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B.TECH FIRST YEAR

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2020-2021

“UNDERSTAND THE BASIC

SESSION OUTCOME PRINCIPLES OF WAVE OPTICS”
COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
COURSE CODE : PY1001
LECTURE SERIES NO : 01 (ONE)
CREDITS : 4
MODE OF DELIVERY : ONLINE (POWER POINT PRESENTATION)
FACULTY : DR. NILANJAN HALDER
EMAIL-ID : nilanjan.halder@jaipur.manipal.edu
DATE OF DELIVERY: 10 October 2021

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Diffraction
Topics
 Diffraction and wave theory of light
 Single-slit diffraction
 Intensity in single-slit diffraction
ASSIGNMENT  Diffraction at a circular aperture
QUIZ
MID TERM EXAMINATION –I
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA’S  Double-slit interference and diffraction
END TERM EXAMINATION combined
 Multiple slits
 Diffraction gratings
 Dispersion and resolving power
 X-ray diffraction
Text Book:
PHYSICS VOL 2 by Halliday, Resnick and Krane

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DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE

Both involve superposition of coherent light waves.
Diffraction and interference are similar phenomena.
Interference is the effect of
superposition of 2 coherent waves.
Here Slit width a<<λ very small and
neglected. So, fringes are of equal
width and intensity on the screen is of
uniform distribution.
Diffraction is the superposition
of many coherent waves. Slit
width ‘a’ is finite. Intensity on the
screen is non-uniform.
Diffraction v/s Interference
 Bending of light around the obstacle.
 The interfering beam originate from
continuous distribution of sources
(Huygens’ principle).
 The waves emerging from different
paths of the same wave front
superimpose with each other to
produce Diffraction pattern.
 The width of the diffraction fringes are
not equal.
 Minimum intensity point will not be
perfectly dark
 Bright fringes in the diffraction pattern
are not of same intensity.
 Meeting of two waves.
 The interfering beam originate from
discrete number of sources.
 The superposition of waves coming
from two different wave front
originating from the same source,
produce Interference pattern.
 The width of the interference fringes
may/ may not be equal.
 Minimum intensity point will be
perfectly dark.
 Bright fringes in the interference
pattern are of uniform intensity.

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DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
• Diffraction pattern occurs when coherent wave-fronts of light
The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of fall on opaque barrier B, which contains an aperture of
obstacles or slits, and hence its encroachment into the region arbitrary shape. The diffraction pattern can be seen on screen
C.
of geometrical shadow is known as diffraction.
• When C is very close to B a geometric shadow is observed
For diffraction effects to be noticeable, the size of the object because the diffraction effects are negligible.
causing diffraction should have dimensions comparable to the
wavelength of light falling on the object.

Diffraction pattern of razor blade viewed in

monochromatic light

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DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT Huygens’ Principle

• Every point on a propagating
Ꙫ A single slit placed between a distant light source and a wavefront serves as the source
screen produces a diffraction pattern. of spherical wavelets, such that
Ꙫ It will have a broad, intense central band called the
central maximum
the wavelets at sometime later
Ꙫ The central band will be flanked by a series of narrower, is the envelope of these
less intense secondary bands called side maxima or wavelets.
secondary maxima
• If a propagating wave has a
Ꙫ The central band will also be bordered by a series of
dark bands called minima.
particular frequency and speed,
Ꙫ The diffraction pattern consists of the central maximum the secondary wavelets have
“Isotropic”
and a series of secondary maxima and minima. that same frequency and
Ꙫ The pattern is similar to an interference pattern as speed.
shown in figure.
The phenomenon of diffraction is caused by the interference of
innumerable secondary wavelets that are produced by
unobstructed portions of the same wave front or from the portions
of the wave front which are allowed to pass through a aperture.

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DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

Fresnel diffraction & Fraunhofer diffraction The pattern formed on the screen depends on the
separation between the screen C and the aperture B. Let us
Diffraction patterns are usually classified into two consider the following three cases.
categories depending on the source and screen are placed.
Case 1: Very small separation: when screen C is very close to B.
Fresnel diffraction: When either the source or the screen is Aperture Screen
near the aperture or obstruction, the wavefronts are
spherical and the pattern is quite complex. (near-field)
From Geometrical
distant shadow of the
Fraunhofer diffraction: When both the source and the screen source aperture

are at a great distance from the aperture or obstruction,

the incident light is in the form of plane wave and
the pattern is simpler to analyze. (far-field)
11
B C
The waves travel only a short distance after leaving the
aperture, and the rays diverge very little. The effects
diffraction are negligible, and the pattern on the screen is
the geometric shadow of the aperture.
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Case 2: Very large separation: When screen C is far from

the aperture (Fraunhofer diffraction).
Plane wave front Plane wave front

f f

C In the laboratory, two converging lenses are used to achieve

Very large separation Very large separation
this condition.
When the screen is so far from the aperture, then we can
regard the rays as parallel or wavefronts as planes. The first lens converts the diverging light from the source in
In this case , we also assume the source to be far from the to a plane wave, and the second lens focuses plane waves
aperture, so that the incident wavefronts are also planes. leaving the aperture parallel to the point on screen.
This is one way of achieving Fraunhofer diffraction.

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Case 3: Intermediate separation: When screen C and Plane wave front Plane wave front

source (S) are at finite distances from the aperture (Fresnel

diffraction):
Spherical Spherical
wave front wave front
P

Source (S) Very large separation Very large separation C

B In Fraunhofer type of diffraction:

Finite distance Finite distance C 1. Both the source and the screen are effectively at infinite
In Fresnel diffraction: distances, from the aperture causing diffraction.
1. the incident and the diffracted wave fronts are 2. both the incident and emergent wavefronts are plane. That is,
spherical. both the incident and the diffracted beams are parallel.
2. The source and the screen are at finite distances from 3. can be realized in practice by using a pair of converging lenses
of suitable focal lengths (L1 and L2) and placing the source
the aperture/slit or obstacle causing diffraction.
and the screen at the foci of L1 and L2 respectively.
3. No lenses/ mirrors are used.
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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

Fraunhofer diffraction is a special (limiting) case of

the more general Fresnel diffraction.

But, analysis of Fresnel diffraction is complicated

compared to Fraunhofer. That is, Fraunhofer
diffraction is easier to handle mathematically.
All the diffracted rays arriving at P0 are in-phase.
So, in our study on diffraction phenomenon, we Hence they interfere constructively and produce maximum
deal only with Fraunhofer diffraction. (central maximum) of intensity I0 at P0.

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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

At point P1,
path difference between r1
and r2 is
(a/2) sin

So the condition for first minimum,

a 
⁕The finite width of slits is the basis for understanding Fraunhofer diffraction. sin  
⁕According to Huygens’s principle, each portion of the slit acts as a source of light waves. 2 2
⁕Therefore, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light from another portion. or a sin   
⁕The diffraction pattern is actually an interference pattern. This is satisfied for every pair of rays, one of which is from upper half
⁕The different sources of light are different portions of the single slit. of the slit and the other is a corresponding ray from lower half of the
slit.

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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

At point P2, Problem: 1

path difference between

A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. For what value
r1 and r2 is (a/4) sin of a does the minimum for red light ( = 650nm) fall at  =
15o?
So the condition for second minimum,
a 
sin   or a sin   2 
4 2
This is satisfied for every pair of rays, separated by a distance a/4.
In general, the condition for m TH minima,
a sin   m  m   1,  2,  3, . . .
There is a secondary maximum approximately half way between
each adjacent pair of minima.

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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

Problem: 2
In P-1, what is the wavelength ’ of the light whose first
diffraction maximum (not counting the central maximum)
falls at 15o, thus coinciding with the first minimum of red
light?
Problem: E42-5
A single slit is illuminated by light whose wavelengths are
a and b, so chosen that the first diffraction minimum of
a component coincides with the second minimum of the
b component.
(a) What is the relationship between the two
wavelengths?
(b) Do any other minima in the two patterns coincide?

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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

• Aim is to find an expression for the intensity of the entire
pattern as a function of the diffraction angle. Phasor showing
• The phase difference between two waves arriving at point P
a) Central maximum
from two points on the slit (with separation x) is,
b) A direction slightly shifted
2 from central maximum
   x sin 
 c) First minimum
d) First maximum beyond the
central maximum
(corresponds to N = 18)

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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

From diagram,
  is the phase difference
E   2 R sin
2 between rays from the top
Em
Also   and bottom of the slit.
R
Combining, So we can write,
E  2
E   m sin  a sin 
 2 
2  a
sin  So,    sin 
Or , E   E m 2 


where  
2

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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

2
 sin  
The intensity    E 2  E m2  
  
2
 sin  
  m   where  m  E m is the max. intensity
2

  
From the above eqn., for minima, sin   0
   m  where m   1,  2,  3,.....
or, a sin   m  where m   1,  2,  3,.....

The intensity distribution in

single-slit diffraction for three
different values of the ratio a/

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Position of dark fringes in single-slit diffraction Width of central maximum

•We can define the width of the central maximum to be the distance
m
sin   between the m = +1 minimum and the m=-1 minimum:
a
D D 2 D
If, like the Young’s 2-slit treatment we assume small angles, sin ≈ tan  =ymin/D, then y   
a a a
Dm Positions of intensity
ymin  MINIMA of diffraction the narrower the slit,
a pattern on screen, the more the diffraction
measured from central pattern “spreads out”
position.
a sin θ = λ first minima
Very similar to expression derived for 2-slit experiment:
If we narrow the slit the
m Intensity image of diffraction angle must get bigger -
ym  D But remember, in this case ym are positions of MAXIMA
distribution pattern more flaring
d In interference pattern
- what happens when a
= λ?

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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

Problem: SP42-3 Problem: SP42-4

Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the Find the width  of the central maximum in a single slit
maxima in the single slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. Fraunhofer diffraction. The width can be represented as the
angle between the two points in the pattern where the
intensity is one-half that at the center of the pattern.

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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE

Problem: E42-11

Monochromatic light with wavelength 538 nm falls on a slit

with width 25.2m. The distance from the slit to a screen is
3.48m. Consider a point on the screen 1.13cm from the
central maximum. Calculate (a)  (b)  (c) ratio of the
intensity at this point to the intensity at the central
maximum.

DIFFRACTION PATTERN DUE TO A CIRCULAR APERTURE

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DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE

The mathematical analysis of diffraction by a circular aperture Raleigh’s criterion for optical resolution: The images of two closely
spaced sources is said to be just resolved if the angular separation of
shows that the first minimum occurs at an angle from the the two point sources is such that the central maximum of the
 diffraction pattern of one source falls on the first minimum of the
central axis given by sin   1 . 22
d diffraction pattern of the other.
 
where d is the diameter of aperture. R  sin11.22  R is the smallest angular
 d
separation for which we
The equation for first minimum in single slit diffraction is since R is very small, it can be appoximated as
can resolve the images of
 
R  1.22
sin   d two objects.
a
where a is the slit width
a. Not resolved
In case of circular aperture, the factor 1.22 arises when we divide the
b. Just resolved
aperture into elementary Huygens sources and integrate over the
aperture. c. Well resolved

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DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE

Using a circular instrument (telescope, human eye),
when can we just resolve two distant objects?
 
 R  sin 1 1.22 
 d
 R is very small, since the sources are distant and closely spaced
R is the smallest angular separation
for which we can resolve the images of two objects.
Problem: SP42-5
A converging lens 32mm in diameter has a focal length f of 24
cm. (a) What angular separation must two distant point
objects have to satisfy Rayleigh’s criterion? Assume that  =
550nm. (b) How far apart are the centers of the diffraction
patterns in the focal plane of the lens?

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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND In case of double slit experiment:

DIFFRACTION Each of the two slit has a finite width and
the light is diffracted through it in a single slit diffraction pattern

1.Young’s double-slit experiment is an idealized
situation in which slits were assumed to be very narrow
(a << λ).
2.This cannot occur with actual slits because the
condition a << λ cannot usually be met.
Usually, the width of each of the slits (a) is quite a bit less than the
separation (d) between their centers
Two single slit diffraction pattern is to be superposed
to get the final intensity
The final result can be obtained by drawing a two slit interference
pattern inside the envelope of a single slit diffraction pattern

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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

Interference

I  , INT  I m, INT cos 2

β 

Diffraction 2
 sin α 
I  , DIF   m, DIF  α 
 

Each of the two slits is divided into N zones. Electric field at P is

Interference + Diffraction found by adding the phasors. There is phase difference of  =
 sin α
2
/N between each of the N phasors where  is the phase
I  m cos 2   difference between1st phasor and Nth phasor.
 α 

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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED
From the figure ,

E   2E 1 sin
2
 
where  
2 2
or     (  )
   
Also sin sin     cos   .........( A )
2 2 2   2 
 
and  ( d  a ) sin 
2 
Adding all the phasors, we get the resultant E1 due to the first slit.
 a
 is the phase difference between the light waves at the point P, Adding  sin  to both sides of above eqn , we get ,
2 
emitted from bottom edge of the first slit and top edge of the
 
second slit. E2 is the resultant due to the second slit. E is the  d sin  which is 
2 
resultant of E1 and E2.

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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED
Substituti ng this in eqn( A ), we get,
Problem: SP42- 6

sin  cos 
2
From sin gle  slit diffractio n, we have, Ina double slit experiment, the distance D of the screen
the electric amplitude at P due to one slit,
from the slits is 52cm, the wavelength is 480nm, slit
 sin  
E1  Em  
   separation d is 0.12mm and the slit width a is 0.025mm.
  sin  
 E   2E1 sin ie, E   ( 2Em )  cos  a) What is the spacing between adjacent fringes?
2   
2 b) What is the distance from the central maximum to the
 sin  
     m (cos )2  
   first minimum of the fringe envelope?
DOUBLE-SLIT
SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
INTERFERENCE PATTERN
PATTERN

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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

Problem: SP42- 7

What requirements must be met for the central maximum

of the envelope of the double-slit interference pattern to
contain exactly 11 fringes?

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Interference pattern from 3 slits

MULTIPLE SLITS: Width of the Central maximum

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For N slits, intensity of the primary maxima is N 2 times greater than that due to a
single slit.

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MULTIPLE SLITS

Multiple slit arrangement

will be the interference
pattern multiplied by the
single slit diffraction
envelope. This assumes
For N slits, intensity of the primary maxima is N 2 times greater than that due to a that all the slits are
single slit.
As the number of slits increases, the primary maxima increase in intensity and become identical.
narrower, while the secondary maxima decrease in intensity
As number of slits increases, number of secondary maxima also increases. In fact,
the number of secondary maxima is always N - 2, where N is the number of slits.

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MULTIPLE SLITS MULTIPLE SLITS

Condition for principal

maxima,
d sin  = m 
where d is the
separation between Intensity pattern for
adjacent slits. (a) Two-slit diffraction
(b) Five-slit diffraction
Location of principal (diffraction effect is
maxima is independent neglected)

of number of slits.

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MULTIPLE SLITS MULTIPLE SLITS

Width of the maxima: Central maximum
 The pattern contains central maximum with minima on Width of the maxima: Central maximum
either side.
 At the location of central maximum, the phase difference    
L    
between the waves from the adjacent slits is zero.  2   N
 At minima, the phase difference is such that,
 Also we know,
2  L  d sin  0
  where N is the number of slits
N
 From the equation, for given  and
 d sin  0
 Corresponding path difference is, N d if we increase number of slits (N),
 then the angular width of principal
    sin  0 
L     Nd maximum decreases. ie the
 2  N principal maximum becomes

 0  sharper.
Nd
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MULTIPLE SLITS MULTIPLE SLITS

Width of the maxima: Other principal maxima Width of the maxima: Other principal maxima
λ
d sinθ  θ  mλ 
For the mth principal N
maximum at  by a   
grating: d sin = m . d sin  cos
   cos  sin
   m 
   N
For the first minimum 1
at  +  after the mth d   d cos   
sin  m   N
principal maximum 
m   d cos      m   N
 ANGULAR HALF WIDTH OF mTH
 
λ N d cos 
d sinθ  θ 
PRINCIPAL MAXIMUM AT 
mλ 
N The principal maximum become sharper as
MINIMUM AT θ MINIMUM AT θ
+θ number of slits (N) increases +θ

mth PRINCIPAL mth PRINCIPAL

MAXIMUM AT θ MAXIMUM AT θ

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MULTIPLE SLITS MULTIPLE SLITS

Problem: SP43- 1 Problem: E43-5

A certain grating has 104 slits with a spacing of d = 2100 nm.
It is illuminated with yellow sodium light ( = 589 nm). Find
(a) the angular position of all principal maxima observed
and (b) the angular width of the largest order maximum.
Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a
diffraction grating. Two adjacent principal maxima occur at sin
 = 0.20 and sin  = 0.30. The fourth order is missing. (a) what
is the separation between adjacent slits? (b) what is the
smallest possible individual slit width? (c) Name all orders
actually appearing on the screen with the values derived in (a)
and (b).

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Grating contains : greater

number of slits, or rulings,
as many as several 1000
per millimeter

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Diffraction Gratings
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
Grating contains : greater number of slits,
The diffraction grating, a useful device for analyzing light sources,
or rulings, as many as several 1000 per
millimeter consists of a large number of equally spaced parallel slits.
 A transmission grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on
Light passed through the grating forms a glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between
narrow interference fringes that can be the grooves are transparent to the light and hence act as separate
analyzed to determine the wavelength slits.
 A reflection grating can be made
by cutting parallel grooves
on the surface of a reflective
material.
As the number of rulings increases beyond 2 The reflection of light from
the intensity plot changes from that of a
the spaces between the grooves
double slit pattern to one with very narrow
maxima (called lines) surrounded by is specular, and the reflection
relatively wide dark regions from the grooves cut into
the material is diffuse. 72

71 72

the condition for
interference maxima at a
specific angle () is
We can use this expression
to calculate the wavelength
if we know the grating
spacing d and the angle ().
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If the incident radiation contains several
wavelengths, the mth-order maximum
for each wavelength occurs at
a specific angle.
All wavelengths are seen at  = 0,
corresponding to m = 0, the
zeroth-order maximum.
The first-order maximum (m = 1) is
observed at an angle that satisfies
the relationship sin  = λ/d.
The second-order maximum (m =2) is
observed at a larger angle , and so on.
74
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
Grating spectrometer
m=0 m=1 m=2 m=3
Sample spectra of visible light emitted by a gaseous source
76

77
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
Problem: E43-9
Given a grating with 400 rulings/mm, how many orders of
the entire visible spectrum (400-700nm) can be produced?
A grating has 315 rulings / mm. For what wavelengths in the
visible spectrum can fifth-order diffraction be observed?
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DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
Problem: SP43-2
A diffraction grating has 1.20 x 104 rulings uniformly
spaced over W= 2.50cm. It is illuminated at normal
incidence by yellow light from sodium vapor lamp which
contains two closely spaced lines of wavelengths 589.0nm
and 589.59nm. (a) At what angle will the first order
maximum occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b)
What is the angular separation between the first order
maxima of these lines? (c) How close in wavelength can
two lines be (in first order) and still be resolved by this
grating? (d) How many rulings can a grating have and just
resolve the sodium doublet lines?
78
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
Problem: E43-11
White light (400 nm <  < 700 nm) is incident on a grating .
Show that, no matter what the value of the grating spacing d,
the second- and third-order spectra overlap.
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DISPERSION
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
A grating with high dispersive power must widely spread apart the
diffraction lines associated with nearly equal wavelengths.
The ability of a grating to produce spectra that permit precise
measurement of wavelengths is determined by two intrinsic Angular separation between spectral lines
Dispersion 
Difference between wavelength of spectral lines
properties of the grating,

(1) Dispersion: High dispersive powers refers to the wide separation

of the spectral lines Δθ
D 
Δλ
(2) Resolving power: Ability of the instrument to show the
close spectral lines as the separate ones

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DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER RESOLVING POWER

Dispersion Ability of grating to resolve two nearby spectral lines so that
Δθ two Lines can be viewed or photographed as separate lines.
D 
Δλ To resolve lines whose wavelengths are close together, the lines
d sin = m  should be as narrow as possible.
Differentiating the above equation, For two close spectral lines of wavelength 1 and 2, just
resolved by the grating, the resolving power is defined as
d cos   = m 
     1   2   1   2
R
Δθ m  2
D 
Δλ d cos θ The limit of resolution is determined by
the Rayleigh criterion
To achieve higher dispersion we must use a grating of smaller
the minimum wavelength separation we
grating spacing and work in higher order m . can resolve min  2-1 occurs when
the maximum of 2 overlaps with the
first diffraction minimum of 1. 84

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DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER Intensity patterns of two close
lines due to three gratings A, B, C.
Resolving power Resolving power
We have, N = 5,000
d = 10 m
Δθ m  R = 5,000
D    D = 1.0 x 10-4 rad/m
Δλ d cos θ N d cos 
Putting second equation in first equation,
N = 5,000
d = 5 m
   R = 5,000
  D = 2.0 x 10-4 rad/m
 N d cos   
m
 d cos 
N = 10,000
 d = 10 m
R  Nm R = 10,000

D = 1.0 x 10-4 rad/m
Resolving power increases with increasing N

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DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER

Problem: SP43-3 Problem: SP43-4

A diffraction grating has 1.20 X 104 rulings uniformly spaced

A grating has 9600 lines uniformly spaced over a width
3cm and is illuminated by mercury light.
a) What is the expected dispersion in the third order, in
the vicinity of intense green line ( = 546nm)?
b) What is the resolving power of this grating in the fifth
order?
over a width W = 2.50cm. It is illuminated at normal
incidence by yellow light from a sodium vapor lamp. This
light contains two closely spaced lines of wavelengths 589.0
nm and 589.59 nm. (a) At what angle does the first
maximum occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b) What
is the angular separation between these two lines (1st
order)? (c) How close in wavelength can two lines be (in first
order) and still be resolved by this grating? (d) How many
rulings can a grating have and just resolve the sodium
doublet line?

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DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Problem: E43-17
The sodium doublet in the spectrum of sodium is s pair of
lines with wavelengths 589.0 and 589.6 nm. Calculate the
minimum number of rulings in a grating needed to resolve
this doublet in the second-order spectrum.
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X-RAY DIFFRACTION
For the observation of diffraction phenomenon by grating, the
grating space should have the dimension of the wavelength of
the wave diffracted. Since the x-ray wavelength and the inter-
planar spacing in crystals are of the same order, a crystal can be
a suitable grating for observing the diffraction of x-rays.
x-ray diffraction
producing Laue’s
pattern
X-ray tube
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DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Problem: E43-21
In a particular grating, the sodium doublet is viewed in
third order at 10.2 to the normal and is barely resolved.
Find (a) the ruling spacing and (b) the total width of
grating.
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X-RAY DIFFRACTION
 When a monoenergetic x-ray beam is
incident on a sample of a single crystal,
diffraction occurs resulting in a pattern
consisting of an array of symmetrically
arranged diffraction spots, called Laue’s
spots.
 The single crystal acts like a grating
with a grating constant comparable
with the wavelength of x-rays, making A Laue pattern of a
the diffraction pattern distinctly visible. single crystal.
 Since the diffraction pattern is decided Each dot
by the crystal structure, the study of represents a
the diffraction pattern helps in the point of
constructive
analysis of the crystal parameters.
interference.
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X-RAY DIFFRACTION X-RAY DIFFRACTION

A plane through a crystal of NaCl (a) Electron density contour of an organic molecule
(b) A structural representation of same molecule

The x-rays are diffracted by the electron concentrations in the

NaCl crystal (a0 = 0.563nm) material. By studying the directions of diffracted x-ray beam, we
can study the basic symmetry of the crystal. By studying the
intensity, we can learn how the electrons are distributed in a unit
NaCl unit cell cell.

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X-RAY DIFFRACTION X-RAY DIFFRACTION

Bragg’s Law Bragg’s Law
 In every crystal, several sets of parallel planes called the Bragg
 Glancing angle. ie angle
planes can be identified.
between the incident x-ray beam
 Each of these planes have an identical and a definite
and the reflecting crystal planes.
arrangement of atoms.
For constructive interference of
 Different sets of Bragg planes are oriented at different angles
diffracted x-rays the path
and are characterized by different inter planar distances d.
difference for the rays from the
adjacent planes, (abc in the
figure) must be an integral
number of wavelength.
ie 2d sin  = n 

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X-RAY DIFFRACTION X-RAY DIFFRACTION

Problem: SP43-5 Problem: E43-25

At what angles must an x-ray

beam with wavelength = 0.110 A beam of x-rays of wavelength 29.3 pm is incident on a
nm fall on the family of planes calcite crystal of lattice spacing 0.313 nm. Find the smallest
in figure if a diffracted beam is angle between the crystal planes and the beam that will
to exist? Assume material to result in constructive reflection of the x-rays.
be sodium chloride (a0 =
0.563nm)

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QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION

Discuss the diffraction due to single-slit. Obtain the Explain Rayleigh’s criterion for resolving images due to a
locations of the minima and maxima qualitatively. circular apperture.

Obtain an expression for the intensity in single-slit Obtain an expression for the intensity in double-slit
diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram. diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram.

Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the first
three secondary maxima in the single-slit diffraction
pattern.
Discuss qualitatively diffraction at a circular aperture.
Discuss qualitatively the diffraction due to multiple slits
(eg, 5 slits).
Obtain an expression for the width of the central
maximum in diffraction pattern due to multiple slits.

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QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION

Obtain an expression for the width of a principal

maximum at an angle in diffraction pattern due to
multiple slits.

Obtain an expression for dispersion by a diffraction

grating.

Obtain an expression for resolving power of a diffraction

grating.

Discuss Bragg’s law for X-ray diffraction.

101