in which speed
and course information are referred to the ground,
using ground track input data, or EPFS as reference.
Sea stabilisation: Display mode in which speed and
course information are referred to the sea, using gyro
or equivalent and water speed log input as reference.
Standard display The level of information that should be shown when a
chart is first displayed on ECDIS. The level of the
information it provides for route planning or route
monitoring may be modified by the mariner according to
the mariner's needs.
Standard radar reflector Reference reflector mounted 3.5 m above sea level
with 10 m 2 effective reflecting area at X-band.
Steady state tracking Tracking a target, proceeding at steady motion
-after completion of the acquisition process, or
-without a manoeuvre of target or own ship, or
-without target swap or any disturbance
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Speed Over Ground (SOG) Speed of the ship relative to the earth, measured on
board of the ship.
Speed Through Water Speed of the ship relative to the water surface.
SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea.
Suppressed area An area set up by the operator within which targets are
not acquired.
Target swap Situation in which the incoming radar data for a
tracked target becomes incorrectly associated with
another tracked target or a non-tracked radar echo.
Target's predicted motion Prediction of a target's future course and speed based
on line extrapolation from its present motion as
determined by past measurements of its range and
bearing on the radar.
Target Tracking Computer process of observing the sequential
changes in the position of a radar target in order to
establish its motion. Such a target is a Tracked Target.
Trails Tracks displayed by the radar echoes of targets in the
form of an afterglow. Trails may be true or relative.
Trial manoeruvre Graphical simulation facility used to assist the operator to
perform a proposed manoeuvre for navigation and
collision avoidance purposes, by displaying the predicted
future status of at least all acquired or activated targets
as a result of own ship's simulated manoeuvres.
True bearing Direction of a target from own ship's reference
location or from another target's position expressed
as an angular displacement from true north.
True course Direction of motion relative to ground or to sea, of a
target expressed as an angular displacement from north.
True motion Combination of true course and true speed.
True speed Speed of a target relative to ground, or to sea.
Vector modes True vector: Vector representing the predicted true
motion of a target, showing course and speed with
reference to the ground.
Relative vector: Predicted movement of a target relative
to own ship's motion.
User Configured Presentation A display presentation configured by the user for a
specific task at hand. The presentation may include
radar and/or chart information, in combination with
other navigation or ship related data.
User Dialogue Area Is an area of the display consisting of data fields and/or
menus that is allocated to the interactive presentation
and entry or selection of operational parameters, data
and commands mainly in alphanumeric form.
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4. IMO Resolution MSC. 64(67) (Adopted on 4 December 1996)
Adoption of New and Amended Performance Standards

THE MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE,
RECALLING Article 28(b) of the Convention on the International
Maritime Organisation concerning the functions of the Committee,
RECALLING ALSO resolution A. 825(19), by which the Assembly
resolved that the functions of adopting performance standards for radio and
navigational equipment, as well as amendments thereto, shall be performed by
the Maritime Safety Committee on behalf of the Organisation,
HAVING CONSIDERED new performance standards and amendments
to existing performance standards adopted by the Assembly prepared by the
forty-second session of the Sub-Committee on Safety of Navigation,
······
2. ALSO ADOPTS the amendments to the following performance standards
adopted by the Assembly, set out in Annexes 3 to 5 to the present resolution:
(a) ······
(b) Resolution A. 447(XII) - Recommendation on Performance
Standards for Radar Equipment (Annex 4);
(c) ······
3. RECOMMENDS Member Governments to ensure that:
(a) ······
(b) heading control systems and radar equipment installed on or after 1
January 1999 conform respectively to performance standards not
inferior to those set out in Annexes 3 and 4 to the present resolution;
(c) ······
ANNEX 4
Recommendation on Performance Standards
for Radar Equipment

1 INTRODUCTION
In addition to the general requirements contained in resolution A.694(17) all radar
installations should comply with the following minimum requirements.
2 GENERAL
The radar equipment should provide an indication, in relation to the ship of the position
of other surface craft and obstructions and of buoys, shorelines and navigational marks in
a manner which will assist in navigation and in avoiding collision.
3 RADAR
3.1 Range performance
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The operational requirement under normal propagation conditions, when the radar
antenna is mounted at a height of 15 m above sea level, is that the equipment should in
the absence of clutter give a clear indication of:
.1 Coastlines
At 20 nautical miles when the ground rises to 60 m.
At 7 nautical miles when the ground rises to 6 m.
.2 Surface objects
At 7 nautical miles a ship of 5,000 gross tonnage, whatever her aspect.
At 3 nautical miles a small vessel of 10 m in length.
At 2 nautical miles an object such as a navigational buoy having an effective
echoing area of approximately 10 m2.
3.2 Minimum range
The surface objects specified in 3.1.2 should be clearly displayed from a minimum
horizontal range of 50 m from the antenna position up to a range of 1 nautical mile,
without changing the setting of controls other than the range selector.
3.3 Display
3.3.1 The equipment should provide, without external magnification, a daylight display
with a minimum effective diameter within the bearing scale of not less than:
.1 180 mm on ships of 150 gross tonnage and more but less than 1,000 gross
tonnage;
.2 250 mm on ships of 1,000 gross tonnage and more but less than 10,000 gross
tonnage; and
.3 340 mm on ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards.
3.3.2 The equipment should provide the following set of range scales of display: 0.25, 0.5,
0.75, 1.5, 3, 6, 12 and 24 nautical miles.
3.3.3 Additional larger and smaller range scales may be provided.
3.3.4 The range scale displayed and the distance between range rings should be clearly
indicated at all times.
3.3.5 Within the effective display radar video area, the display should only contain
information which pertains to the use of the radar display for navigation or collision
avoidance and which has to be displayed there because of its association with a
target (e.g. target identifiers, vectors) or because of some other direct relationship
with the radar display.
3.3.6 The origin of the range scale (radar video) should start at own ship, be linear and
should not be delayed.
3.3.7 Multi-colour displays are permitted but the following requirements should be met:
.1 target echoes should be displayed by means of the same basic colours and
the echo strength should not be displayed in different colours; and
.2 additional information may be shown in different colours.
3.3.8 The radar picture and information should be readable under all ambient light
conditions. If a light shield is necessary to facilitate operation of the display in high
ambient light levels, then means should be provided for its ready attachment and
removal.
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3.3.9 Selected parts of the System Electronic Navigation Chart (SENC) information may
be displayed in such a way that the radar information is not masked, obscured or
degraded. If SENC information is made available for a radar display it should at least
include coastlines, own ship's safety contour, dangers to navigation and fixed and
floating aids to navigation. The mariner should be able to select those parts of the
SENC, which can be made available and the mariner requires to be displayed.
3.3.10 For the superimposition of selected parts of the SENC:
.1 Reference Management
Reference management is required to ensure that the information displayed is
correlated and in the same reference and co-ordinate system;
.2 Display Area
the whole effective display area should contain the available radar and SENC
information;
.3 Matching and Adjustment
in case of any deviations between the chart image and the radar image through
detectable causes, manual adjustment should be possible. Any manual adjustment
should be clearly indicated as long as it is activated. Resetting should be possible in
a simple manner;
.4 Priority in the Display
the display of radar information should have priority;
.5 Stability
The equipment should be capable of appropriately stabilizing the radar image,
ARPA vectors and SENC information. The operating mode should be clearly
indicated; and
.6 Independence of Radar/ARPA and SENC
.6.1 the SENC information should not have an adverse effect on the radar picture;
.6.2 Radar/ARPA information and SENC information should be clearly recognisable
as such; and
.6.3 in the case of a malfunction of one component, the function of the other
component should not be affected.
3.3.11 The frequency band in use should be indicated to the operator.
3.4 Range measurement
3.4.1 Electronic fixed range rings should be provided for range measurements as follows:
.1 on the range scale 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 nautical miles at least two and not more than
six range rings should be provided, on each of the other mandatory range
scales six range rings should be provided; and
.2 where off-centred facilities have been provided, additional range rings should
be provided at the same range intervals.
3.4.2 An electronic variable range marker in the form of a ring should be provided with a
numeric readout of range. This readout should not display any other data. For
ranges of less than 1 nautical mile, there should be only one zero before the decimal
point. Additional variable range markers may be provided.
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3.4.3 The fixed range rings and the variable range markers should enable the range of an
object to be measured with an error not exceeding 1% of the maximum range of the
scale in use, or 30 m, whichever is the greater.
3.4.4 The accuracy should be maintained when the display is off-centred.
3.4.5 The thickness of the fixed range rings should not be greater than the maximum
permissible thickness of the heading line.
3.4.6 On all range scales, it should be possible to set the variable range marker with the
required precision within 5 s in all cases. A range that is set by the user should not
change automatically when the range scale is changed.
3.5 Heading indication
3.5.1 The heading of the ship should be indicated by a continuous line on the display with
a maximum error of not greater than ±1°. The thickness of the displayed heading
line should not be greater than 0.5° measured at maximum range at the edge of the
radar display. The heading line should extend from the trace origin to the edge of the
display.
3.5.2 Provision should be made to switch off the heading indicator by a device which
cannot be left in the "heading line off" position.
3.5.3 A heading marker should be displayed on the bearing scale.
3.6 Bearing measurement
3.6.1 An Electronic Bearing Line, (EBL), should be provided with a numeric readout of
bearing to obtain within 5 s the bearing of any object whose echo appears on the
display.
3.6.2 The EBL should enable the bearing of a target whose echo appears at the edge of
the display to be measured with a maximum error of not greater than + 1°.
3.6.3 The EBL should be displayed on the screen in such a way that it is clearly
distinguishable from the heading indicator. It should not be thicker than the heading
indicator.
3.6.4 It should be possible to vary the brilliance of the EBL. This variation may be
separate or combined with the intensity of other markers. It should be possible to
remove the EBL completely from the screen.
3.6.5 The rotation of the EBL should be possible in both directions continuously or in
steps of not more than 0.2°.
3.6.6 The numeric readout of the bearing of the EBL should be displayed with at least 4
digits, including one after the decimal point. The EBL readout should not be used to
display any other data. There should be a positive identification of whether the
bearing indicated is a relative bearing or a true bearing.
3.6.7 A bearing scale around the edge of the display should be provided. Linear or
non-linear bearing scales may be provided.
3.6.8 The bearing scale should have division marks for at least each 5°, with the 5° and
10° divisions clearly distinguishable from each other. Numbers should clearly
identify at least each 30° division.
3.6.9 It should be possible to measure the bearing relative to the heading line and relative
north.
3.6.10 A minimum of two independent lines of parallel index lines should be provided.
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3.6.11 It should be possible to move the position of the EBL origin away from own ship to
any desired point on the effective display area. By a fast simple operation it should
be possible to move the EBL origin back to own ship's position on the screen. On
the EBL, it should be possible to display a variable range marker.
3.7 Discrimination
3.7.1 Range
The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate indications on a range
scale of 1.5 nautical miles, two small similar targets at a range of between 50% and
100% of the range scale, and on the same bearing, separated by not more than 40
m in range.
3.7.2 Bearing
The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate indications two small
similar targets both situated at the same range between 50% and 100% of the 1.5
nautical mile range scale, and separated by not more than 2.5° in bearing.
3.8 Roll or pitch
The performance of the equipment should be such that when the ship is rolling or
pitching up to +10° the range performance requirements of 3.1 and 3.2 continue to
be met.
3.9 Antenna Scan
The scan should be clockwise, continuous and automatic through 360° of azimuth.
The antenna rotation rate should be not less than 20 revolutions per minute. The
equipment should start and operate satisfactorily in relative wind speeds of up to
100 knots. Alternative methods of scanning are permitted provided that the
performance is not inferior.
3.10 Azimuth stabilisation
3.10.1 Means should be provided to enable the display to be stabilised in azimuth by a
gyro-compass, or its equivalent in performance. The accuracy of alignment with the
compass transmission should be within 0.5° with a compass rotation rate of 2
revolutions per minute.
3.10.2 The equipment should operate satisfactorily in the head-up unstabilised mode
when the azimuth stabilisation is inoperative.
3.10.3 Change over from one display mode to the other should be possible within 5 s and
achieve the required bearing accuracy.
3.11 Performance monitoring
Means should be available, while the equipment is used operationally, to determine
readily a significant drop in system performance relative to a calibration standard
established at the time of installation. Means should be provided to check that the
equipment is correctly tuned in the absence of targets.
3.12 Anti-clutter devices
3.12.1 Suitable means should be provided for the suppression of unwanted echoes from
sea clutter, rain and other forms of precipitation, clouds, sandstorms and from other
radars. It should be possible to adjust manually and continuously the anti-clutter
controls. In addition, automatic anti-clutter controls may be provided; however, they
should be capable of being switched off.
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3.12.2 The operational requirement, when the radar antenna is mounted at a height of 15
m above sea level, is that the equipment should, even in the presence of sea
clutter, give a clear indication of a standard reflector up to 3.5 nautical miles.
3.13 Operation
3.13.1 Availability
After switching on from cold the equipment should become fully operational within
4 min.
A stand-by condition should be provided from which the equipment can be brought
to an operational condition within 15 s.
3.13.2 Controls
Operational controls should be accessible and easy to identify and use. Controls
should be identified and easy to operate.1
The equipment should be capable of being switched on and off and operated from
the master display position.
It should be possible to vary the brilliance of the fixed range rings and the variable
range markers and electronic bearing lines and to remove them independently and
completely from the display.
For radars with additional synthetic information (e.g. target identifiers, vectors,
navigational information), means should be provided capable of removing this
additional information from the screen.
3.14 Operation with radar beacons and SARTS
3.14.1 Radar should be able to detect and display signals from radar beacons and 9 GHz
radars should also be able to detect and display signals from Search and Rescue
Transponders (SARTs).
3.14.2 All radars operating in the 9 GHz band should be capable of operating in a
horizontally polarised mode. If other polarisation modes are available there should
be a positive indication of their use on the display.
3.14.3 It should be possible to switch off those signal processing facilities which might
prevent a radar beacon or SART from being shown on the radar display.
3.15 Display modes
3.15.1 The equipment should be capable of operating in relative and true motion.
3.15.2 The radar origin should be capable of being off-set to at least 50% and not more
than 75% of the radius of the display.
3.15.3 The radar should be capable of sea and ground stabilisation. With sea or ground
stabilisation the accuracy and discrimination of the display should be at least
equivalent to that required by this Performance Standard.
3.15.4 Speed and Distance Measuring Equipment (SDME) providing the ship's speed
through the water to the radar should be capable of providing the speed in the fore
and aft direction.
3.15.5 The ground stabilised input should be two-dimensional. It may be provided from
the SDME, from an electronic position-fixing system or from radar tracked stationary
targets. The speed accuracy should be in accordance with the requirements of
resolution A. 824(19).
3.15.6 The type of input and stabilisation in use should be displayed.
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3.15.7 It should also be possible to input the ship's speed manually from 0 (zero) knots to
30 knots in steps of not more than 0.2 knots.
3.15.8 Provision should be made for manual input of set and drift.
3.16 Interference from external magnetic fields
After installation and adjustment on board, the bearing accuracy as prescribed in
this Performance Standard should be maintained without further adjustment
irrespective of the movement of the ship in the earth's magnetic field.
3.17 Radar installation
The radar installation, including the antenna, should be in such a manner that the
performance of the radar system is not substantially impaired. Guidance on
installation should be given in manufacturer documentation.
3.18 Failure Warnings and Status indications
If there is any detectable reason why the information presented to the operator is
invalid, adequate and clear warning should be given to the operator.
4 MULTIPLE RADAR INSTALLATIONS
4.1 Where two radars are required to be carried they should be so installed that each
radar can be operated individually and both can be operated simultaneously without
being dependant upon one another. When an emergency source of electrical power
is provided in accordance with the appropriate requirements of chapter II-1 of the
1974 SOLAS Convention, both radars should be capable of being operated from
this source.
4.2 Where two radars are fitted, interswitching facilities may be provided to improve the
flexibility and availability of the overall radar installation. They should be so installed
that failure of either radar would not cause the other radar to be adversely affected.
5 INTERFACE
5.1 The radar system should be capable of receiving information from equipment such
as gyro-compass, speed and distance measurement equipment (SDME) and
electronic position-fixing systems (EPFS) in accordance with international
standards.1 The source of received information should be capable of being
displayed.
5.2 The radar should provide an indication when any input from an external sensor is
absent. The radar should also repeat any alarms or status messages concerning the
quality of the input data from its external sensors.
5.3 If any radar outputs are provided they should be in accordance with international
standards.2
6 NAVIGATIONAL INFORMATION
The radar display should be capable of presenting in graphical form, positions,
navigational lines and maps, in addition to the radar information. It should be
possible to adjust these points, lines and maps relative to a geographical reference.
The source of the graphical information and the method of geographical referencing
should be clearly indicated.
7 PLOTTING
Plotting facilities should be provided with the radar as follows:
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7.1 Ships which are fitted with an electronic plotting aid should be fitted with an
"electronic plotting aid" for manual direct plotting as defined in Appendix 2.
7.2 Ships which are fitted with an Auto Tracking Aid should be fitted with an "Auto
Tracking Aid" as defined in Appendix 1.
7.3 Ships which are fitted with an Automatic Radar Plotting Aid should be fitted with
ARPA with a minimum effective diameter of 250 mm as defined in resolution
A.823(19). The second radar should be fitted with at least an "Auto Tracking Aid".
7.4 Ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and more should be fitted with ARPAs with a
minimum effective diameter of 340 mm as defined in resolution A.823(19).
7.5 It should be possible to display the trails of radar echoes of targets in the form of
synthetic afterglow. The trails may be either relative or true. The true trails may be
sea or ground stabilised. The trails should be distinguishable from the targets.
8 ERGONOMICS
8.1 The following functions should be directly accessible and immediately effected:
- On-/off-switch
- Monitor brilliance
- Tuning (if manual)
- Range selection
- Anticlutter rain
- Electronic bearing line
- Dimmer for panel illumination
- Gain
- Presentation made
- Anticlutter sea
- Variable range marker
- Marker (cursor)
8.2 The following functions should be continuously variable or in small, quasi-analogue
steps:
- Anticlutter rain
- Electronic bearing line
- Gain
- Anticlutter sea
- Variable range marker
- Marker (cursor)
8.3 The settings of the following functions should be readable in all light conditions:
- Dimmer for panel illumination
- Gain
- Anticlutter sea
- Anticlutter rain
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8.4 For the following functions additional automatic adjustment may be provided. The use
of the automatic mode be indicated to the operator and be capable of being switched off:
- Gain
- Anticlutter rain
- Anticlutter sea
8.5 If discrete controls are available for the EBL and VRM they should be situated on the
left and right hand side respectively.
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APPENDIX 1
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR "AUTO TRACKING"
1 INTRODUCTION
"Auto Tracking" should, in order to improve the standard of collision avoidance at
sea:
.1 reduce the workload of observers by enabling them to obtain information about
automatically plotted targets so that they can perform as well with several
separate targets as they can by manually plotting a single target; and
.2 provide continuous, accurate and rapid situation evaluation.
2 DEFINITIONS
Definitions of terms used in these performance standards are given in annex 1 to
this appendix.
3 PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
3.1 Detection
3.1.1 Where a separate facility is provided for detection of targets, other than by the radar
observer, it should have a performance not inferior to that which could be obtained by the
use of the radar display.
3.2 Acquisition
3.2.1 There should be a facility to provide for manual acquisition and cancellation for
relative speeds up to 100 knots.
3.2.2 Manual acquisition should have a performance not inferior to that which could be
obtained by the user of the radar display.
3.3 Tracking
3.3.1 The "auto tracking" should be able to automatically track, process, simultaneously
display and continuously update the information on at least 10 targets.
3.3.2 The "auto tracking" should continue to track an acquired target which is clearly
distinguishable on the display for 5 out of 10 consecutive scans, provided the target is not
subject to target swop.
3.3.3 The possibility of tracking errors, including target swop, should be minimised by
"auto tracking" design. A qualitative description of the effects of error sources on the
automatic tracking and corresponding errors should be provided to the user, including the
effects of low signal-to-noise and low signal-to-clutter ratios caused by sea returns, rain,
snow, low clouds and non-synchronous emissions.
3.4 Display
3.4.1 The display may be a separate or integral part of the ship's radar. However the "auto
tracking" display should include all the data required to be provided by a radar display in
accordance with the performance standards for navigational radar equipment.
3.4.2 The design should be such that any malfunction of "auto tracking" parts producing
data additional to information to be produced by the radar as required by the performance
standards for navigational equipment should not affect the integrity of the basic radar
presentation.
3.4.3 The "auto tracking" facilities should be available on at least the 3, 6 and 12 nautical
mile range scales, and there could be a positive indication of the range scale in use.
3.4.4 "Auto tracking" facilities may also be provided on other range scales.
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3.4.5 The "auto tracking" should be capable of operating with a relative motion display
with "north-up" and "course-up" azimuth stabilisation. In addition, the "auto tracking" may
also provide for a true motion display. If true motion is provided, the operator should be
able to select for his display either true or relative motion. There should be a positive
indication of the display mode and orientation in use.
3.4.6 The course and speed information generated by the "auto tracking" for acquired
targets should be displayed in a vector or graphic form which clearly indicates the target's
predicted motion with relevant symbols. In this regard:
.1 "auto tracking" presenting predicted information in vector form only should have
the option of both true and relative vectors. There should be an indication of
the vector mode selected, and if "true" is selected there should be a display of
whether it is stabilised with reference to sea or ground;
.2 an "auto tracking" which is capable of presenting target course and speed
information in graphic form should also, on request, provide the target's true
and/or relative vector;
.3 vectors displayed should be time adjustable;
.4 a positive indication of the time-scale of vector in use should be given; and
.5 if stationary targets are being used for ground referencing then this should be
indicated with the relevant symbol. In this mode, relative vectors including those
of the targets used for ground referencing should be displayed when requested.
3.4.7 The "auto tracking" information should not obscure the visibility of radar targets. The
display of "auto tracking" data should be under the control of the radar observer. It should
be possible to cancel the display of unwanted "auto tracking" data within 3 s.
3.4.8 Means should be provided to adjust independently the brilliance of the "auto
tracking" data and radar data, including complete extinction of the "auto tracking" data.
3.4.9 The method of presentation should ensure that the "auto tracking" data are clearly
visible in general to more than one observer in the conditions of light normally experienced
on the brige of a ship by day and by night. Screening may be provided to shade the
display from sunlight but not to the extent that it will impair the observer's ability to
maintain a proper look-out. Facilities to adjust the brightness should be provided.
3.4.10 Provisions should be made to obtain quickly the range and bearing of any object
which appears on the "auto tracking" display.
3.4.11 The "auto tracking" should present in a period of not more than 1 min an indication
of the target's motion trend and display within 3 min the target's predicted motion in
accordance with paragraphs 3.4.6, 3.6, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3 of this Appendix.
3.4.12 After changing range scales on which the "auto tracking" facilities are available or
resetting the display, full plotting information should be displayed within a period of time
not exceeding one scan.
3.5 Operational warnings
3.5.1 The "auto tracking" should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and
audible signal of any distinguishable target which closes to a range or transits a zone
chosen by the observer. The target causing the warning should be clearly indicated with
the relevant symbols on the display.
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3.5.2 The "auto tracking" should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and
audible signal of any tracked target which is predicted to close within a minimum range
and time chosen by the observer. The target causing the warning should be clearly
indicated with the relevant symbols on the display.
3.5.3 The "auto tracking" should clearly indicate if a tracked target is lost, other than out of
range, and the target's last tracked position should be clearly indicated on the display.
3.5.4 It should be possible for the observer to activate or de-activate the audible warning
capability.
3.6 Data requirements
3.6.1 The observer should be able to select any tracked target to obtain data. Targets
selected should be marked with the relevant symbol on the radar display. If data is
required for more than one target at the same time each symbol shall be separately
identified, for example with a number adjacent to the symbol.
3.6.2 The following data for each selected target should be clearly and unambiguously
identified and displayed immediately and simultaneously in alpha-numeric form outside
the radar area:
.1 present range of the target;
.2 present bearing of the target;
.3 predicted target range at the closest point of approach (CPA);
.4 predicted time to CPA (TCPA);
.5 calculated true course of the target; and
.6 calculated true speed of the target.
3.6.3 The display of 3.6.2, items 5 and 6 should include an identification of whether the
data uses sea or ground reference.
3.6.4 When data for several targets is displayed, not less than two items should be
displayed simultaneously for each target selected. If the items of data are displayed in
pairs for each target the groupings should be: 3.6.2 items 1 with 2, 3 with 4; and, 5 with 6.
3.7 Accuracy
3.7.1 The "auto tracking" should provide accuracies not less than those given in
paragraphs 3.7.2 and 3.7.3 for the four scenarios defined in annex 2 to this appendix. With
the sensor errors specified in annex 3 to this appendix, the values given relate to the best
possible manual plotting performance under environmental conditions of ±10° of roll.
3.7.2 The "auto tracking" should present within 1 min of steady state tracking the relative
motion trend of a target with the following accuracy values (95% probability values).
Data Scenario Relative course Relative speed CPA

(degrees) (knots) (nautical miles)
1 11 2.8 1.6
2 7 0.6
3 14 2.2 1.8
4 15 1.5 2
Note 1: In steady state tracking both own and target ship follow straight line course at
constant speed.
Note 2: Probability values are the same as confidence levels.
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3.7.3 An "auto tracking" should present within three minutes of steady state tracking the
motion of a target with the following accuracy values (95% probability values).
Data Relative Relative CPA True True

Scenario course speed (nautical TCPA course speed
(degrees) (knots) miles) (min) (degrees) (knots)
1. 3.0 0.8 0.5 1.0 7.4 1.2
2 2.3 0.3 2.8 0.8
3 4.4 0.9 0.7 1.0 3.3 1.0
4 4.6 0.8 0.7 1.0 2.6 1.2
3.7.4 When a tracked target, or own ship, has completed a manoeuvre, the system should
present in a period of not more than 1 min an indication of the target's motion trend, and
display within 3 min the target's predictedmotion, in accordance with 3.4.6, 3.6, 3.7.2 and
3.7.3. In this context, a "manoeuvre of own ship" should be deemed to consist of an
alteration of course of + 45°in 1 min.
3.7.5 The ARPA should be designed in such a manner that under the most favourable
conditions of own ship's motion the error contribution from the ARPA should remain in
significant compared to the errors associated with the input sensors, for the scenarios of
appendix 2.
3.8 Connections with other equipment
3.8.1 The "auto tracking" should not degrade the performance of any equipment providing
sensor inputs. The connection of the "auto tracking" to any other equipment should not
degrade the performance of that equipment. This requirement should be met whether the
"auto tracking" is operating or not. Additionally, the "auto tracking" should be designed to
comply with this requirement under fault conditions as far as is practicable.
3.9 Performance tests and warnings
The "auto tracking" should provide suitable warnings of "auto tracking" malfunction to
enable the observer to monitor the proper operation of the system. Additionally, test
programmes should be available so that the overall performance of "auto tracking" can be
assessed periodically against a known solution. When a test programme is being
executed, the relevant test symbols should be displayed.
3.10 Sea and ground stabilisation
3.10.1 Log and speed indicators providing inputs to "auto tracking" equipment should be
capable of providing the ship's speed through the water in the fore and aft direction.
3.10.2 If a ground stabilised input is also available from the log, from an electronic
position-fixing system or from tracked stationary targets then the type of input in use
should be displayed.
3.11 Equipment connected to "Auto Tracting"
3.11.1 Speed and course measuring equipment should be connected to the "auto
tracking".
3.11.2 The speed input should provide speed through the water and may, in addition,
provide speed over ground.
3.11.3 The type of measuring equipment in use should be indicated on the display.
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ANNEX 1 to APPENDIX "Auto Tracking"

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS TO BE USED IN CONNECTION WITH
"AUTO TRACKING" AND RADAR PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
Target any object fixed or moving whose position and motion is
determined by measurements of range and bearing on radar.
Relative course the direction of motion of a target relative to own ship's position
expressed as an angular displacement from north. It is deduced
from a number of measurements of target rangeand bearing on
own ship's radar.
Relative speed the speed of a target relative to own ship's position. It is deduced
from a number of measurements of target range and bearing on
own ship's radar.
Relative motion the combination of relative course and relative speed.
True course the true direction of motion of a target expressed as an angular
displacement fromnorth. It is obtained by a vector combination of
target relative motion and own ship's true motion.
True speed the speed of a target obtained by a vector combination of target
relative motionand own ship's true motion.
True motion the combination of true course and true speed.
True bearing the direction of a target from own ship or from another target
expressed as an angular displacement from north.
Relative bearing the direction of a target from own ship expressed as an angular
displacement from own ship's heading.
True motion display a display across which own ship and each target moves with its
own truemotion.
Relative motion display a display on which the position of own ship remains fixed and all
targets move relative to own ship.
Azimuth stabilised display a display in which the azimuth orientation relative to a
nominated true bearing is fixed.
North-up display an azimuth stabilised display in which a line connecting the
centre with the top of the display is north true bearing.
Course-up display an azimuth stabilised display in which a line connecting the
centre with the top of the display is own ship's intended course.
* For the purposes of these definitions there is no need to distinguish between sea
and ground stabilisation.
Heading the direction in which the bows of a ship are pointing expressed
as an angulardisplacement from north.
Target's predicted motion a prediction of future target motion based on linear extrapolation
from its present motion as determined by past measurements of
its range and bearing on the radar.
Relative vector the predicted movement of a target relative to own ship.
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Annex, page 251
True vector the predicted true motion of a target as a result of own ship's
direction and speed input. The true vector may be either
displayed with reference to the water or to the ground.
Acquisition the process of selecting a target or targets and initiating their
tracking.
Tracking the computer process of observing the sequential changes in
the position of a targetin order to establish its motion.
Target swop a situation in which the incoming radar data for a tracked target
becomes incorrectly associated with another tracked target or a
non-tracked radar echo.
Echo reference a facility for indicating that a particular fixed navigational mark
which is beingtracked is to be used as a Ground Stabilised
reference.
CPA/TCPA closest point of approach (CPA) and time to closest point of
approach (TCPA) limits from own ship as defined by the
observer, to give warning of when a tracked target or targetswill
close to within these limits.
Bad echo the name associated with a tracked target which appears to
have been temporarily lost or which has a poorly defined radar
aspect, so that it does not have tracking ability.
Lost target the name associated with a target that is no longer being
tracked due to having been lost or obscured.
Sea stabilisation a mode of display whereby own ship and all targets are
referenced to the sea, using gyro heading and single axis log
water speed inputs.
Ground stabilisation a mode of display whereby own ship and all targets are
referenced to the ground, using ground track or set and drift
inputs. This display is ideal for Navigational purpose. However it
should be used with extreme caution when assessing
close-quarters situations with other targets.
Note: Where reference is made to target range, bearing, relative course, relative speed,
closest point of approach (CPA) or time to closest point of approach (TCPA),
these measurements are made with respect to the radar antenna.
ANNEX 2 to APPENDIX 1 "Auto Tracking"

OPERATIONAL SCENARIOS
For each of the following scenarios, predictions are made at the target position defined
after previously tracking for the appropriate time of one or three minutes:
Scenario 1
Own ship course 000°
Own ship speed 10 knots
Target range 8 nautical miles
Bearing of target 000°
Relative course of target 180°
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Annex, page 252
Relative speed of target 20 knots

Scenario 2
Target range 1 nautical mile
Scenario 3
Scenario 4
ANNEX 3 to APPENDIX 1 "Auto Tracking"

SENSOR ERRORS
The accuracy figures quoted in 3.8 of these standards are based upon the following
sensor errors, andare appropriate to equipment complying with the performance
standards for shipborne navigational equipment.
Note: "s" means "standard deviation".
Radar
Target glint (scintillation) (for 200 m length target)
Along length of target s = 30 m (normal distribution)
Across beam of target s = 1 m (normal distribution)
Roll-pitch bearing: The bearing error will peak in each of the four quadrants around own
ship for targets on relative bearings of 045°, 135°, 225°and 315°, and will be zero at
relative bearings of 0°, 90°, 180°and 270°.
This error has a sinusoidal variation at twice the roll frequency.
For a 10°roll the mean error is 0.22°with a 0.22°peak sine wave superimposed.
Beam shape - assumed normal distribution giving bearing error
with s = 0.05
Pulse shape- assumed normal distribution giving range error
with s = 20 m
Antenna backlash - assumed rectangular distribution giving bearing
error+ 0.05°maximum
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Quantisation
Bearing - rectangular distribution + 0.1°maximum.
Range - rectangular distribution + 0.01 nautical miles maximum.
Bearing encoder assumed to be running from a remote synchro giving bearing errors with
a normal distribution s = 0.03°.
Gyro-compass
Calibration error 0.5°.
Normal distribution about this with s = 0.12°.
Log
Calibration error 0.5 knots.
Normal distribution about this, 3 s = 0.2 knots.
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5. IMO Resolution A. 823(19) (Adopted on 23 November 1995)
Performance Standards for Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPAs)

THE ASSEMBLY,
RECALLING Article 15(j) of the Convention on the International Maritime
Organisation concerningthe functions of the Assembly in relation to regulations and
guidelines concerning maritime safety,
RECALLING ALSO the provisions of regulation V/12 of the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974,
RECALLING FURTHER resolution A. 422(XI), by which it adopted performance
standards forautomatic radar plotting aids,
RECOGNIZING that the proper use of automatic radar plotting aids will assist the
interpretation of radar data and could reduce the risk of collision and pollution of the
marine environment,
RECOGNIZING ALSO the need to ensure that advances in technology are
reflected in performancestandards, in order to improve the standard of collision avoidance
at sea,
BEARING IN MIND that automatic radar plotting aids with inadequate performance
standards oroperated by insufficiently trained personnel might prejudice safety of
navigation,
HAVING CONSIDERED the recommendation made by the Maritime Safety
Committee at itssixty-fourth session,
1. ADOPTS the Recommendation on Performance Standards for Automatic Radar
Plotting Aids
(ARPAs) set out in the Annex to the present resolution;
2. RECOMMENDS Governments to ensure that:
(a) automatic radar plotting aids installed on or after 1 January 1997 conform to
performance standards not inferior to those specified in the Annex to the
present resolution;
(b) automatic radar plotting aids installed before 1 January 1997 conform, at least,
to the performance standards set out in resolution A. 422(XI); and
(c) adequate training is established in the proper use of automatic radar plotting
aids to enable masters and deck officers to understand the basic principles of
the operation of automatic radar plotting aids, including their capabilities,
limitations and possible errors;
3. REQUESTS the Maritime Safety Committee to keep these Performance Standards
under review and to adopt amendments thereto, as necessary.
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ANNEX 1
Recommendation on Performance Standards for
Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPAs)
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Automatic radar plotting aids (ARPAs) should, in order to improve the standard of
collision avoidance at sea:
.1 reduce the workload of observers by enabling them automatically to obtain
information about plotted targets, so that they can perform as well with several
separate targets as they can bymanually plotting a single target; and
.2 provide continuous, accurate and rapid situation evaluation.
1.2 The radar facilities provided by an ARPA display should comply with the
performance standards for radar equipment (resolution A. 477(XII)) appropriate to its
mode of use.
1.3 In addition to the general requirements contained in resolution A. 694(17), ARPA
should comply with the following minimum performance standards.
2 DEFINITIONS
Definitions of terms used in these performance standards are given in appendix 1.
3 PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
3.1 Detection
Where a separate facility is provided for detection of targets, other than by the radar
observer, it should have a performance not inferior to that which could be obtained by the
use of the radar display.
3.2 Acquisition
3.2.1 Target acquisition may be manual or automatic for relative speeds up to 100 knots.
However, there should always be a facility to provide for manual acquisition and
cancellation: ARPA with automatic acquisition should have a facility to suppress
acquisition in certain areas. On any range scale where acquisition issuppressed over a
certain area, the area of acquisition should be defined and indicated on the display.
3.2.2 Automatic or manual acquisition should have a performance not inferior to that
which could be obtained by the user of the radar display.
3.3 Tracking
3.3.1 The ARPA should be able automatically to track, process, simultaneously display
and continuously update the information on at least 20 targets, whether automatically or
manually acquired.
3.3.2 If automatic acquisition is provided, description of the criteria of selection of targets
for tracking should be provided to the user. If the ARPA does not track all targets visible
on the display, targets which are being tracked should be clearly indicated with the
relevant symbol on the display. The reliability of tracking should not be less than that
obtainable using manual recordings of successive target positions obtained from the radar
display.
3.3.3 The ARPA should continue to track an acquired target which is clearly
distinguishable on the display for 5 out of 10 consecutive scans, provided the target is not
subject to target swop.
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Annex, page 256
3.3.4 The possibility of tracking errors, including target swop, should be minimised by
ARPA design. Aqualitative description of the effects of error sources on the automatic
tracking and corresponding errors should be provided to the user, including the effects of
low signal-to-noise and low signal-to-clutter ratios caused bysea returns, rain, snow, low
clouds and non-synchronous emissions.
3.3.5 The ARPA should be able to display on request with relevant symbol at least four
equally time-spaced past positions of any targets being tracked over a period appropriate
to the range scale in use. The time-scale of the past position plot should be indicated. The
operating manual should contain an explanation of what the past position plots represent.
3.4 Display
3.4.1 The display may be a separate or integral part of the ship's radar. However, the
ARPA display should include all the data required to be provided by a radar display in
accordance with the performance standards for navigational radar equipment.
3.4.2 The design should be such that any malfunction of ARPA parts producing data
additional to information to be produced by the radar as required by the performance
standards for navigational equipment should not affect the integrity of the basic radar
presentation.
3.4.3 The ARPA facilities should be available on at least 3, 6 and 12 nautical mile range
scales, and there should be a positive indication of the range scale in use.
3.4.4 ARPA facilities may also be provided on other range scales permitted by resolution
A. 477(XII) and, if provided, should comply with these standards.
3.4.5 The ARPA should be capable of operating with a relative motion display with
"north-up" and "course-up" azimuth stabilisation. In addition, the ARPA may also provide
for a true motion display. If true motion is provided, the operator should be able to select
for the display either true or relative motion. There should be a positive indication of the
display mode and orientation in use.
3.4.6 The course and speed information generated by the ARPA for acquired targets
should be displayed in a vector or graphic form which clearly indicates the target's
predicted motion with relevant symbols. In thisregard:
.1 an ARPA presenting predicted information in vector form only should have the
option of both true and relative vectors. There should be an indication of the
vector mode selected and, iftrue vector mode is selected, the display should
show whether it is sea or ground stabilised;
.2 an ARPA which is capable of presenting target course and speed information in
graphic form should also, on request, provide the target's true and/or relative
vector;
.3 vectors displayed should be time-adjustable;
.4 a positive indication of the time-scale of the vector in use should be given; and
.5 if stationary targets are being used for ground referencing, this fact should be
indicated by the relevant symbol. In this mode, relative vectors including those
of the targets used for ground referencing should be displayed when requested.
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3.4.7 The ARPA information should not obscure the visibility of radar targets. The display
of ARPA data should be under the control of the radar observer. It should be possible to
cancel the display of unwanted ARPA data within 3 s.
3.4.8 Means should be provided to adjust independently the brilliance of the ARPA data
and radar data, including complete extinction of the ARPA data.
3.4.9 The method of presentation should ensure that the ARPA data are clearly visible in
general to more than one observer in the conditions of light normally experienced on the
bridge of a ship by day and by night. Screening may be provided to shade the display from
sunlight but not to the extent that it will impair the observer's ability to maintain a proper
look-out. Facilities to adjust the brightness should be provided.
3.4.10 Provisions should be made to obtain quickly the range and bearing of any object
which appears on theARPA display.
3.4.11 When a target appears on the radar display and, in the case of automatic
acquisition, enters within the acquisition area chosen by the observer or, in the case of
manual acquisition, has been acquired by theobserver, the ARPA should present in a
period of not more than 1 min an indication of the target's motion trend, and display within
3 min the target's predicted motion in accordance with 3.4.6, 3.6, 3.8.2 and 3.8.3.
3.4.12 After changing range scales on which the ARPA facilities are available or resetting
the display, full plotting information should be displayed within a period of time not
exceeding one scan.
3.5 Operational warnings
3.5.1 The ARPA should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and audible
signal of anydistinguishable target which closes to a range or transits a zone chosen by
the observer. The target causing the warning should be clearly indicated with relevant
symbols on the display.
3.5.2 The ARPA should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and audible
signal of any tracked target which is predicted to close within a minimum range and time
chosen by the observer. The target causing the warning should be clearly indicated with
relevant symbols on the display.
3.5.3 The ARPA should clearly indicate if a tracked target is lost, other than out of range,
and the target's last tracked position should be clearly indicated on the display.
3.5.4 It should be possible for the observer to activate or de-activate the audible warning
signal.
3.6 Data requirements
3.6.1 The observer should be able to select any tracked target to obtain data. Targets
selected should be marked with the relevant symbol* on the radar display. If data is
required for more than one target at the sametime each symbol should be separately
identified, for example with a number adjacent to the symbol.
3.6.2 The following data for each selected target should be clearly and unambiguously
identified and displayed immediately and simultaneously in alpha-numeric form outside
the radar area:
.1 present range of the target;
.2 present bearing of the target;
.3 predicted target range at the closest point of approach (CPA);
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.4 predicted time to CPA (TCPA);

.5 calculated true course of the target; and
.6 calculated true speed of the target.
3.6.3 The display of the data in 3.6.2.5 and 3.6.2.6 should include an identification of
whether the data provided is referenced to sea or ground stabilisation.
3.6.4 When data for several targets is displayed, no fewer than two items listed in 3.6.2
should be displayed simultaneously for each target selected. If the items of data are
displayed in pairs for each target, the groupings should be 3.6.2.1 with 3.6.2.2, 3.6.2.3
with 3.6.2.4, and 3.6.2.5 with 3.6.2.6.
3.7 Trial manoeuvre
3.7.1 The ARPA should be capable of simulating the effect on all tracked targets of an
own ship manoeuvre with or without time delay before manoeuvre without interrupting the
updating of target tracking and display ofactual target alpha-numeric data. The simulation
should be indicated with the relevant symbol* on the display.
3.7.2 The operating manual should contain an explanation of the principles underlying the
trial manoeuvre technique adopted including, if provided, the simulation of own ship's
manoeuvring characteristics.
3.7.3 It should be possible to cancel a trial manoeuvre at any time.
3.8 Accuracy
3.8.1 The ARPA should provide accuracies not less than those given in 3.8.2 and 3.8.3 for
the four scenarios defined in appendix 2. With the sensor errors specified in appendix 3,
the values given relate to the best possible manual plotting performance under
environmental conditions of ±10 degrees of roll.
3.8.2 An ARPA should present within one minute of steady state tracking the relative
motion trend of atarget with the following accuracy values (95% probability values).
DataScenario Relative course Relative speed CPA

(degrees) (knots) (nautical miles)
1 11 2.8 1.6
2 7 0.6
3 14 2.2 1.8
4 15 1.5 2.0
Note 1: In steady state tracking both own and target ship follow straight line course at
constant speed.
Note 2: Probability values are the same as confidence levels.
3.8.3 An ARPA should present within three minutes of steady state tracking the motion of
a target with thefollowing accuracy values (95% probability values).
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Data Relative Relative CPA True True

Scenario course speed (nautical TCPA course speed
(degrees) (knots) miles) (min) (degrees) (knots)
1.3 0 0.8 0.5 1.0 7.4 1.2
2 2.3 0.3 2.8 0.8
3 4.4 0.9 0.7 1.0 3.3 1.0
4 4.6 0.8 0.7 1.0 2.6 1.2
3.8.4 When a tracked target, or own ship, has completed a manoeuvre, the system should
present in a period of not more than 1 min an indication of the target's motion trend, and
display within 3 min the target's predictedmotion, in accordance with 3.4.6, 3.6, 3.8.2 and
3.8.3. In this context, a "manoeuvre of own ship" should be deemed to consist of an
alteration of course of + 45°in 1 min.
3.8.5 The ARPA should be designed in such a manner that under the most favourable
conditions of own ship's motion the error contribution from the ARPA should remain in
significant compared to the errors associated with the input sensors, for the scenarios of
appendix 2.
3.9 Connections with other equipment
3.9.1 The ARPA should not degrade the performance of any equipment providing sensor
inputs, and the connection of the ARPA to any other equipment should not degrade the
performance of that equipment. This requirement should be met whether the ARPA is
operating or not. Additionally, the ARPA should be designed to comply with this
requirement under fault conditions as far as is practicable.
3.9.2 The ARPA should provide an indication when any input from an external sensor is
absent. The
ARPA should also repeat any alarm or status messages concerning the quality of the
input data from its external sensors which may influence its operation.
3.10 Performance tests and warnings
The ARPA should provide suitable warnings of ARPA malfunction to enable the observer
to monitor the proper operation of the system. Additionally, test programmes should be
available so that the overall performance of ARPA can be assessed periodically against a
known solution. When a test programme is being executed, the relevant test symbols*
should be displayed.
3.11 Sea and ground stabilisation
3.11.1 The ARPA should be capable of sea and ground stabilisation.
3.11.2 Log and speed indicators providing inputs to ARPA equipment should be capable
of providing the ship's speed through the water in the fore and aft direction.
3.11.3 The ground stabilised input may be provided from the log, from an electronic
position-fixing system, if the speed measurement accuracy is in accordance with the
requirements of resolution A. 824(19), or from tracked stationary targets.
3.11.4 The type of input and stabilisation in use should be displayed.
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APPENDIX 1
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS TO BE USED IN CONNECTION
WITH ARPA PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
1. Target means any object fixed or moving whose position and motion is determined by
measurements of range and bearing on radar.
2. Relative course means the direction of motion of a target relative to own ship's
position expressed as an angular displacement from north. It is deduced from a
number of measurements of target rangeand bearing on own ship's radar.
3. Relative speed means the speed of a target relative to own ship's position. It is
deduced from a number of measurements of target range and bearing on own ship's
radar.
4. Relative motion means the combination of relative course and relative speed.
5. True course means the true direction of motion of a target expressed as an angular
displacement fromnorth. It is obtained by a vector combination of target relative
motion and own ship's true motion.
6. True speed means the speed of a target obtained by a vector combination of target
relative motionand own ship's true motion.
7. True motion means the combination of true course and true speed.
8. True bearing means the direction of a target from own ship or from another target
expressed as an angular displacement from north.
9. Relative bearing means the direction of a target from own ship expressed as an
angular displacement from own ship's heading.
10. True motion display means a display across which own ship and each target
moves with its own truemotion.
11. Relative motion display means a display on which the position of own ship remains
fixed and all targets move relative to own ship.
12. Azimuth stabilised display means a display in which the azimuth orientation
relative to a nominated true bearing is fixed.
13. North-up display means an azimuth stabilised display in which a line connecting
the centre with the top of the display is north true bearing.
14. Course-up display means an azimuth stabilised display in which a line connecting
the centre with thetop of the display is own ship's intended course.
15. Heading means the direction in which the bows of a ship are pointing expressed as
an angulardisplacement from north.
16. Target's predicted motion means a prediction of future target motion based on
linear extrapolation from its present motion as determined by past measurements of
its range and bearing on the radar.
17. Relative vector means the predicted movement of a target relative to own ship.
18. True vector means the predicted true motion of a target as a result of own ship's
direction and speed input. The true vector may be either displayed with reference to
the water or to the ground.
19. Acquisition means the process of selecting a target or targets and initiating their
tracking.
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20. Tracking means the computer process of observing the sequential changes in the
position of a targetin order to establish its motion.
21. Target swop means a situation in which the incoming radar data for a tracked target
becomes incorrectly associated with another tracked target or a non-tracked radar
echo.
22. Acquisition area means an area set up by the observer which should automatically
acquire a target when it enters such an area.
23. History means equally time-spaced past position of a target which is being tracked.
The history maybe relative or true.
24. Trails means tracks displayed by the radar echoes of targets in the form of a
synthetic afterglow. The trails may be either relative or true. The true trails may be
sea or ground stabilised.
25. Echo reference means a facility for indicating that a particular fixed navigational
mark which is beingtracked is to be used as a ground stabilised reference.
26. Trial manoeuvre means a facility to assist the observer in making the correct
manoeuvre fornavigation and collision avoidance purposes.
27. Suppressed area means an area set up by the observer within which targets are not
acquired.
28. ERBL means the electronic range and bearing line used to measure bearings and/or
ranges.
29. CPA/TCPA stands for closest point of approach (CPA) and time to closest point of
approach (TCPA) limits from own ship as defined by the observer, to give warning of
when a tracked target or targetswill close to within these limits.
30. Bow passing prediction is the situation associated with a target which is crossing
or predicted to cross ahead of own ship.
31. Bad echo is the name associated with a tracked target which appears to have been
temporarily lost or which has a poorly defined radar aspect, so that it does not have
tracking ability.
32. Lost target is the name associated with a target that is no longer being tracked due
to having been lost or obscured.
33. Sea stabilisation is a mode of display whereby own ship and all targets are
referenced to the sea, using gyro heading and single axis log water speed inputs.
34. Ground stabilisation is a mode of display whereby own ship and all targets are
referenced to the ground, using ground track or set and drift inputs.
35. Predicted points of collision is a graphical representation of where predicted
collision intercept points lie with respect to own ship and other targets.
36. PAD means the predicted area of danger defined around a predicted close quarter
situation area. The size is determined by speed ratios between own ship and the
target in question and CPA distance limits as defined by the observer.
37. Map lines means the navigational facility whereby the observer can define lines to
indicate channels or Traffic Separation Schemes. Sometimes called Nav lines, these
lines require ground stabilisation tostop them drifting.
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Note: Where reference is made to target range, bearing, relative course, relative speed,
closest point of approach (CPA) or time to closest point of approach (TCPA),
these measurements are made with respect to the radar antenna.
APPENDIX 2
OPERATIONAL SCENARIOS
For each of the following scenarios, predictions are made at the target position defined
after previously tracking for the appropriate time of one or three minutes:
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Own ship course
Target range 1 nautical mile
Scenario 3
Relative course of target
Scenario 4
APPENDIX 3
SENSOR ERRORS
The accuracy figures quoted in 3.8 of these standards are based upon the following
sensor errors, andare appropriate to equipment complying with the performance
standards for shipborne navigational equipment.
Note: "s" means "standard deviation".
Radar
Target glint (scintillation) (for 200 m length target)
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Along length of target s = 30 m (normal distribution)

Across beam of target s = 1 m (normal distribution)
Roll-pitch bearing: The bearing error will peak in each of the four quadrants around own
ship for targets on relative bearings of 045°, 135°, 225°and 315°, and will be zero at
relative bearings of 0°, 90°, 180°and 270°. This error has a sinusoidal variation at twice
the roll frequency.
For a 10°roll the mean error is 0.22°with a 0.22°peak sine wave superimposed.
Beam shape -
Pulse shape- assumed normal distribution giving range error with s = 20 m
Antenna backlash - assumed rectangular distribution giving bearing error+
0.05°maximum
Quantisation
Bearing - rectangular distribution + 0.1°maximum.
Range - rectangular distribution + 0.01 nautical miles maximum.
Bearing encoder assumed to be running from a remote synchro giving bearing errors with
a normal distribution s = 0.03°.
Gyro-compass
Calibration error 0.5°.
Normal distribution about this with s = 0.12°.
Log
Calibration error 0.5 knots.
Normal distribution about this, 3 s = 0.2 knots.
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6. IMO Resolution A. 477(XII) (Adopted on 19 November)
Performance Standards for Radar Equipment

THE ASSEMBLY,
RECALLING Article 16 of the Convention on the Inter-Governmental Maritime
Consultative Organisation,
BEARING IN MIND the provisions of Regulation 12, Chapter V of the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, and the proposed amendments to that
regulation,
RECALLING ALSO resolution A. 222(VII) by which it adopted performance
standards for radar equipment,
RECOGNIZING the desirability of making such performance standards compatible
with the Performance Standards for Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA) (resolution
A.422(XI)) and with resolution A. 423(XI) on radar beacons and transponders,
HAVING CONSIDERED the recommendation made by the Maritime Safety
Committee at its forty-second session,
1. ADOPTS the Recommendation on Performance Standards for Radar
Equipment set out in the Annex to the present resolution;
2. RECOMMENDS Member Governments to ensure that:
(a) Radar equipment installed on or after 1 September 1984 conforms to
performance standards not inferior to those specified in the Annex to the
present resolution;
(b) Radar equipment installed before 1 September 1984 conforms at least to
the performance standards set out in resolution A. 222(VII).
Recommendation on Performance Standards for Radar Equipment

1 APPLICATION
1.1 This Recommendation applies to all ships' radar equipment installed on or after
1September 1984 in compliance with Regulation 12, Chapter V of the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as amended.
1.2 Radar equipment installed before 1 September 1984 should comply at least with the
performance standards recommended in resolution A. 222(VII).
2 GENERAL
The radar equipment should provide an indication, in relation to the ship, of the
position of other surface craft and obstructions and of buoys, shorelines and navigational
marks in a manner which will assist in navigation and in avoiding collision.
3 ALL RADAR INSTALLATIONS
All radar installations should comply with the following minimum requirements.
3.1 Range performance
The operational requirement under normal propagation conditions, when the radar
antenna is mounted at a height of 15 meters above sea level, is that the
equipment should in the absence of clutter give a clear indication of:
.1 Coastlines
At 20 nautical miles when the ground rises to 60 meters
At 7 nautical miles when the ground rises to 6 meters.
.2 Surface objects
At 7 nautical miles a ship of 5,000 tons gross tonnage, whatever her aspect.
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At 3 nautical miles a small vessel of 10 meters in length.

At 2 nautical miles an object such as a navigational buoy having an effective
echoing area of approximately 10 square meters.
3.2 Minimum range
The surface objects specified in 3.1.2 should be clearly displayed from a minimum
range of 50 meters up to a range of one nautical mile, without changing the setting
of controls other than the range selector.
3.3 Display
3.3.1 The equipment should without external magnification provide a relative plan
display in the head-up unstabilised mode with an effective diameter of not less
than:
.1 180 millimeters on ships of 500 tons gross tonnage and more but less than
1,600 tons gross tonnage;
.2 250 millimeters on ships of 1,600 tons gross tonnage and more but less than
10,000 tons gross tonnage;
.3 340 millimeters* in the case of one display and 250 millimeters in the case of
the other on ships of 10,000 tons gross tonnage and upwards.
3.3.2 The equipment should provide one of the two following sets of range scales of
display:
.1 1.5, 3, 6, 12 and 24 nautical miles and one range scale of not less than 0.5
and not greater than 0.8 nautical miles; or
.2 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 nautical miles.
3.3.3 Additional range scales may be provided.
3.3.4 The range scale displayed and the distance between range rings should be
clearly indicated at all times.
3.4 Range measurement
3.4.1 Fixed electronic range rings should be provided for range measurements as
follows:
. 1 where range scales are provided in accordance with 3.3.2.1, on the range
scale of between 0.5 and 0.8 nautical miles at least two range rings should be
provided and on each of the other range scales six range rings should be
provided, or
.2 where range scales are provided in accordance with 3.3.2.2, four range rings
should be provided on each of the range scales.
3.4.2 A variable electronic range marker should be provided with a numeric readout of
range.
3.4.3 The fixed range rings and the variable range marker should enable the range of
an object to be measured with an error not exceeding 1.5 per cent of the
maximum range of the scale in use, or 70 meters, whichever is the greater.
3.4.4 It should be possible to vary the brilliance of the fixed range rings and the variable
range marker and to remove them completely from the display.
3.5 Heading indicator
3.5.1 The heading of the ship should be indicated by a line on the display with a
maximum error not greater than plus or minus 1 degree. The thickness of the
displayed heading line should not be greater than 0.5 degrees.
3.5.2 Provision should be made to switch off the heading indicator by a device which
cannot be left in the "heading marker off" position.
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3.6 Bearing measurement

3.6.1 Provision should be made to obtain quickly the bearing of any object whose echo
appears on the display.
3.6.2 The means provided for obtaining bearings should enable the bearing of a target
whose echo appears at the edge of the display to be measured with an accuracy
of plus or minus 1 degree or better.
3.7 Discrimination
3.7.1 The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate indications on a
range scale of 2 nautical miles or less, two small similar targets at a range of
between 50 percent and 100 percent of the range scale in use, and on the same
azimuth, separated by not more than 50 meters in range.
3.7.2 The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate indications two small
similar targets both situated at the same range between 50 per cent and 100 per
cent of the 1.5 or 2 mile range scales, and separated by not more than 2.5
degrees in azimuth.
3.8 Roll or pitch
The performance of the equipment should be such that when the ship is rolling or
pitching up to plus or minus 10 degrees the range performance requirements of 3.1 and
3.2 continue to be met.
3.9 Scan
The scan should be clockwise, continuous and automatic through 360 degrees of
azimuth. The scan rate should be not less than 12 revolutions per minute. The
equipment should operate satisfactorily in relative wind speeds of up to 100 knots.
3.10 Azimuth stabilisation
3.10.1 Means should be provided to enable the display to be stabilised in azimuth by a
transmitting compass. The equipment should be provided with a compass input to
enable it to be stabilised in azimuth. The accuracy of alignment with the compass
transmission should be within 0.5 degrees with a compass rotation rate of 2
revolutions per minute.
3.10.2 The equipment should operate satisfactorily in the unstabilised mode when the
compass control is inoperative.
3.11 Performance check
Means should be available, while the equipment is used operationally, to determine
readily a significant drop in performance relative to a calibration standard established at
the time of installation, and to check that the equipment is correctly tuned in the absence
of targets.
3.12 Anti-clutter devices
Suitable means should be provided for the suppression of unwanted echoes from
sea clutter, rain and other forms of precipitation, clouds and sandstorms. It should be
possible to adjust manually and continuously the anti-clutter controls. Anti-clutter controls
should be inoperative in the fully anti-clockwise positions. In addition, automatic
anti-clutter controls may be provided; however, they must be capable of being switched
off.
3.13 Operation
3.13.1 The equipment should be capable of being switched on and operated from the
display position.
3.13.2 Operational controls should be accessible and easy to identify and use. Where
symbols are used they should comply with the recommendations of the
Organisation on symbols for controls on marine navigational radar equipment.
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3.13.3 After switching on from cold the equipment should become fully operational
within 4 minutes.
3.13.4 A standby condition should be provided from which the equipment can be
brought to an operational condition within 15 seconds.
3.14 Interference
After installation and adjustment on board, the bearing accuracy as prescribed in
this Recommendation should be maintained without further adjustment irrespective of
the movement of the ship in the earth's magnetic field.
3.15 Sea or ground stabilisation (true motion display)
3.15.1 Where sea or ground stabilisation is provided the accuracy and discrimination of
the display should be at least equivalent to that required by this
Recommendation.
3.15.2 The motion of the trace origin should not, except under manual override
conditions, continue to a point beyond 75 per cent of the radius of the display.
Automatic resetting may be provided.
3.16 Antenna system
The antenna system should be installed in such a manner that the design efficiency
of the radar system is not substantially impaired.
3.17 Operation with radar beacons
3.17.1 All radars operating in the 3 centimetre band should be capable of operating in a
horizontally polarised mode.
3.17.2 It should be possible to switch off those signal processing facilities which might
prevent a radar beacon from being shown on the radar display.
4 MULTIPLE RADAR INSTALLATIONS
4.1 Where two radars are required to be carried they should be so installed that each
radar can be operated individually and both can be operated simultaneously without
being dependent upon one another. When an emergency source of electrical power is
provided in accordance with the appropriate requirements of Chapter 11-1 of the 1974
SOLAS Convention, both radars should be capable of being operated from this source.
4.2 Where two radars are fitted, inter switching facilities may be provided to improve the
flexibility and availability of the overall radar installation. They should be so installed that
failure of either radar would not cause the supply of electrical energy to the other radar to
be interrupted or adversely affected.
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7. Presentation of Navigation-related Symbols on Shipborne
Navigational Radar Displays
Table 1 Own ship symbols
No Symbol name and description Symbol graphic(s)
Own ship – true scaled outline

The user may select to present own ship as a true scaled
outline oriented in the direction of heading relative to CCRP
and drawn using a thick solid line style with the same basic
colour used for own ship symbols.
Automatic selection of the true scaled outline is permitted.
1.1a The true scaled outline shall not be used when heading is
unknown in a gyro/THD-stabilised mode, or when the beam of
the outline is less than 6 mm.
In the radar mode, the true scale outline shall be used together
with own ship minimised symbol.
NOTE A loss of heading will force the radar into head-up

mode; in this case, the true scaled outline is still permitted.
Own ship – simplified symbol

If a navigation display presents the chart mode (with or without
the radar image), a simplified symbol may be used for own
ship. The simplified symbol may be combined with the
minimised symbol (see 2-1.1c).
A simplified symbol shall be used when a chart is displayed in

north-up presentation, without a radar image and in the
1.1b absence of heading information.
The outer circle shall be 6 mm in diameter.

The inner circle shall be 3 mm in diameter.
The circles shall be drawn using a thick solid line style, with the
same basic colour used for own ship symbols.
NOTE For a radar mode that is compliant with this standard,

the simplified symbol shall not be used as the symbol does not
permit the minimum range requirements.
Own ship – minimised symbol

If a navigation display presents the radar mode, own ship shall
be presented as a minimised symbol. The minimised symbol is
comprised of the heading line (see symbol 2-1.3) and the beam
line (see symbol 2-1.4).
1.1c
Where appropriate, the minimised symbol shall be combined
with the true scaled outline of own ship.
NOTE A loss of heading will force the radar into head-up mode
whereby the minimised symbol should be used.
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Radar antenna position

If a radar image is displayed and own ship is displayed as a
true scaled outline, the user may select to present the radar
antenna position as crossed lines centred at the physical
1.2 location of the radar antenna (the source of the displayed radar
image). The total extent of the crossed lines shall be at least 1
mm but not more than 2 mm in length. They shall be drawn
using a thin solid line style with the same basic colour used for
own ship symbols.
Own ship heading line

The heading line shall always be indicated (except when
temporarily suppressed by the user), originating at CCRP and
extending in the direction of own ship heading to the bearing
1.3 scale. The line shall be drawn using a thin solid line style with
the same basic colour used for own ship symbols.
The heading line shall always be shown together with the beam
line (see 2-1.4).
Beam line
The beam line forms part of the own ship minimised symbol.
Own ship beam line shall be presented as a single line,
1.4 perpendicular to the heading line, passing through the CCRP
and extending a minimum of 5 mm each side of the CCRP. The
line shall be drawn as a thin solid line style with the same basic
Stern line
Optionally, the user may select a stern line that shall originate
at CCRP and shall extend, in the direction 180° from the
1.5 heading, to the bearing scale.
The line shall be drawn using a thin dotted line style with the
Velocity vector
Optionally, the user may also select to present a velocity
vector originating at CCRP and extending in the direction of
1.6a COG or CTW, as appropriate, for a length representing the
distance own ship will travel in a user-selected time interval.
The vector shall be drawn using a thick short-dashed line
style with the same basic colour used for own ship symbols.
Velocity vector – time increments

Optionally, the user may also select to present time increments
along the velocity vector perpendicular to the vector with their
midpoint on it and extending not more than 1.5 mm on either
1.6b side. They shall be spaced along the vector to represent the
distance own ship will travel in a user-selected increment of the
time interval used for the velocity vector. The increments shall
be drawn using a thick solid line style with the same basic
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Velocity vector – Stabilisation indicator

Optionally, the user may select to present a stabilisation
indicator, positioned at the end of the velocity vector.
The ground stabilisation indicator shall be presented as a

double arrowhead. The water stabilisation indicator shall be
1.6c
presented as a single arrowhead. The arrowheads shall extend
at least 1 mm but not more than 1.5 mm on either side of the
vector (i.e. measured perpendicular to it).
The arrowhead(s) shall be drawn using a thick solid line style

with the same basic colour used for own ship symbols.
Path predictor
Optionally, the user may select to present a path predictor, in
place of a velocity vector, as a curved line originating at CCRP
1.6d and extending along the predicted path over ground own ship
will travel in the time interval used for the velocity vector. The
path shall be drawn using a thin long-dashed line style with the
Past track
The user may select to present a past track for the primary
and/or secondary positioning sources. The past track shall be
presented as line connecting own ship current and past
1.7a positions. The primary past track shall be drawn using a thick
solid line style with the same basic colour used for own ship
symbol. The secondary past track shall be drawn using a thin
solid line style with the same basic colour used for own ship
symbols.
Past track – time increments

Optionally, time increments along the past track may be shown.
The time increments shall be presented as single lines
perpendicular to the past track with their midpoint on it and
extending at least 1 mm but not more than 1.5 mm on either
1.7b
side. They shall be spaced along the past track to represent the
distance own ship travelled in the user-selected increment of
the time interval used for the velocity vector. The time
increments for the primary past track shall be drawn using a
solid line style.
Past track – past positions

Alternatively, the user may select to present past positions
along the past track in place of time increments. Past
1.7c
positions shall be drawn as small filled circular symbols with a
diameter of not more than 1.5 mm, with the same basic colour
used for own ship symbols.
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Table 2 Radar and AIS symbols
Symbol name and description Symbol graphic(s)
Radar targets in acquisition state

A symbol drawn around radar targets in acquisition state shall be
presented as a broken circle centred at the position of target
2.1a
acquisition. The circles shall be a nominal 5 mm in diameter and
shall be drawn using a thin dashed line style with the same basic
colour used for target symbols.
Radar targets in acquisition state – automatically detected

A symbol drawn around radar targets in acquisition state that are
automatically detected inside an acquisition area, shall be a
nominal 5 mm in diameter and using a thick dashed line style,
with the required colour red. The symbols shall flash until
acknowledged by the user.
2.1b
Once acknowledged, the symbols shall cease flashing (even
when they remain inside the acquisition area) and unless
considered as dangerous, shall be drawn as a normal radar
target in an acquisition state (i.e. detected outside an acquisition
area) with the basic colour of other non-dangerous target
symbols.
Tracked radar targets

Tracked radar targets shall be presented as circles centred at the
targets' tracked position. The circles shall be 3 mm in diameter
and shall be drawn using a thick solid line style.
Tracked radar targets generated from a target automatically

detected in an acquisition area that have not been
acknowledged, shall be the required red basic colour and shall
continue to flash until acknowledged by the user (even when they
2.2a move outside the acquisition area).
18
Once acknowledged, the symbols shall cease flashing and unless
considered as dangerous, shall be drawn as a normal radar
target in an acquisition state (i.e. detected outside an acquisition
area) with the basic colour of other non-dangerous target
symbols.
Tracked radar targets may be numbered. Alphanumeric text used

to number radar targets shall be drawn with the same basic
Tracked radar targets – alternative

2.2b Alternatively, tracked radar targets may be presented as filled 18
circles of not more than 2 mm in diameter.
Tracked radar targets – dangerous targets

Tracked radar targets designated as dangerous targets may be
presented using 5 mm diameter circles, and shall flash until
2.2c acknowledged by the user. The required colour shall be red.
18
Once acknowledged, the symbols shall cease flashing, but shall
still be drawn with the required basic colour red until the target(s)
cease to be a danger.
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Reference targets
Tracked radar targets designated as reference targets shall be
labelled with the letter "R" adjacent to the symbol. Multiple
2.3 reference targets shall be numbered as "R1", "R2", "R3", etc. R4 18
The reference target labels shall be drawn with the same basic
Sleeping AIS targets

Sleeping AIS targets shall be presented as acute isosceles
triangles oriented to the targets' reported heading (or COG if
heading is not reported) and centred at the targets' reported
position. The base of the triangles shall be 3 mm and the height
2.4 shall be 4.5 mm. The triangles shall be drawn using a thick solid Sleeping AIS target with
line style (or a broken line if a collision avoidance computation neither reported heading
cannot be done) with the same basic colour used for target nor COG:
symbols.
A sleeping AIS target with neither a reported heading nor COG

shall be oriented toward the top of the operational display area.
Activated AIS targets

Activated AIS targets shall be presented as acute isosceles
triangles oriented to the targets' reported heading (or COG if
heading is not reported) and centred at the targets' reported
position. The base of the triangles shall be 4 mm and the height
shall be 6 mm. The triangles shall be drawn using a thick solid
line style (or a broken line if a collision avoidance computation
2.5a
cannot be done) with the basic colour used for target symbols. Activated AIS target with
neither reported heading
An activated AIS target with neither a reported heading nor COG
nor COG:
shall be oriented toward the top of the operational display area.
Activated AIS targets may be labelled. Alphanumeric text used to

Sarah J Sarah
label AIS targets shall be drawn with the same basic colour as
used for target symbols.
Activated AIS targets – true scaled outlines

Alternatively, when own ship is presented as a true scaled
outline, the user may select to add true scaled outlines to
activated AIS target symbols.
True scaled outlines for activated AIS targets shall be drawn

around the AIS target symbol triangles relative to the targets'
2.5b reported position according to the offsets, beam and length. The
outline shall be drawn using a thick solid line style.
True scaled outlines for activated AIS targets shall be drawn with
the same basic colour used for target symbols.
True scaled outlines for individual activated AIS targets shall not
be used when a target's heading is not reported or when the
beam of the outline is less than 7.5 mm.
Activated AIS targets – dangerous targets

2.5c
Activated AIS targets designated as dangerous targets may be
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presented with larger triangles, with a base of 5 mm and a height
Activated AIS target with
of 7.5 mm, shall be the required basic colour red, drawn with a
neither a reported heading
thick solid line and shall flash until acknowledged by the user.
nor COG:
Once acknowledged, the symbols shall cease flashing but shall
still be presented using the required basic colour red until no Sarah J Sarah
longer considered to be a dangerous target.
Associated targets – alternative Associated targets

The user may select to present associated targets (i.e. activated represented by AIS target
AIS targets associated with tracked radar targets) as either symbols:
activated AIS target symbols (see 2-2.5) or tracked radar target
symbols (see 2-2.2).
Alternatively, activated AIS target symbols representing

associated targets may be modified by circumscribing a circle
around the symbols' isosceles triangle. Tracked radar target
2.6 symbols representing associated targets may be presented with
Associated targets
larger diameter circles (up to 5 mm), modified by inscribing an
represented by radar target
isosceles triangle inside the symbols' circle.
symbols:
The circumscribed circle and inscribed triangle shall be drawn
using a thick solid line style with the same basic colour used for
target symbols.
Associated targets may be labelled or numbered, as appropriate.

Alphanumeric text used to label/number associated targets shall
be drawn with the same basic colour as used for target symbols.
Heading lines
Heading lines may be selected for display for activated AIS
targets and associated targets, represented by AIS target
symbols.
Heading lines shall originate at the apex of the AIS triangle and
2.7a shall extend not less than 4 mm and at least 4 mm beyond the
bow of the true scaled outline when it is used. They shall be
drawn using a solid line style with the same basic colour as used
for target symbols.
Heading lines for dangerous AIS targets shall flash with their
base symbol until acknowledged by the user.
Heading lines – turn indicators

The user may select to display turn indicators for activated AIS
targets and associated targets represented by AIS target
symbols.
Turn indicators shall be presented as a single line extending at

least 1 mm but not more than 2 mm perpendicular to the heading
2.7b
line in the direction of turn. The indicator shall be drawn using a
thin solid line style with the same basic colour as used for their
target symbols.
Turn indicators for dangerous targets shall be the required colour

red (until no longer dangerous) and shall flash with their symbol
until acknowledged by the user.
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Velocity vectors Radar target velocity

Velocity vectors for targets may be selected for display. vectors:
Velocity vectors shall be presented as single lines originating at

the targets' tracked/reported position and extending in the
direction of course CTW or COG, as appropriate, for a length
representing the distance the target will travel in the time interval
used for own ship's velocity vector. Vectors shall be drawn using AIS target velocity vectors:
a thick short-dashed line style with the same basic colour used
2.8a for target symbols.
Velocity vectors for dangerous targets shall be the required red

basic colour and shall flash with their base target symbols until
acknowledged by the user. Associated target velocity
vectors:
Once acknowledged, the symbols shall cease flashing and
unless considered as dangerous, shall assume the basic colour
of other non-dangerous target symbols.
Velocity vectors – time increments Radar target time

Time increments may be shown drawn across target velocity increments:
vectors.
Time increments shall be presented as single lines perpendicular

to the vectors with their midpoint on them and extending not more
than 1.5 mm on either side. They shall be spaced along the
vectors to represent the distance the target will travel in the time AIS target time increments:
increment of the time interval used for own ship's velocity vector.
2.8b The increments shall be drawn using a thick solid line style with
the same basic colour as for target symbols.
Time increments for dangerous targets shall be the required red

basic colour and shall flash with their base target symbols until Associated target time
acknowledged by the user. increments:
Once acknowledged, the symbols shall cease flashing and
unless considered as dangerous, shall use the basic colour of
other non-dangerous target symbols.
Predicted area of dangers Radar target PADs:

Optionally, predicted area of dangers (PADs) may be shown
along the path of target velocity vectors.
PADs shall be presented as an outline area geographically

representing a target's predicted CPA/TCPA violations. (The
PAD's shape may be modified by knowledge of own ship
manoeuvring characteristics, safety contour limits, etc.). PADs NOTENot to scale
2.8c shall be oriented in the direction of their velocity vectors. The
AIS target PADs:
PADs shall be drawn using a thick solid line style with the same
basic colour as their target symbols.
PADs for dangerous targets shall flash with their base symbols
until acknowledged by the user.
When a target is selected, the associated PAD may be

highlighted for identification. NOTENot to scale
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Associated target PADs:
NOTE Not to scale
Path predictor AIS target path predictor:

Optionally, the user may select to display a path predictor in place
of a velocity vector.
The path predictor shall be represented as a curved vector

originating at the targets' tracked/reported position and extending
2.8d along the predicted path over the ground that the target will travel, Associated target path
in the time interval used for the target vector. predictor:
The path shall be drawn using a thin long-dashed line style with
the same basic colour used for target symbols.
Target past positions Radar target past positions:

Optionally, target past positions may be shown.
Past positions shall be presented as a series of small circular

symbols of 1 mm diameter. They may be connected by a line
drawn from the current tracked or reported position of the target.
The line shall be drawn using a thin short-dashed line style with
the same basic colour as their target symbols.
AIS target past positions:
2.9
Associated target past

positions:
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AIS aids to navigation Real AIS ATON:

AIS aids to navigation (ATON) shall be presented as a diamond
with crossed lines centred at the reported position of the ATON.
The crossed lines shall be not more than 2 mm in length and the
sides of the diamond shall be not more than 6 mm in length.
A virtual AIS ATON shall have the letter "V" superimposed on the
symbol so that it does not extend beyond the diamond and does
not intersect with the crossed lines.
2.10 The diamond, crossed lines an "V" shall be drawn using a thin Virtual AIS ATON:
solid line style.
The basic colour for an "off position" AIS ATON is red.
The basic colour for an "on position" AIS ATON is as used for the
ATON symbols.
AIS ATON may be labelled. Alphanumeric text used to label an

AIS ATON shall be the same basic colour as the AIS ATON
symbol.
AIS search and rescue transponder

An AIS search and rescue transponder (SART) shall be drawn
with a solid line and shall the same basic colour as the AIS ATON
symbols.
NOTE A radar-SART has a receiver which scans for X-band radar

2.11 signals. When the SART detects a signal, it transmits its own
signal, consisting of a series of twelve pulses, on the same
frequency. These pulses are displayed as a series of twelve
echoes originating at the position of the SART and spaced 0.6
nautical miles apart along the line of bearing toward the edge of
the screen.
Selected targets Selected radar targets:

Selected target symbols shall be presented as broken squares
indicated by their corners, centred on the selected target symbol
by the user and clearly extending beyond it. The square shall be
drawn using a dashed line.
Selected AIS targets:
Alphanumeric text used to label a selected target shall be the
same basic colour as the selected target symbol.
Selected associated targets:

2.12
Selected AIS ATON:
Selected AIS SART:
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Lost targets Lost radar targets:

Lost target symbols shall be presented as crossed lines centred
on the target symbol and extending at least 2 mm but not more
than 3 mm beyond the symbol. The lines shall be drawn using a
solid line style and shall flash with the required colour red until
Lost AIS targets:
acknowledged by the user.
Once acknowledged, the lost target symbol and its target symbol
shall be removed from the display.
2.13 Lost associated targets:
Lost AIS ATON:
Lost AIS SART:
Radar target acquisition area

The user may select to display radar target acquisition areas
and/or AIS target activation areas.
Target acquisition areas shall be presented as a series of lines

bounding a geographic area designated for radar target
acquisition and/or AIS target activation. The lines shall be drawn
2.14
using a thin solid line style with the same basic colour used for
target symbols.
The area may be filled providing the colour of the fill does not
degrade the visibility of the radar image and target symbols. Area
fill shall be transparent and shall be the same basic colour as the
area boundary.
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8. Guidance on the Implementation of Model Courses
Contents
Part1 Preparation
Part 2 Notes on Teaching Technique
Part 3 Curriculum Development
Annex A1 Preparation checklist
Annex A2 Example of a Model Course syllabus in a subject area
Annex A3 Example of a lesson plan for annex A2
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Part 1- Preparation
1 Introduction
1.1 The success of any enterprise depends heavily on sound and effective preparations.
1.2 Although the IMO model course package has been made as comprehensive as
possible, it is nonetheless vital that sufficient time and resources are devoted to
preparation. Preparation not only involves matters concerning administration or
organisation, but also includes the preparation of any course notes, drawings, sketches,
overhead transparencies, etc. which may be necessary.
2 General considerations
2.1 The course package should be studied carefully; in particular, the course syllabus
and associated material must be attentively and thoroughly studied. This is vital if a clear
understanding is to be obtained of what is required, in terms of resources necessary to
successfully implement the course.
2.2 A "checklist", such as that set out in annex Al, should be used throughout all stages
of preparation to ensure that all necessary actions and activities are being carried out in
good time and in an effective manner. The checklist allows the status of the preparation
procedures to be monitored, and helps in identifying the remedial actions necessary to
meet deadlines. It will be necessary to hold meetings of all those concerned in
presenting the course from time to time in order to assess the status of the preparation
and "trouble-shoot" any difficulties.
2.3 The course syllabus should be discussed with the teaching staff who are to present
the course, and their views received on the particular parts they are to present. A study of
the syllabus will determine whether the incoming trainees need preparatory work to meet
the entry standard. The detailed teaching syllabus is constructed in "training outcome"
format. Each specific outcome states precisely what the trainee must do to show that the
outcome has been achieved. An example of a model course syllabus is given in annex
A2. Part 3 deals with curriculum development and explains how a syllabus is constructed
and used.
2.4 The teaching staff who are to present the course should construct notes or lesson
plans to achieve these outcomes. A sample lesson plan for one of the areas of the
sample syllabus is provided in annex A3.
2.5 It is important that the staff who present the course convey, to the person in charge of
the course, their assessment of the course as it progresses.
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Annex, page 280
3 Specific considerations
3.1 Scope of course
In reviewing the scope of the course, the instructor should determine whether it needs
any adjustment in order to meet additional local or national requirements (see Part 3).
3.2 Course objective
3.2.1 The course objective, as stated in the course material, should be very carefully
considered so that its meaning is fully understood. Does the course objective require
expansion to encompass any additional task that national or local requirements will
impose upon those who successfully complete the course? Conversely, are there
elements included which are not validated by national industry requirements?
3.2.2 It is important that any subsequent assessment made of the course should include
a review of the course objectives.
3.3 Entry standards
3.3.1 lf the entry standard will not be met by your intended trainee intake, those entering
the course should first be required to complete an upgrading course to raise them to the
stated entry level.
Alternatively, those parts of the course affected could be augmented by inserting course
material which will cover the knowledge required.
3.3.2 If the entry standard will be exceeded by your planned trainee intake, you may wish
to abridge or omit those parts of the course the teaching of which would be unnecessary,
or which could be dealt with as revision.
3.3.3 Study the course material with the above questions in mind and with a view to
assessing whether or not it will be necessary for the trainees to carry out preparatory
work prior to joining the course. Preparatory material for the trainees can range from
refresher notes, selected topics from textbooks and reading of selected technical papers,
through to formal courses of instruction. It may be necessary to use a combination of
preparatory work and the model course material in modified form. It must be emphasised
that where the model course material involves an international requirement, such as a
regulation of the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping (STCW) 1978, as amended, the standard must not be relaxed; in many
instances, the intention of the Convention is to require review, revision or increased
depth of knowledge by candidates undergoing training for higher certificates.
3.4 Course certificate, diploma or document
Where a certificate, diploma or document is to be issued to trainees who successfully

complete the course, ensure that this is available and properly worded and that the
industry and all authorities concerned are fully aware of its purpose and intent.
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3.5 Course intake limitations
3.5.1 The course designers have recommended limitations regarding the numbers of
trainees who may participate in the course. As far as possible, these limitations should
not be exceeded; otherwise, the quality of the course will be diluted.
3.5.2 It may be necessary to make arrangements for accommodating the trainees and
providing facilities for food and transportation. These aspects must be considered at an
early stage of the preparations.
3.6 Staff requirements
3.6.1 It is important that an experienced person, preferably someone with experience in

course and curriculum development, is given the responsibility of implementing the
course.
3.6.2 Such a person is often termed a "course co-ordinator" or "course director'. Other
staff, such as lecturers, instructors, laboratory technicians, workshop instructors, etc. will
be needed to implement the course effectively. Staff involved in presenting the course
will need to be properly briefed about the course work they will be dealing with, and a
system must be set up for checking the material they may be required to prepare. To do
this, it will be essential to make a thorough study of the syllabus and apportion the parts
of the course work according to the abilities of the staff called upon to present the work.
3.6.3 The person responsible for implementing the course should consider monitoring
the quality of teaching in such areas as variety and form of approach, relationship with
trainees, and communicative and interactive skills; where necessary, this person should
also provide appropriate counseling and support.
3.7 Teaching facilities and equipment

Rooms and other services
3.7.1 It is important to make reservations as soon as is practicable for the use of lecture
rooms, laboratories, workshops and other spaces.
Equipment
3.7.2 Arrangements must be made at an early stage for the use of equipment needed in
the spaces mentioned in 3.7.1 to support and carry through the work of the course. For
example:
.1 blackboards and writing materials
.2 apparatus in laboratories for any associated demonstrations and experiments
.3 machinery and related equipment in workshops
.4 equipment and materials in other spaces (e.g. for demonstrating fire fighting,
personal survival, etc.).
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Annex, page 282
3.8 Teaching aids
Any training aids specified as being essential to the course should be constructed, or
checked for availability and working order.
3.9 Audio-visual aids
Audio-visual aids (AVA) may be recommended in order to reinforce the learning process
iri some parts of the course. Such recommendations will be identified in Part A of the
model course. The following points should be borne in mind:
.1 Overhead projectors
Check through any illustrations provided in the course for producing overhead projector
(OHP) transparencies, and arrange them in order of presentation. To produce
transparencies, a supply of transparency sheets is required; the illustrations can be
transferred to these via photocopying. Alternatively, transparencies can be produced by
writing or drawing on the sheet. Coloured pens are useful for emphasizing salient points.
Ensure that spare projector lamps (bulbs) are available.
.2 Slide projectors
lf you order slides indicated in the course framework, check through them and arrange
them in order of presentation. Slides are usually produced from photographic negatives.
If further slides are considered necessary and cannot be produced locally, OHP
transparencies should be resorted to.
.3 Cine projector
If films are to be used, check their compatibility with the projector (i.e. 16 mm, 35 mm,
sound, etc.). The films must be test-run to ensure there are no breakages.
.4 Video equipment
It is essential to check the type of video tape to be used. The two types commonly used
are VHS and Betamax. Although special machines exist which can play either format,
the majority of machines play only one or the other type. Note that VHS and Betamax are
not compatible; the correct machine type is required to match the tape. Check also that
the TV raster format used in the tapes (i.e. number of lines, frames/second, scanning
order, etc.) is appropriate to the TV equipment available. (Specialist advice may have to
be sought on this aspect.) All video tapes should be test-run prior to their use on the
course.
.5 Computer equipment
lf computer-based aids are used, check their compatibility with the projector and the
available software.
.6 General note
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Annex, page 283
The electricity supply must be checked for voltage and whether it is AC or DC, and every
precaution must be taken to ensure that the equipment operates properly and safely. It is
important to use a proper screen which is correctly positioned; it may be necessary to
exclude daylight in some cases. A check must be made to ensure that appropriate
screens or blinds are available. All material to be presented should be test-run to
eliminate any possible troubles, arranged in the correct sequence in which it is to be
shown, and properly identified and cross-referenced in the course timetable and lesson
plans.
3.10 IMO references
The content of the course, and therefore its standard, reflects the requirements of all the
relevant IMO international conventions and the provisions of other instruments as
indicated in the model course. The relevant publications can be obtained from the
Publication Service of IMO, and should be available, at least to those involved in
presenting the course, if the indicated extracts are not included in a compendium
supplied with the course.
3.11 Textbooks
The detailed syllabus may refer to a particular textbook or textbooks. It is essential that
these books are available to each trainee taking the course. lf supplies of textbooks are
limited, a copy should be loaned to each student, who will return it at the end of the
course. Again, some courses are provided with a compendium which includes all or part
of the training material required to support the course.
3.12 Bibliography
Any useful supplementary source material is identified by the course designers and
listed in the model course. This list should be supplied to the participants so that they are
aware where additional information can be obtained, and at least two copies of each
book or publication should be available for reference in the training institute library.
3.13 Timetable
If a timetable is provided in a model course, it is for guidance only. It may only take one or
two presentations of the course to achieve an optimal timetable. However, even then it
must be borne in mind that any timetable is subject to variation, depending on the
general needs of the trainees in any one class and the availability of instructors and
equipment.
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Annex, page 284
Part 2 - Notes on Teaching Technique

1 Preparation
1.1 Identify the section of the syllabus which is to be dealt with.
1.2 Read and study thoroughly all the syllabus elements.
1.3 Obtain the necessary textbooks or reference papers which cover the training area to
be presented.
1.4 Identify the equipment which will be needed, together with support staff necessary for
its operation.
1.5 It is essential to use a "lesson plan", which can provide a simplified format for
co-ordinating lecture notes and supporting activities. The lesson plan breaks the material
down into identifiable steps, making use of brief statements, possibly with keywords
added, and indicating suitable allocations of time for each step. The use of audio-visual
material should be indexed at the correct point in there with an appropriate allowance of
time. The audio-visual material should be test-run prior to its being used in the lecture.
An example of a lesson plan is shown in annex A3.
1.6 The syllabus is structured in training outcome format and it is thereby relatively
straightforward to assess each trainee's grasp of the subject matter presented during the
lecture. Such assessment may take the form of further discussion, oral questions, written
tests or selection-type tests, such as multiple-choice questions, based on the objectives
used in the syllabus. Selection-type tests and short-answer tests can provide an
objective assessment independent of any bias on the part of the assessor. For
certification purposes, assessors should be appropriately qualified for the particular type
of training or assessment.
REMEMBER- POOR PREPARATION IS A SURE WAY TO LOSE THE INTEREST OF A

GROUP
1.7 Check the rooms to be used before the lecture is delivered. Make sure that all the
equipment and apparatus are ready for use and that any support staff are also prepared
and ready. In particular, check that all blackboards are clean and that a supply of writing
and cleaning materials is readily available.
2 Delivery
2.1 Always face the people you are talking to; never talk with your back to the group.
2.2 Talk clearly and sufficiently loudly to reach everyone.
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Annex, page 285
2.3 Maintain eye contact with the whole group as a way of securing their interest and
maintaining it (i.e. do not look continuously at one particular person, nor at a point in
space).
2.4 People are aH different, and they behave and react in different ways. An important
function of a lecturer is to maintain interest and interaction between members of a group.
2.5 Some points or statements are more important than others and should therefore be
emphasised. To ensure that such points or statements are remembered, they must be
restated a number of times, preferably in different words.
2.6 lf a blackboard is to be used, any writing on it must be clear and large enough for
everyone to see. Use colour to emphasise important points, particularly in sketches.
2.7 It is only possible to maintain a high level of interest for a relatively short period of
time; therefore, break the lecture up into different periods of activity to keep interest at its
highest level. Speaking, writing, sketching, use of audio-visual material, questions, and
discussions can all be used to accomplish this. When a group is writing or sketching,
walk amongst the group, looking at their work, and provide comment or advice to
individual members of the group when necessary.
2.8 When holding a discussion, do not allow individual members of the group to
monopolise the activity, but ensure that all members have a chance to express opinions
or ideas.
2.9 lf addressing questions to a group, do not ask them collectively; otherwise, the same
person may reply each time. Instead, address the questions to individuals in turn, so that
everyone is invited to participate.
2.10 It is important to be guided by the syllabus content and not to be tempted to

introduce material which may be too advanced, or may contribute little to the course
objective. There is often competition between instructors to achieve a level which is too
advanced. Also, instructors often strongly resist attempts to reduce the level to that
required by a syllabus.
2.11 Finally, effective preparation makes a major contribution to the success of a lecture.
Things often go wrong; preparedness and good planning will contribute to putting things
right. Poor teaching cannot be improved by good accommodation or advanced
equipment, but good teaching can overcome any disadvantages that poor
accommodation and lack of equipment can present.
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 286
Part 3 - Curriculum Development
1 Curriculum
The dictionary defines curriculum as a regular course of study, while syllabus is defined
as a concise statement of the subjects forming a course of study. Thus, in general terms,
a curriculum is simply a course, while a syllabus can be thought of as a list (traditionally,
a list of things to be taught).
2 Course content
The subjects which are needed to form a training course, and the precise skills and
depth of knowledge required in the various subjects, can only be determined through an
in-depth assessment of the job functions which the course participants are to be trained
to perform Job analysis). This analysis determines the training needs, thence the
purpose of the course (course objective). After ascertaining this, it is possible to define
the scope of the course.
(NOTE: Determination of whether or not the course objective has been achieved may
quite possibly entail assessment, over a period of time, of the "on-the-job performance"
of those completing the course. However, the detailed learning objectives are quite
specific and immediately assessable.)
3 Job analysis
A job analysis can only be properly carried out by a group whose members are
representative of the organisations and bodies involved in the area of work to be covered
by the course. The validation of results, via review with persons currently employed in
the job concerned, is essential if undertraining and overtraining are to be avoided.
4 Course plan
Following definition of the course objective and scope, a course plan or outline can be
drawn up. The potential students for the course (the trainee target group) must then be
identified, the entry standard to the course decided and the prerequisites defined.
5 Syllabus
The final step in the process is the preparation of the detailed syllabus with associated
time scales; the identification of those parts of textbooks and technical papers which
cover the training areas to a sufficient degree to meet, but not exceed, each learning
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 287
objective; and the drawing up of a bibliography of additional material for supplementary

reading.
6 Syllabus content
The material contained in a syllabus is not static; technology is continuously undergoing

change and there must therefore be a means for reviewing course material in order to
eliminate what is redundant and introduce new material reflecting current practice. As
defined above, a syllabus can be thought of as a list and, traditionally, there have always
been an "examination syllabus" and a "teaching syllabus"; these indicate, respectively,
the subject matter contained in an examination paper, and the subject matter a teacher is
to use in preparing lessons or lectures.
7 Training outcomes
7.1 The prime communication difficulty presented by any syllabus is how to convey the
depth of knowledge required. A syllabus is usually constructed as a series of "training
outcomes" to help resolve this difficulty.
7.2 Thus, curriculum development makes use of training outcomes to ensure that a
common minimum level and breadth of attainment is achieved by all the trainees
following the same course, irrespective of the training institution (i.e. teaching/lecturing
staff).
7.3 Training outcomes are trainee-oriented, in that they describe an end result which is to
be achieved by the trainee as a result of a learning process.
7.4 In many cases, the learning process is linked to a skill or work activity and, to
demonstrate properly the attainment of the objective, the trainee response may have to
be based on practical application or use, or on work experience.
7.5 The training outcome, although aimed principally at the trainee to ensure
achievement of a specific learning step, also provides a framework for the teacher or
lecturer upon which lessons or lectures can be constructed.
7.6 A training outcome is specific and describes precisely what a trainee must do to
demonstrate his knowledge, understanding or skill as an end product of a learning
process.
7.7 The learning process is the "knowledge acquisition" or skill development that takes
place during a course. The outcome of the process is an acquired "knowledge",
"understanding", "skill"; but these terms alone are not sufficiently precise for describing a
training outcome.
7.8 Verbs, such as "calculates", "defines", "explains", "lists", "solves" and "states", must
be used when constructing a specific training outcome, so as to define precisely what the
trainee will be enabled to do.
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 288
7.9 In the IMO model course project, the aim is to provide a series of model courses to
assist instructors in developing countries to enhance or update the maritime training they
provide, and to allow a common minimum standard to be achieved throughout the world.
The use of training outcomes is a tangible way of achieving this desired aim.
7.10 As an example, a syllabus in training-outcome format for the subject of ship

construction appears in annex A2. This is a standard way of structuring this kind of
syllabus. Although, in this case, an outcome for each area has been identified - and
could be used in an assessment procedure – this stage is often dropped to obtain a more
compact syllabus structure.
8 Assessment
Training outcomes describe an outcome which is to be achieved by the trainee. Of equal

importance is the fact that such an achievement can be measured OBJECTIVELY
through an evaluation which will not be influenced by the personal opinions and
judgments of the examiner. Objective testing or evaluation provides a sound base on
which to make reliable judgments concerning the levels of understanding and knowledge
achieved, thus allowing an effective evaluation to be made of the progress of trainees in
a course.
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 289
Annex A1- Preparation checklist

Ret. Component Identified Reserved Electricity Purchases Tested Accepted Started Finished Status OK
supply
1 Course plan
2 Timetable
3 Syllabus
4 Scope
5 Objective
6 Entry standard
7 Preparatory
Course
8 Course
certificate
9 Participant
numbers
10 Staffing
Co-ordinator_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________
Lecturers________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________
Instructors________________________________________________________________________________________________
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 290
____________
Technicians________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________
Other_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________
Annex A1 -Preparation checklist (continued)

Ret. Component Identified Reserved Electricity Purchases Tested Accepted Started Finished Status OK
supply
11 Facilities
(a) Rooms
Lab _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Workshop ___________
Other _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Class ___________
(b) Equipment _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Lab ___________
Workshop _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Other ___________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 291
12 AVA Equipment
and materials
OHP _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Slide ___________
Cine _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Video ___________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________
13 IMO reference
14 Textbooks
15 Bibliography
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 292
Annex A2-Example of a Model Course syllabus in a

subject area
Subject area: Ship construction
Prerequisite: Have a broad understanding of shipyard practice
General aims: Have knowledge of materials used in shipbuilding, specification

of shipbuilding steel and process of approval
Textbooks: No specific textbook has been used to construct the syllabus,

but the instructor would be assisted in preparation of lecture
notes by referring to suitable books on ship construction, such
as Ship Construction by Eyres (T12) and Merchant Ship
Construction by Taylor (T58)
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 293
Course outline
Knowledge, understanding and proficiency Total hours for Total hours

each topic for each
subject area of
Required
performance
Competence:
3.1 CONTROL TRIM, STABILITY and
STRESS
3.1.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF SHIP
CONSTRUCTION, TRIM AND STABILITY
.1 Shipbuilding materials 3
.2 Welding 3
.3 Bulkheads 4
.4 Watertight and weathertight doors 3
.5 Corrosion and its prevention 4
.6 Surveys and dry-docking 2
.7 Stability 83 102
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 294
Part C3: Detailed teaching syllabus

Introduction
The detailed teaching syllabus is presented as a series of learning objectives. The

objective, therefore, describes what the trainee must do to demonstrate that the specified
knowledge or skill has been transferred.
Thus each training outcome is supported by a number of related performance elements in

which the trainee is required to be proficient. The teaching syllabus shows the Required
performance expected of the trainee in the tables that follow.
In order to assist the instructor, references are shown to indicate IMO references and
publications, textbooks and teaching aids that instructors may wish to use in preparing
and presenting their lessons.
The material listed in the course framework has been used to structure the detailed
teaching syllabus; in particular
·Teaching aids (indicated by A)

·IMO references (indicated by R) and
·Textbooks (indicated by T)
will provide valuable information to instructors.
Explanation of information contained in the syllabus tables
The information on each table is systematically organised in the following way. The line at
the head of the table describes the FUNCTION with which the training is concerned. A
function means a group of tasks, duties and responsibilities as specified in the STCW
Code. It describes related activities which make up a professional discipline or traditional
departmental responsibility on board.
The header of the first column denotes the COMPETENCE concerned. Each function
comprises a number of competences. For example, the Function 3, Controlling the
Operation of the Ship and Care for Persons on board at the Management Level,
comprises a number of COMPETENCES. Each competence is uniquely and consistently
numbered in this model course.
In this function the competence is Control trim, stability and stress. It is numbered 3.1, that
is the first competence in Function 3. The term "competence" should be understood as the
application of knowledge, understanding, proficiency, skills, experience for an individual to
perform a task, duty or responsibility on board in a safe, efficient and timely manner.
Shown next is the required TRAINING OUTCOME. The training outcomes are the areas
of knowledge, understanding and proficiency in which the trainee must be able to
demonstrate knowledge and understanding. Each COMPETENCE comprises a number of
training outcomes. For example, the above competence comprises three training
outcomes. The first is concerned with the fundamental principles of FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLES OF SHIP CONSTRUCTION, TRIM AND STABILITY. Each training outcome
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 295
is uniquely and consistently numbered in this model course. That concerned with
fundamental principles of Ship GUIDANCE ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MODEL
COURSES Construction, Trim And Stability is uniquely numbered 3.1.1. For clarity,
training outcomes are printed in black type on grey, for example TRAINING OUTCOME.
Finally, each training outcome embodies a variable number of Required performances - as

evidence of competence. The instruction, training and learning should lead to the trainee
meeting the specified Required performance. For the training outcome concerned with
fundamental principles of ship construction, trim and stability there are three areas of
performance. These are:
3.1.1.1 Shipbuilding materials

3.1.1.2 Welding
3.1.1.3 Bulkheads
Following each numbered area of Required performance there is a list of activities that the
trainee should complete and which collectively specify the standard of competence that
the trainee must meet. These are for the guidance of teachers and instructors in designing
lessons, lectures, tests and exercises for use in the teaching process. For example, under
the topic 3.1.1.1, to meet the Required performance, the trainee should be able to:
· state that steels are alloys of iron, with properties dependent upon the type and
amounts of alloying materials used
· state that the specifications of shipbuilding steels are laid down by classification
societies
· state that shipbuilding steel is tested and graded by classification society
surveyors who stamp it with approval marks
and so on.
IMO references (Rx) are listed in the column to the right-hand side. Teaching aids (Ax),
videos (Vx) and textbooks (Tx) relevant to the training outcome and required
performances are placed immediately following the TRAINING OUTCOME title.
It is not intended that lessons are organised to follow the sequence of Required
performances listed in the Tables. The Syllabus Tables are organised to match with the
competence in the STCW Code Table A-II/2. Lessons and teaching should follow college
practices. It is nut necessary, for example, for ship building materials to be studied before
stability. What is necessary is that all of the material is covered and that teaching is
effective to allow trainees to meet the standard of the Required performance.
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 296
FUNCTION 3: CONTROLLING THE OPERATION OF THE SHIP AND CARE FOR

PERSONS ON BOARD AT THE MANAGEMENT LEVEL
COMPETENCE 3.1 Control trim, stability and stress IMO reference
3.1.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF SHIP
CONSTRUCTION, TRIM AND STABILITY
Textbooks: T11, T12, T35, T58, T69

Teaching aids: A1, A4, V5, V6, V7
Required performance:
1.1 Shipbuilding materials (3 hours) R1
· states that steels are alloys of iron, with properties dependent upon
the
type and amounts of alloying materials used
· states that the specifications of shipbuilding steels are laid down by
· states that shipbuilding steel is tested and graded by classification
society
surveyors, who stamp it with approval marks
· explains that mild steel, graded A to E, is used for most parts of the
ship
· states why higher tensile steel may be used in areas Of high stress,
such as the sheer strake
· explains that the use of higher tensile steel in place of mild steel
results in a saving of weight for the same strength
· explains what is meant by:
- tensile strength . ductility
- hardness .
-toughness
· defines strain as extension divided by original length
· sketches a stress-strain curve for mild steel - explains:
- yield point
- ultimate tensile stress
- modulus of elasticity
· explains that toughness is related to the tendency to brittle fracture
· explains that stress fracture may be initiated by a small crack or notch
in
a plate
· states that cold conditions increase the chances of brittle fracture
· states why mild steel is unsuitable for the very low temperatures
involved
in the containment of liquefied gases
· lists examples where castings or forgings are used in ship
construction
·explains the advantages of the use of aluminium alloys in the
construction of superstructures
· states that aluminium alloys are tested and graded by classification
society
surveyors
· explains how strength is preserved in aluminium superstructures in
the
event of fire
· describes the special precautions against corrosion that are needed
where aluminium alloy is connected to steelwork
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 297
Annex A3
Example of a lesson plan for annex A2
Subject area: 3.1 Control trim, stability and stress Lesson number: 1 Duration: 3 hours
Training Area: 3.1.1 Fundamental principles of ship construction, trim and stability
Main element Specific training outcome in Teaching Textbook IMO AN aid Instructor Lecture Time
teaching sequence, with memory keys method reference guidelines notes (minutes)
1.1 Shipbuilding materials (3 hours)
States that steels are alloys of iron, with Lecture T12, T58 STCW 11/2, V5 to V7 A1 Compiled 10
properties dependent upon the type and amounts A-II2 by the
of alloying materials used lecturer
States that the specifications of shipbuilding Lecture T12, T58 STCW 11/2, V5 to V7 A1 Compiled 20
steels are laid down by classification societies A-II2 by the
lecturer
Explains that mild steel, graded A to E, is used for Lecture T12, T58 STCW 11/2, V5 to V7 A1 Compiled 15
most parts of the ship A-II2 by the
lecturer
States why higher tensile steel may be used in Lecture T12, T58 STCW 11/2, V5 to V7 A1 Compiled 10
areas of high stress, such as the sheer strake A-II2 by the
lecturer
Explains that use of higher tensile steel in place Lecture T12, T58 STCW 11/2, V5 to V7 A1 Compiled 15
of mild steel results in a saving of weight for the A-II2 by the
same strength lecturer
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 298
Appendix II User feedback

In order to ensure the update and validity of this model course, it is essential
that the user can provide some feedback. This feedback is very useful to
develop further training on the safety at sea and marine environment
protection. Appendix II gives some specific questions regarding this model
course. Delivery and the responses from the users are welcome. This
appendix also provides the contact information, so that the users can submit
the feedback to these questions and make additional comments.
This questionnaire covers three parts as follows:
I. The satisfaction of the KUPs of the model course with the IMO references
(STCW Convention, SOLAS Convention and Radar Performance Standards);
II. The feedback in the teaching process;
III. The feedback in the learning process.
It is very important for the developer that the trainees take part in this
questionnaire and provide some useful feedback on the learning process.
 The satisfaction of the KUPs of the model course

with the IMO references (STCW Convention, SOLAS
Convention and radar performance standards)
1. How do you evaluate the items of the "KUP" in the model course? Is
there enough detailed information? Yes or No? Please give your
reasons.
2. How do you evaluate whether the KUPs satisfy with the relevant IMO
requirements? Do the KUPs satisfy? If you note any issues, please list
them and explain your reasons.
3. Is there any other "KUP" that shall be added in the model course? If so,
list them and explain your reasons.
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 299
4. Is there any "KUP" that is not required on board in the model course? If
so, list them and justify.
 Feedback in teaching process
1. Is the instructor maunal helpful for your lessons when consulting Part
D of the model course?
2. Are there any difficult points or problems in your teaching process?

Can the model course help you to solve them?
3. Are there any other key points or issues to be added in the teaching
process besides those in Part D of this model course?
4. Do you think there is any necessity to increase the class hours of

certain topics or subtopics in this model course? If so, please specify.
5. Do you know any recent trends or development in the areas covered in

this model course? If so, please specify?
6. Are there any ambiguities that cause misunderstanding? If so, please

specify.
 Feedback in learning process
1. How do you evaluate the course sequence and timetable of this model
course?
2. In the view of trainees, are the sub-items of the required performance

reasonable? If not so, please specify?
3. In the part of "assessment and evaluation", do you think there are any
other effective ways to prove that the trainees have met the
competency requirements?
4. What are the students' reflections and feedbacks regarding this model
course? Please give some examples.
HTW 3/3/2
Annex, page 300
 Contact information
For answers to the questions, comments and suggestions, please contact:

Head, Maritime Training and Human Element
Maritime Safety Division
International Maritime Organization
4 Albert Embankment
London SE1 7SR
United Kingdom
Your involvement and contribution would be much appreciated.
___________

IMO Model Course 1.07 On Radar Navigation at Operational Level (Secretariat)

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SUB-COMMITTEE ON HUMAN ELEMENT, HTW 3/3/2

VALIDATED MODEL TRAINING COURSES

Model Course on Radar Navigation at Operational Level

Note by the Secretariat

Strategic direction: 5.2

High-level action: 5.2.2

Planned output: 5.2.2.3

Action to be taken: Paragraph 3

Related documents: HTW 2/19 and HTW 2/3/7

Action requested of the Sub-Committee

DRAFT REVISED IMO MODEL COURSE ON RADAR NAVIGATION

This course for Radar Navigation at Operational Level is based

IMO wishes to express its sincere appreciation to the

 Purpose of the model courses

 Use of the model course

 Properly qualified instructors

 Other reference material.

For ease of reference, this course is divided into five parts.

It is advised that the course is to be taught:

 as a complete module covering all training Topics l-7; or

Part A: Course Framework

In consideration of radar technology development, it is advised that trainee officers be

 Course certification, diploma or document

On successful completion of the course and assessments, a document may be issued

 Course intake limitations

 Teaching facilities and equipment

 Teaching aids (A)

A1 Instructor manual (Part D of this course)

R1 IMO Manila Amendments to the International Convention on Standards of Training,

STCW 2010 Table A-II/1 IMO Model course 1.07

Part B: Course Outline and Timetable

The training is delivered through lectures, demonstrations and/or practical training.

The lecture should be presented in general teaching scenarios. The presentation of

 Course outline and class hours

5 ARPA System or TT and AIS Reporting functions 3.0 3 12

Period/Day Morning Afternoon

Demonstration and practical training 4-3 AIS reported targets

Part C: Detailed Teaching Syllabus

 Teaching aids (indicated by A)

will provide valuable information to instructors.

The following are examples of the use of references:

 Detailed teaching syllabus

.2 states the configuration of a marine radar system pa4.1

.5 checks and corrects the errors in range and bearing pa9.7

.12 establishes and uses PI lines for radial turns

Part D: Instructor Manual

Based on Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency in Part C, Part D is intended to provide

 Guidelines for use

Assessment techniques. The course developer provides constructive assessment techniques.

 Detailed instructor manual

A detailed manual, consistent with Part B and C, is as follows.

1 Basic theory and operation principles of a marine radar system

 Detailed teaching packages

1.1 Fundamental principles of radar

.1 Principles of range and bearing measurement

(1) Range measurement

.2 Configuration of a marine radar system

Main EPFS AIS

Basic radar system

Main unit Main unit Transceiver

Fig.1-1 Radar system configuration

.3 Composition and principles of a basic radar