TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY (MANDALAY)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

STUDY ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VARIATION OF

CONCRETE WITH AGE

BY
MG PYI HEIN KYAW

B.E. THESIS

OCTOBER, 2019
MANDALAY
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY (MANDALAY)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

STUDY ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VARIATION OF

CONCRETE WITH AGE

BY
MG PYI HEIN KYAW

A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
CIVIL ENGINEERING
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENTS OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE BACHELORDEGREE OF ENGINEERING
(CIVIL)

OCTOBER, 2019
MANDALAY
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 i
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, the author offers deepest gratitude and appreciation to his beloved parents
who permit and heartily help to learn the knowledge from the Kinder Garden to the
University.
The author is very thankful to Dr. Sint Soe, Rector, Technological University
(Mandalay), for his invaluable permission.
The author would like to express special thanks to Dr. Thazin Thein, Professor and
Head, Department of Civil Engineering, Technological University (Mandalay), for her kind
help and invaluable advice.
The author deeply thanks his supervisor Daw A Mie Mie Thaw Han, Lecturer,
Department of Civil Engineering, Technological University (Mandalay), for her valuable
guidance, necessary advice and suggestions throughout the whole length of the work.
The author wishes to extend grateful thanks to Dr. Thiha Zaw, Professor and Deputy
Head and Daw San San Myint, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Technological University (Mandalay), for their kindness, helpful suggestions and
accomplished supervision.
The author has no words to express his heart-felt gratitude to Daw Nyein Nyein
Thant, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Technological University
(Mandalay), for her enthusiastic suggestion and careful instructions.
The author thanks Daw Ni Ni Aung, Assistant Lecturer, Department of Civil
Engineering, Technological (Mandalay), for reading the thesis and giving ideas.
The author also wishes to express gratitude Daw Khin Thida, Assistant Engineer
(Irrigation Technology Centre, Upper Myanmar, Mandalay) for her providing necessary
helps.
Last but not the least, the author owned a deep debt of gratitude to all of his teachers
who give the training and knowledge from childhood up to now.
 ii
 

ABSTRACT

This study presents compressive strength variation of concrete with age. In this
study, Irrawaddy river sand and local cements (AAA and Crown) are used to study. The mix
proportions of 1:2:4 and 1:1.5:3 are used to study on the difference in variation of concrete
compressive strength. This study includes two portions.
In the first portion, the physical properties of local materials such as cement, fine
aggregate and coarse aggregate are determined according to ASTM procedures and are
compared with ASTM standard. In the second portion, the compressive strength of concrete
is tested at 7, 14, 28, 90 and 150 days under all-time curing. The concrete compressive
strength is also tested at 90 and 150 days under dry condition after 28 days curing. Aggregate
with maximum size 19 mm is used. The slump is set up between 3.5''- 4'' and the water-
cement ratio is determined. The water-cement ratio 0.6 is used for 1:2:4 mix proportion and
0.5 for 1:1.5:3 mix proportion.
Adequate water content contained in initial mix affects the increase of the concrete
compressive strength at later ages and inadequate water content leads to adverse effect.
Under moist condition, the hydration process occurs continuously and it increases the
concrete strength with time. To conclude for this study, the compressive strength of concrete
increases with age if the concrete is kept under curing condition.
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
ABSTRACT ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES v
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix
CHAPTER TITLE
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. General 1
1.2. Objectives of the Study 2
1.3. Scope of the Study 2
1.4. Outlines of the Study 2
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 3
2.1. General 3
2.2. Cement 4
2.2.1. Types of Portland Cement 4
2.2.1.1. Type I Portland cement 4
2.2.1.2. Type II Portland cement 5
2.2.1.3. Type III Portland cement 5
2.2.1.4. Type IV Portland cement 5
2.2.1.5. Type V Portland cement 6
2.2.2. Hydration of Portland Cement 6
2.2.3. Physical Properties of Portland Cement 7
2.2.3.1. Fineness of cement 8
2.2.3.2. Normal consistency 8
2.2.3.3. Setting time 9
2.2.3.4. Soundness of cement 11
2.2.3.5. Specific gravity of cement 12
2.3. Aggregates 13
2.3.1. Characteristics of Aggregates 13
2.3.2. Grading 15
2.3.3. Physical Properties of Aggregate 15
2.3.3.1. Sieve analysis of aggregate 15
 iv

2.3.3.2. Specific gravity and water absorption 15

2.4. Water 17
2.5. Concrete 17
2.5.1. Mix Proportions 18
2.5.2. Slump Test 19
2.5.3. Curing 21
2.5.4. Compressive Strength (Variation with Time) 23
3 TESTING ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STUDIED MATERIALS 26
3.1. General 26
3.2. Tests on Cement 26
3.2.1. Fineness (Specific Surface) Test 26
3.2.2. Normal Consistency Test 28
3.2.3. Setting Time Test 29
3.2.4. Soundness Test 30
3.2.5. Specific Gravity Test 31
3.3. Testing on Aggregates 34
3.3.1. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate 34
3.3.2. Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate 35
3.3.3. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate 37
3.3.4. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of Coarse Aggregate 39
4 TESTING ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
WITH AGE 42
4.1. General 42
4.2. Testing on Compressive Strength of Concrete 42
5 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 54
5.1. Discussions and Conclusion 54
5.2. Recommendations 55
REFERENCES 56
 v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1. Range in Proportions of Materials Used in Concrete, by Absolute

Volume 3
2.2. Rate of Heat Evolution During the Hydration of Portland Cement 7
2.3. Vicat Plunger for Normal Consistency Test 9
2.4. Vicat Apparatus 11
2.5. Time of Set for Portland Cements 11
2.6. Le-Chatelier Apparatus 12
2.7. True Slump and Shear Slump 20
2.8. Collapse Slump 21
2.9. Three Phases of Concrete Curing 22
2.10. Variation of Concrete Strength with Time 24
3.1. Testing for Fineness of Cement 27
3.2. Testing for Initial Setting Time of Cement 29
3.3. Testing for Soundness of Cement 30
3.4. Kerosene 0.1 ml Capacity for Testing Specific Gravity of Cement 32
3.5. Weighting Cement for Testing Specific Gravity of Cement 33
3.6. Putting Cement into Le-Chatelier Flask for Testing Specific Gravity of Cement 33
3.7. Testing for Specific Gravity of Cement 33
3.8. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate 34
3.9. Sieves for Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate 36
3.10. Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate 37
3.11. Grading of Coarse Aggregate Used in the Study 37
3.12. Specific Gravity Test of Fine Aggregate 38
3.13. Saturated Surface-Dry Fine Aggregate 38
3.14. Specific Gravity Test of Coarse Aggregate 39
3.15. Testing Apparatuses for Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate 40
3.16. Water Absorption Test for Coarse Aggregate 40
 vi
 

4.1. Compressive Strength Test of Concrete 42

4.2. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:2:4 Mix Proportion (AAA) 44
4.3. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:2:4 Mix Proportion (Crown) 46
4.4. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:1.5:3 Mix Proportion (AAA) 47
4.5. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:1.5:3 Mix Proportion (Crown) 49
4.6. Compressive Strength of Concrete for AAA cement 51
4.7. Compressive Strength of Concrete for Crown Cement 51
 vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
2.1. Types of Portland Cement 4
2.2. Composition of Portland Cement with Chemical Composition and 6
Weight Percent
2.3. Characteristics of Aggregate 14
2.4. Proportion of Cement, Sand and Coarse Aggregate in Concrete 18
2.5. Workability, Slump and Compacting Factor of Concrete with 19 or 38 mm
Maximum Size of Aggregate 19
3.1. Fineness (Specific Surface) of AAA Cement 27
3.2. Fineness (Specific Surface) of Crown Cement 27
3.3. Normal Consistency of AAA Cement 28
3.4. Normal Consistency of Crown Cement 28
3.5. Setting Time of AAA Cement 29
3.6. Setting Time of Crown Cement 30
3.7. Soundness of AAA Cement 31
3.8. Soundness of Crown Cement 31
3.9. Specific Gravity of AAA Cement 31
3.10. Specific Gravity of Crown Cement 32
3.11. Fineness Modulus of Fine Aggregate by Sieve Analysis 34
3.12. Fineness Modulus of Coarse Aggregate by Sieve Analysis 35
3.13. Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregate 38
3.14. Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate 39
3.15. Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate 40
3.16. Water Absorption of Coarse Aggregate 41
4.1. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:2:4 Mix Proportion (AAA Cement) 43
4.2. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:2:4 Mix Proportion (Crown Cement) 45
4.3. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:1.5:3 Mix Proportion (AAA Cement) 46
4.4. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:1.5:3 Mix Proportion (Crown Cement) 48
4.5. Summary of Compressive Strength for Study 50
 viii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

cm centimetre
cm3 cubic centimetre
gm gram
hr hour
hrs hours
in inch
kg kilogram
m2 square meter
Mg mega gram
min minute
ml milliliter
mm millimetre
mm2 square millimetre
MPa mega Pascal
N Newton
s second
o
C Degree Centigrade
µm micrometre
% percentage
 ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official

ACI American Concrete Institute
ASTM American Society of Testing and Material
IS Indian Standard
No. Number
OD Oven Dry
SSD Saturated Surface-Dry
Wt. Weight
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. General
Concrete has become the material of choice for many building and infrastructure
projects around the world. This trend can be particularly seen in the area of high rise
construction. The majority of tall buildings being designed and constructed today feature
either primary structural systems utilizing all concrete or a composite system utilizing
concrete and steel. Concrete construction has always had an inherent advantage for tall
building design in that it provides a significant amount of stiffness, mass, and damping for
the structural system. Concrete has been made the world’s most widely used construction
material by its versatility, durability, sustainability, and economy. The term concrete refers
to a mixture of aggregates, usually sand, and either gravel of crushed stone, held together by
a binder of cementitious paste. The paste is typically made up of Portland cement and water,
and may also contain supplementary cementing materials, such as fly ash and chemical
admixture. The volume of the whole mix is equal to the solid volume of the paste plus the
solid volume of the aggregate plus the volume of air voids. It is possible to control the
properties of cement concrete with a wide range by using appropriate ingredients and by
applying special processing techniques- mechanical, chemical and physical.
The strength of concrete depends upon the components such as aggregate, quality of
cement, water-cement ratio, workability, normal consistency of mix  proportion and age of
concrete. The age of concrete structures has lots to do with its strength and durability
properties. Understanding the strength-time relationship of concrete helps to know the effect
of loading at a later age. As per studies and researches, the compressive strength of the
concrete will increase with age. Most researches were conducted to study the 28th day
strength of concrete. But in reality, the strength at 28th day is less compared to the long-term
strength that it can gain with age. In dry conditions, after 1 year there is no increase in
concrete strength. On the other hand, the strength of specimens stored in a wet environment
(at 15°C) is considerably increased. Therefore, two different brands of cement (AAA and
Crown) and each with two different mix proportions are used to study on compressive
strength variation of concrete with age under all-time curing and dry condition after 28 days
curing.
 2
 

1.2. Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are mentioned in the following.
1. To determine the physical properties of local materials such as cement, fine and
coarse aggregates, and
2. To study on compressive strength variation of concrete with age.

1.3. Scope of the Study

To meet above objectives, the following scope has been set up.
1. Local product cement; AAA and Crown cements are used.
2. Irrawaddy river sand: fine sand is used in this study.
3. To know the physical properties of cement, the fineness (specific surface) test,
specific gravity test, normal consistency test, setting time test and soundness test
are carried out according to ASTM.
4. Specific gravity, fineness modulus and water absorption tests are carried out for
fine and coarse aggregates.
5. Concrete mix: 1:2:4 with water-cement ratio 0.6 (slump 3.5'' - 4'') and 1:1.5:3
with water-cement ratio 0.5 (slump 3.5'' - 4'') are used.
6. Compressive strength tests of concrete are performed at 7, 14, 28, 90 and 150
days respectively. Curing and non-curing conditions are considered for 90 and
150 days after 28 days curing.

1.4. Outlines of the Study

This study consists of five chapters. Chapter one presents the introduction,
objectives, scope and outlines of the study. Chapter two includes literature review. Chapter
three consists of testing on physical properties of studied materials (cement, fine and coarse
aggregates). Chapter four describes testing on compressive strength variation of concrete
with age. In chapter five, discussions, conclusion and recommendations are presented for
this study.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. General
The development of Portland cement was the result of persistent investigation by
science and industry to manufacture a product superior in quality to natural cement. The
invention of Portland cement is generally credited to Joseph Aspdin, an English mason. In
1824, a patent for that product is obtained, which named Portland cement because in its final
state, it resembled the color of the natural limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland in the
English Channel. The name has endured and is used throughout the world, with many
manufacturers adding own trade or brand names.
Concrete is the basis of much of civilization’s infrastructure and much of its physical
development. Twice as much concrete is used throughout the world than all other building
materials combined. A key benefit of concrete is the ability to modify the concrete
constituents and proportions to best meet the sustainability goals of a particular application.
Concrete is basically a mixture of two components: aggregates and paste. The paste,
comprised of Portland cement and water, binds the aggregates into a rocklike mass as the
paste hardens from the chemical reaction between cement and water. Figure 2.1 shows the
range in proportions of materials used in concrete by absolute volume. The performance of
concrete is related to workmanship, mix proportions, material characteristics, and adequacy
of curing.

Up to 8% Air

7 – 15% Cement

60 – 75% Aggregates
(Coarse and Fine)

14 – 21% Water

Figure 2.1. Range in Proportions of Materials Used in Concrete, by Absolute Volume

[11Ste]
 4
 

2.2. Cement
Cement can be described as a material with adhesive and cohesive properties, which
makes capable of bonding material fragment into a compact mass. Cement, as used in
construction industries, is a fine powder which is mixed with water and allowed to set and
harden. It can join different components of member together to give a mechanically strong
structure. Thus, cement can be used as a bonding material for bricks or for bonding solid
particles of different sizes to form a monolith. Of the various hydraulic cement, Portland
cement, which was first patented in England in 1824, is by far the most common.

2.2.1. Types of Portland Cement

Different types of Portland cement are manufactured to meet various physical and
chemical requirements for specific purposes. Portland cements are manufactured to meet
the specifications of ASTM C150 or AASHTO M85. The requirements of AASHTO M85
and ASTM C150 are equivalent.  ASTM C150 (AASHTO M85) provides for ten types of
Portland cement and is shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Types of Portland Cement

ASTM C 150-16 Description

I Normal

IA Air-entrainment

II Moderate sulphate resistance

IIA Air-entrainment

II (MH) Moderate sulphate resistance and moderate heat of hydration

II (MH)A Air-entrainment

III High early strength

IIIA Air-entrainment

IV Low heat of hydration

V High sulphate resistance

2.2.1.1. Type I Portland cement

Type I Portland cement is a general-purpose cement suitable for all uses where the
special properties of other cement types are not required. This is the most common cement
used in general concrete constructions when there is no exposure to sulphate in the soil or
 5
 

in ground water. Its uses in concrete include pavements, floors, reinforced concrete
buildings, bridges, tanks, reservoirs, pipe, masonry units, and precast concrete products.
Type IA Portland cement is air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where
air-entrainment is desired.

2.2.1.2. Type II Portland cement

Type II Portland cement is used where protection against moderate sulfate attack is
necessary. It is used in normal structures or elements exposed to soil or ground waters where
sulfate concentrations are higher than normal, but not unusually severe. The use of Type II
cement in concrete must be accompanied by the use of a low water-to-cementitious
materials ratio and low permeability to effectively control sulfate attack.
Type IIA Portland cement is air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II,
where air-entrainment is desired.
Type II (MH) cements are manufactured to generate heat at a slower rate than Type
I or most Type II cements by limiting the heat index to a maximum of 100. Type II (MH)
can often be used in structures of considerable mass, such as large piers, large
foundations, and thick retaining walls. Using MH cements will reduce temperature rise,
peak temperature and, minimize temperature related cracking. Thermal control is especially
important when concrete is placed in warm weather.
Type II (MH)A Portland cement is air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type
II (MH), where air-entrainment is desired.

2.2.1.3. Type III Portland cement

Type III Portland cement provides strength at an earlier period than normally
expected. For example, strength may be achieved in a matter of days as compared to the
typical expectation of 28 days. Type III is chemically similar to Type I cement, except that
its particles have been ground finer. It is used when forms need to be removed as soon as
possible or when the structure must be put into service quickly. In cold weather its use
permits a reduction in the length of the curing period. Rapid-hardening Portland cement
should not be used in mass concrete construction or in large structural sections because of
its higher rate of heat development.
Type IIIA Portland cement is air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type III,
where air-entrainment is desired.

2.2.1.4. Type IV Portland cement

Type IV Portland cement is used where the rate and amount of heat generated from
 6 
 

hydration must be minimized. It develops strength at a slower rate than other cement types.
Type IV cement is intended for use in massive concrete structures, such as large gravity
dams, where the temperature rise resulting from heat generated during hardening must be
minimized.

2.2.1.5. Type V Portland cement

Type V Portland cement is used in concrete exposed to severe sulfate environments,
principally where soils or ground waters have a high sulfate content. It gains strength more
slowly than Type I cement. The use of a low water-to-cementitious materials ratio and low
permeability are critical to the performance of any concrete exposed to sulfates. Even Type
V cement concrete cannot withstand a severe sulfate exposure if the concrete has a high
water-cementitious materials ratio.  Type V cement, like other Portland cements, is not
resistant to acids and other highly corrosive substances.

2.2.2. Hydration of Portland Cement

Concrete is prepared by mixing cement, water, and aggregate together to make a
workable paste. It is molded or placed as desired, consolidated, and then left to harden.
Concrete does not need to dry out in order to harden as commonly thought. The concrete
(or specifically, the cement in it) needs moisture to hydrate and cure (harden). When
concrete dries, it actually stops getting stronger. Concrete with too little water may be dry
but is not fully reacted. The properties of such a concrete would be less than that of a wet
concrete. The reaction of water with the cement in concrete is extremely important to its
properties and reactions may continue for many years.
Portland cement consists of five major compounds and a few minor compounds.
The composition of a typical Portland cement is listed by weight percentage in Table 2.2.
When water is added to cement, each of the compounds undergoes hydration and
contributes to the final concrete product. Only the calcium silicates contribute to strength.
Tricalcium silicate is responsible for most of the early strength (first 7 days). Dicalcium
silicate, which reacts more slowly, contributes only to the strength at later times.

Table 2.2. Composition of Portland Cement with Chemical Composition and Weight
Percent

Cement Compound Weight Percentage Chemical Formula

Tricalcium Silicate 50 % Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2
Dicalcium Silicate 25 % Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2
Tricalcium Aluminate 10 % Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO.Al2O3
 7
 

Table 2.2. (Continued)

Cement Compound Weight Percentage Chemical Formula

Tetracalcium Ca4Al2Fe2O10 or
10 %
Aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

Gypsum 5% CaSO4.2H2O

The rate of hydration of a compound may be affected by varying the concentration

of another. In general, the rates of hydration during the first few days ranked from fastest
to slowest are:
Tricalcium aluminate > Tricalcium silicate > Tetracalcium aluminoferrite >
Dicalcium silicate.
Heat is evolved with cement hydration. This is due to the breaking and making of
chemical bonds during hydration. The heat generated is shown in Figure 2.2 as a function
of time.
Rate of Heat Evolution

I II III IV V
12
hrs 20
hrs
15
mins 2
hrs

Minutes Hours Days

Figure 2.2. Rate of Heat Evolution During the Hydration of Portland Cement [08Con]

The stage I hydrolysis of the cement compounds occurs rapidly with a temperature
increase of several degrees. Stage II is known as the dormancy period. The evolution of
heat slows dramatically in this stage. The dormancy period can last from one to three hours.
During this period, the concrete is in a plastic state which allows the concrete to be
transported and placed without any major difficulty. This is particularly important for the
construction trade who must transport concrete to the job site. It is at the end of this stage
that initial setting begins. In stages III and IV, the concrete starts to harden and the heat
evolution increases due primarily to the hydration of tricalcium silicate. Stage V is reached
after 36 hours. The slow formation of hydrate products occurs and continues as long as
water and unhydrated silicates are present.

2.2.3. Physical Properties of Portland Cement

Concrete performance is largely dependent upon the properties of the cementitious
 8 
 

materials. Portland cement having the properties suitable for use in high-strength concrete
is one of the most important. The properties of Portland cement are (1) fineness of cement,
(2) normal consistency, (3) setting time, (4) soundness and (5) specific gravity of cement.

2.2.3.1. Fineness of cement

Fineness of cement is a vital property of cement that indicate particle size of cement
and specific surface area (m2/kg) and indirectly effect heat of hydration. Importance or
effects of fineness of cement are as follows:
1. It affects hydration rate hence the rate of strength gains.
2. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area-to-volume ratio, and
thus, the more area available for water-cement interaction per unit volume.
3. Therefore, finer cement reacts faster with water and the rate of development of
strength and corresponding heat of hydration is high.
4. Fineness is a measure of how even each granule is; leading to a greater surface
area and greater the surface area more the adhesion.
5. Bleeding can be reduced by increasing fineness. However, increased fineness
can also lead to the requirement of more water for workability, resulting in a
higher possibility of dry shrinkage.
6. Fineness test is used to check the proper grinding of cement and measures the
surface area of the cement particles per unit mass.

Fineness of hydraulic cement can be tested;

1. By the 45-µm (No. 325) sieve, ASTM C 430
2. By Air-Permeability Apparatus, ASTM C204
3. By the Turbidimeter, ASTM C115

Specific surface values can be calculated by following equation:

S = 321.1517 T x 0.1 (2.1)
Where, S = specific surface of the test sample, m2/kg
T = measured time interval, s, of manometer drop for standard sample

2.2.3.2. Normal consistency

Consistency refers to the relative mobility of a freshly mixed cement paste or mortar
or to its ability to flow. For the determination of the initial setting time, the final setting
time, and for soundness tests, neat cement paste of a normal consistency has to be used.
Therefore, it is necessary to determine, for any given cement, the water content which will
produce a paste of normal consistency. Consistence is determined by the Vicat apparatus
 9
 

using a 10 ± 1 mm diameter plunger. When the plunger penetrates the paste to a point
10 ± 1 mm for 30 seconds from the top of the mold, the paste is considered to be at normal
consistency. The water content of the paste is expressed as a percentage by weight of dry
cement. The usual ranges of values are between 26% and 33%. Vicat plunger for normal
consistency test is shown in Figure 2.3. The normal consistency of cement can be calculated
by following equation.
Wt. of water
Normal consistency =  100 (%) (2.2)
Wt. of cement

Removable needle,
1 mm by 50 mm,
concealed in end of
shaft

Entire 50 mm,
length graduated
by millimetres

Figure 2.3. Vicat Plunger for Normal Consistency Test

2.2.3.3. Setting time

A state is reached when the cement paste is sufficient rigid to withstand a definite
amount of pressure. The time to reach this stage is termed setting time. Alternatively,
setting time is the time required for stiffening of cement paste to a defined consistency.
Setting is mainly caused by a selective hydration of C3A (tricalcium aluminate) and C3S
(tricalcium silicate) and is accompanied by temperature rises in the cement paste. The
setting properties of hydraulic cement are measured to ensure that the cement is hydrating
normally. Two arbitrary setting times are used: initial set – which is considered to represent
the time that elapses from the moment water is added until the paste ceases to be fluid and
plastic, and final set – the time required for the paste to acquire a certain degree of hardness.
Initial set and final set should be distinguished from false set which sometime occur within
a few minutes of mixing with water. No heat is evolved in a false and the concrete can be
re-mixed without adding water.
 10 
 

Initial setting time is the time when the paste starts losing its plasticity. Initial setting
time test is important for transportation, placing and compaction of cement concrete. Initial
setting time duration is required to delay the process of hydration or hardening. For the
determination of initial setting time, allow the time of setting specimen to remain in the
moist room for 30 minutes after molding without being disturbed. Determine the penetration
of the 1 mm needle at this time and every 15 minutes thereafter until a penetration of 25
mm or less is obtained.

Final setting time is the time when the paste completely loses its plasticity. It is the
time taken for the cement paste or cement concrete to harden sufficiently and attain the
shape of the mould in which it is cast. Determination of final setting time period facilitates
safe removal of scaffolding or form. During this period of time primary chemical reaction
of cement with water is almost completed. The final setting time is when the penetration
measurement does not mark the specimen surface with a complete circular impression.

Temperature affects the setting time, specifically that the mixing has to be
undertaken at a temperature of 20 ± 2°C and minimum relative humidity of 65% and the
cement paste stored at 20 ± 1°C and maximum relative humidity of 90%. The initial setting
time of ordinary Portland cement should not be less than 45 minutes and the final setting
time no more than 375 minutes.

The setting times indicate if a paste is undergoing normal hydration reactions.

Sulfate (from gypsum or other sources) in the cement regulates setting time, but setting time
is also affected by cement fineness, water-cement ratio, and any admixtures that may be
used. Setting times of concrete do not correlate directly with setting time of pastes because
of water loss to the air or substrate, presence of aggregate, and because of temperature
differences in the field. Figure 2.4 shows Vicat apparatus for initial setting time test. Setting
time ranges for Portland cement are shown in Figure 2.5. The setting time of cement can be
calculated by the following equation.

TI = TOI –TO (2.3)

TF = TOF –TO (2.4)

Where, TI = initial setting time (min)

TOI = observed initial setting time (hr : min)

TO = starting time of supply of water (hr : min)

TF = final setting time (min)

TOF = observed final setting time (hr : min)

 11
 

Entire 50
mm length
graduated
in
millimetres

Figure 2.4. Vicat Apparatus

Time of Set, min (Vicat Method)

Figure 2.5. Time of Set for Portland Cements [08Bha]

2.2.3.4. Soundness of cement

Soundness refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste to retain its volume after
setting. Lack of soundness or delayed destructive expansion can be caused by excessive
amounts of hard-burned free lime or magnesia. Free lime is present in the clinker and is
inter-crystallized with other compounds, consequently, it hydrates very slowly occupying a
larger volume than the original free calcium oxide. Free lime cannot be determined by
chemical analysis of cement because it is not possible to distinguish between unreacted CaO
(lime) and Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) produced by a partial hydration of the silicates
when the cement is exposed to the atmosphere. Soundness of hardened cement paste can be
tested by Le-Chatelier method or Autoclave method. Le-Chatelier method is the most
 12 
 

common method and is widely used in the field and projects. Le-Chatelier Apparatus is
shown in Figure 2.6. Soundness of cement can be calculated by the following equation.

Soundness = DA – DB (2.5)

Where, DA = the measured distance between the two-pointed ends of Le-Chatelier mould
after immersing it into boiling water (mm)
DB = the measured distance between the two-pointed ends of Le-Chatelier mould
after 24 hr immersing it into water (mm)

Figure 2.6. Le-Chatelier Apparatus

2.2.3.5. Specific gravity of cement

The density of cement is defined as the mass of a unit volume of the solids or
particles, excluding air between particles. It is reported as gm/cm3. The particle density of
Portland cement ranges from 3.10 to 3.25, nominally 3.15 gm/cm3. Portland-blast-furnace-
slag and Portland-pozzolan cements have densities ranging from 2.90 to 3.15 gm/cm3. The
density of a cement, determined by ASTM C188, Standard Test Method for Density of
Hydraulic Cement, is not an indication of the cement’s quality; rather, its principal use is in
mixture proportioning calculations.
For mixture proportioning, it may be more useful to express the density as relative
density (also called specific gravity). The specific gravity or relative density is a
dimensionless number determined by dividing the cement density by the density of water
at 4°C, which is 1.0 gm/cm3. Specific gravity of cement can be calculated by the following
equation.

Density of cement
Specific gravity of cement = (2.6)
Density of water

W
Density of cement = (gm/cm3) (2.7)
V1-V2

Where, W = weight of cement (gm)

 13
 

V1 = volume of Kerosene + cement (ml)

V2 = volume of Kerosene (ml)

2.3. Aggregates
Aggregates which are inert material and act as filler material in cement concrete.
The proper selection of aggregates for use in concrete mixtures is critical to long term
concrete performance. Aggregates generally occupy 60% to 75% of the concrete volume
(70% to 85% by mass) and strongly influence the concrete’s fresh and hardened properties,
mixture proportions, and economy. Aggregates used in concrete must conform to certain
standards for optimum engineering performance. Aggregates must be clean, hard, strong,
and durable particles that are largely free of absorbed chemicals, coatings of clay, and other
fine materials in amounts that could affect hydration and bond of the cement paste.
Aggregate particles that are friable or capable of being split are undesirable.
Aggregates containing appreciable amounts of soft and porous materials, including some
varieties of siltstone, claystone, mudstone and shale, should be avoided. Certain types of
chert should be carefully avoided since they have low resistance to weathering and can
cause surface defects.
In ordinary structural concretes the aggregates occupy about three quarters of the
volume of the hardened mass. The remainder consists of hardened cement paste, un-
combined water (i.e. water not involved in the hydration of the cement) and air voids. In
general, the more densely the aggregate can be packed, the better the strength, weather
resistance, and the economy of the concrete. For this reason, the gradation of the particle
sizes in the aggregate, to produce close packing, is of considerable importance.
For convenience, aggregates are generally classified as fine aggregate (sand) or
coarse aggregate (stone). Fine aggregate consists mainly of particles which will pass
through a sieve having 5 mm or No. 4 ASTM sieve square openings. Coarse aggregate is
made up of particles which are mainly larger than 5 mm. Sand stones are most commonly
used for construction purpose.

2.3.1. Characteristics of Aggregates

The selection of aggregate is particularly important in making concrete. Good
aggregate must have certain characteristics to give workable, durable and economical
concrete. The important characteristics of aggregate for concrete are listed in Table 2.3.
Normal-weight aggregates should meet the requirements of ASTM C33, Standard
specification for Concrete Aggregates. This specification limits the permissible amounts of
 14 
 

deleterious substances and provide requirements for aggregate characteristics.

Identification of the constituents of an aggregate cannot alone provide a basis for
predicting the behavior of aggregates in service. Visual inspection will often disclose
weaknesses in coarse aggregates. Service records are invaluable in evaluating aggregates.
In the absence of a performance record, the aggregates should be tested before they are used
in concrete.

Table 2.3. Characteristics of Aggregate

Characteristics Significances

Index of aggregate quality; wear resistance

Resistance to abrasion and degradation
of floors and pavements

Surface scaling, roughness and loss of

Resistance to freezing and thawing
section

Resistance to disintegration by sulfates Soundness against weathering action

Particle shape and surface texture Workability of fresh concrete

Grading Workability of fresh concrete, economy

Index of aggregate quality,

Fine aggregation degradation
resistance to degradation during mixing
Uncompacted void content of fine
Workability of fresh concrete
aggregate

Bulk density (Unit weight) Mix design calculations, classification

Relative density (Specific gravity) Mix design calculations

Control of concrete quality (water-cement

Absorption and surface moisture
ratio)

Acceptability of fine aggregate failing

Compressive and flexural strength
other tests

Determine amount of deleterious and

Aggregate constituents
organic materials

Resistance to Alkali reactivity and volume

Soundness against volume change
change
 15
 

2.3.2. Grading
The workability of a concrete mix is also influenced by grading and since grading
which produces maximum density of aggregate tends to produce harsh mixes, density of
the aggregate alone cannot be taken as the final criterion. Therefore, an optimum gradation
of the combined aggregate in a concrete mix is desirable in order to secure maximum
density consistent with good workability of concrete and minimum cement requirements.
A well-graded mix produces a stronger concrete than a poorly graded one. And loss water
is required without seriously affecting the properties of the resulting concrete.
The proportion of the different sizes of particles making up the aggregate is found
by sieve analysis; the grading being usually given in terms of the percentage by weight
passing the various sieves. Continuously grading aggregate for concrete should contain
particles ranging in sizes from the largest to the smallest.

2.3.3. Physical Properties of Aggregate

The physical properties of fine and coarse aggregates are:
1. Sieve analysis of aggregate
2. Specific gravity and water absorption

2.3.3.1. Sieve analysis of aggregate

The particle size distribution of aggregates is called grading. To obtain a grading
curve for concrete, sieve analysis has to be conducted. To characterize the overall coarse or
fineness of an aggregate, a concept of fineness modulus. Test method for determining
fineness modulus of aggregate is described in ASTM C136. The method of test covers
procedure of the determination the particle size distribution of aggregates using sieve with
square openings. The fineness modulus is defined as,

(Accumulated percent retained)

Fineness modulus = (2.8)
100

2.3.3.2. Specific gravity and water absorption

The specific gravity of aggregate is the ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal
absolute volume of water. Test method for determining specific gravity of fine aggregate is
described in ASTM C128. The specific gravity of aggregate may be determined on a
saturated surface-dry (SSD) basis. Saturated surface-dry (SSD) is the situation in which the
permeable pores of aggregate particles are filled with water but there is no water on these
particles surface. The specific gravity of fine aggregate is defined as,
 16 
 

W1
Specific gravity = (2.9)
W2 +W1 -W3

Where, W1 = weight of fine aggregate in SSD condition (gm)

W2 = weight of bottle filled with water to calibration mark (gm)
W3 = weight of bottle filled with water and sand to calibration mark (gm)

Test method for determining specific gravity of coarse aggregate is described in

ASTM C 127. The specific gravity of coarse aggregate is calculated as follows.

W1
Specific gravity = (2.10)
W1 -W2

Where, W1 = weight of SSD sample in air (gm)

W2 = weight of SSD sample in water (gm)

Absorption values are used to estimate the change in the mass of an aggregate
material due to water absorbed in the pore spaces within the constituent particles, compared
to the dry condition, when it is deemed that the aggregate has been in contact with water
long enough to satisfy most of the absorption potential. The internal structure of an
aggregate particle is made up of solid matter and voids that may or may not contain water.
The moisture condition of aggregate refers to the presence of water in the pores and on the
surface of the aggregates. There are four different moisture conditions.

1. Oven-dry (OD): the condition in which the aggregates have been dried by
heating in an oven at 110 ± 5°C for sufficient time to reach a constant mass.
2. Air-dry (AD): the condition in which the aggregates are kept under room
temperature and humidity. Pores inside the aggregate are partly filled with water.
3. Saturated surface-dry (SSD): the condition in which the permeable pores of
aggregate particles are filled with water to the extent achieved by submerging in
water for the period of time, but without free water on the surface of the particles.
4. Wet (W): the condition in which the pores of the aggregate are fully filled with
water and the surface of the aggregate is covered with a thin film of water.

The absorption of fine aggregate is determined according to ASTM C128. The

formula to find the absorption of fine aggregate is:
 17
 

Ww
Absorption (%) =  100% (2.11)
Ws

Where, Ww = weight of water (gm)

Ws = weight of dry sand (gm)

Absorption of coarse aggregate is computed as a percentage by subtracting the oven-

dry mass from the saturated surface dry mass, dividing by the oven dry mass, and
multiplying by 100.

Test method for determining water absorption of coarse aggregate is described in

ASTM C 127. The absorption for coarse aggregate is defined as:

(W1 - W2 )
Absorption (%) =  100% (2.12)
W2

Where, W1 = weight of SSD sample in air (gm)

W2 = weight of oven dry sample (gm)

2.4. Water
Water is a key ingredient in concrete, that when mixed with Portland cement, forms
a paste that binds the aggregates together. Water causes the hardening of concrete through
hydration. Hydration is a chemical reaction between cement and water to form cementitious
hydration products. Sea water leads to slightly higher early strength but lower long-term
strength; the loss of strength is usually not more than 15%. It is also believed by some that
use of sea water increase the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement.

2.5. Concrete
Concrete that is durable and otherwise satisfactory under conditions which gives its
protection from the elements might be wholly unsuited in location of severe exposure to
disintegrating influences. The properties of concrete are influenced not only by the
properties of the constituent phases but also by the existence of their interfaces. Concrete
can be classified into two stages, fresh concrete and hardened concrete.
Concrete is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate
and water. This can be easily molded to desired shape and size before it loses plasticity and
 18 
 

hardens. Plain concrete is strong in compression but very weak in tension. Major ingredients
of concrete are binding materials (like cement, lime, polymer), fine aggregate (sand), coarse
aggregates (crushed stones) and water. A small quantity of admixtures such as air entraining
agents, water proofing agents and workability agents, etc., may also be added to impart
special properties to the plain concrete mixture.

2.5.1. Mix Proportions

Depending on the proportion of ingredients, strength of concrete varies.
Fundamental types of the concrete mix range from nominal mix, standard mix and design
mix. There are different types of grades for concrete mixes like G10, G15, G20, G25 and
G30. The letter G stands for the mix or grade and the number to the stated 28-day cube
strength of mix in MPa. The mixes of grades G10 to G15, G20, G25, G30 resemble roughly
to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3), (1:1:2) respectively.
Nominal Mix: These mixes belong to fixed cement aggregate ratio which certify
sufficient strength to the concrete. G10, G15, G20, G25 and G30 are defined as nominal
mixes. Because of changeability in mix, the workability and compressive strength of these
grades may vary. The ratio of mix is necessary, when the estimation of concrete is made.
Design Mix: In these mixes, the feasibility of the concrete is indicated by the
designer but the producer of concrete defines the mix proportions even though the least
cement content can be disposed of. This is most logical method for choosing mix
proportions with definite materials in mind covering comparatively unique characteristics.

Standard Mix: In this type of mix, the concrete is blended with the ratios of 1-part
cement, 2-parts sand, and 4-parts coarse material.
In proportioning of concrete, it is kept in mind that voids in coarse aggregates are
filled with sand and the voids in sand are filled with cement paste. Properties of concrete
are strength, resistance to wear, dimensional changes, durability and impermeability.
Proportion of ingredients usually adopted for various work are shown in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4. Proportion of Cement, Sand and Coarse Aggregate in Concrete

No. Proportion Nature of Work

For machine foundation, footings for steel columns and concreting

1 1:1:2
under water
Water tanks, shells, and folded plates, for other water retaining
2 1:1.5:3
structures
 19
 

Table 2.4. (Continued)

No. Proportion Nature of Work

Commonly used for reinforced concrete works like beams, slabs,

3 1:2:4
tunnel lining, bridges

4 1:3:6 Piers, abutments, concrete walls, sill of windows, floors

Mass concretes like dam, foundation course for walls, for making
5 1:4:8
concrete blocks

2.5.2. Slump Test

This test has a purpose to measure consistency of fresh concrete. The test specimen
is formed as a frustum of a cone with a base 20 cm in diameter, the upper surface 10 cm in
diameter and the height 30 cm. The base and the top of the mould are open and parallel to
each other and at right angles to the axis of the cone.
The slump cone should be placed on a flat, moist, non-absorptive surface. The cone
is filled by using three separate layers of concrete. Each layer is rodded with 25 strokes of
16 mm rod. After the top layer has been rodded, the surface of the concrete is struck off so
that the cone is exactly filled and spilled concrete cleaned from the base. The cone is
immediately removed from the concrete by raising it slowly and carefully in a vertical
direction. Workability, slump, and compacting factor of concrete with 19 or 38 mm
maximum size of aggregate are shown in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5. Workability, Slump and Compacting Factor of Concrete with 19 or 38 mm

Maximum Size of Aggregate [10Nev]

Degree of Slump Compacting

Use for Which Concrete is Suitable
Workability (mm) (in) Factor

Road vibrated by power-operated

machines. At the more workable end
Very Low 0-25 0-1 0.78
of this group, concrete in certain cases
with hand-operated machines.
 20 
 

Table 2.5. (Continued)

Degree of Slump Compacting

Use for Which Concrete is Suitable
Workability (mm) (in) Factor

Road vibrated by hand-operated

machines. At the more workable end
of this group, concrete may be
manually compacted in roads using
Low 25-50 1-2 0.85
aggregate of rounded or irregular
shape. Mass concrete foundations
without vibration or lightly reinforced
sections with vibration.
At the less workable end of this
group, manually compacted flat slabs
using crushed aggregates. Normal
Medium 50-100 2-4 0.92
reinforced concrete manually
compacted and heavily reinforced
sections with vibration.

For section with congested

High 100-175 4-7 0.95 reinforcement. Not normally suitable
for vibration.

If instead of slumping evenly all round, as in a true slump, one-half of the cone
slides down an inclined plane, a shear slump is said to have taken place, and the test should
be repeated. If shear slump persists, as may be the case with harsh mixes, this is an
indication of lack of cohesion of the mix. Figure 2.7 and 2.8 show three types of slump.

Up to 125 mm 25 – 50 mm
Up to 150 mm

Figure 2.7. True Slump and Shear Slump

 21
 

150 – 250 mm

Figure 2.8. Collapse Slump

2.5.3. Curing
Curing of cement concrete is defined as the process of maintaining the moisture and
temperature conditions of concrete for hydration reaction to normally so that concrete
develops hardened properties over time. The main components which needs to be taken care
are moisture, heat and time during curing process.
Increase in strength with age continues provided (1) unhydrated cement is still
present, (2) the concrete remains moist or has a relative humidity above approximately 80%,
(3) the concrete temperature remains favorable, and (4) sufficient space is available for
hydration products to form. When the relative humidity within the concrete drops to about
80% or the temperature of the concrete drops below 10°C, hydration and strength gain
virtually stop.

Curing of cement concrete is required for the following reasons:

1. To prevent the concrete to dry out prematurely due to solar radiation and wind.
This prevents plastic shrinkage of concrete.
2. It helps to maintain the concrete temperature by allowing the hydration process.
Hydration process requires water to carry on and releases heat.
3. Curing helps the concrete to harden and bond with internal materials and
reinforcement. This helps to prevent damage to bond between concrete and
reinforcement due to vibration and impact.
4. This helps development of impermeable, crack free and durable concrete.

The time to start curing of concrete depends on the evaporation rate of moisture
from the concrete. The evaporation rate is influenced by wind, radiant energy from
sunshine, concrete temperature, climatic conditions, relative humidity. The evaporation of
moisture is driven by the difference in vapor pressure on concrete surface and surrounding
air. When the difference is high, evaporation rate is high.
 22 
 

According to ACI 308, there are three phases of curing. They are initial curing,
intermediate curing and final curing. Figure 2.9 shows the three phases of concrete curing.

Bleed water Finishing

disappears complete when
and finishing concrete reaches
begins at final set
Penetration Resistance initial set

Initial Set

Final Set
Transport, Time since batching
placing,
consolidation, Floating, Final
strike-off, brooming, curing
bullfloat troweling
Window of
finishability

Figure 2.9. Three Phases of Concrete Curing [16ACI]

Initial curing: When the concrete is placed and compacted, bleeding of water occurs
and rises through the surface of concrete due to settlement of concrete. The rate and duration
of bleeding depends on many factors including concrete mix properties, depth or thickness
of concrete, method of compaction of concrete etc.
These bleed water starts to evaporate from the surface. When all the bleeding water
has disappeared from the surface, the drying of concrete starts, then initial curing of concrete
is required to minimize the moisture loss and prevent plastic shrinkage cracks to concrete
before and during finishing operations.
The initial curing of concrete can be done by techniques such as fogging or using
the evaporation reducers, or by providing the sunshades and windscreens.
Intermediate curing: Intermediate curing is done when the concrete surface finishing
operations has been carried out before the final setting of concrete. This happens when the
required surface texture of concrete member is achieved rapidly or when the setting of
concrete is delayed.
 23
 

Final curing: When the concrete is finished after the final setting of concrete, the
final curing of concrete should be done. This helps to prevent surface drying of concrete
because the loss of moisture from the concrete surface occurs immediately.
Curing of concrete for longer duration increases the strength and durability of
concrete structural member. The curing duration of concrete depends on:

1. The reason for curing i.e. to prevent plastic shrinkage, temperature control,
strength and durability of concrete.
2. The size of concrete structural member
3. The type of concrete grade and rate of hardening of concrete
4. The temperature and moisture conditions of surroundings
5. The exposure conditions of the concrete surface during and after curing
6. The requirement of curing duration as per specification of concrete
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 301 recommends a minimum
curing period corresponding to concrete attaining 70 per cent of the specified compressive
strength. The often specified 7th day curing commonly corresponds to approximately 70 per
cent of the specified compressive strengths.
The Indian Standard IS 456 – 2000 recommends that curing duration of concrete
must be at least 7 days in case of ordinary Portland Cement, at least 10 days for concrete
with mineral admixtures or blended cements are used. It also recommends that the curing
duration should not be less than 10 days for concrete exposed to dry and hot weather
conditions and 14 days for concrete with mineral admixtures or blended cement in hot and
dry weather.

2.5.4. Compressive Strength (Variation with Time)

Compressive strength is the measured maximum resistance of a concrete specimen
to axial loading. It is generally expressed in MPa at an age of 28 days. Other test ages are
also used; as the 28th day strength is less compared to the long-term strength that it can gain
with age. However, it is important to realize the relationship between the 28th day strength
and other test ages. Seven-day strengths are often estimated to be about 70% of the 28th day
strength while 90th day strength is about 10% to 15% greater than 28th day strengths.
The concrete strength variation with age can be studied by different methods. The
Figure 2.10 shows the strength variation of a concrete present at dry and wet condition. This
graph is based on the study conducted by Baykof and Syglof (1976). It was found that, in
dry conditions, after 1 year there is no increase in concrete strength. On the other hand, the
strength of specimens stored in a wet environment (at 15°C) is considerably increased.
 24 
 

The process of continued hydration will increase the strength of concrete. If the
environmental conditions to which the concrete is exposed facilitates the hydration, the
strength is gained continuously with age. But this rate of hydration is fast at the early stages
and delays later. Proper curing conditions will help in preventing the escape of moisture
that will facilitate strength gain reactions.

Wetting
50

40
Dry
30

20

10

28 1 2 4 6 11
Day Age, Years

Figure 2.10. Variation of Concrete Strength with Time [76Bay]

The achievement of concrete compressive strength in long term is different from

early age strength gain. The different factors affecting the long-term compressive strength
of concrete are:

(1) Water-Cement Ratio

An adequate water-cement ratio is necessary to undergo hydration reactions at later
ages. Hydration reactions improve the compressive strength of concrete. Inadequate water
content will leave a tremendous amount of pore before 28 days that will increase the chances
of creep and shrinkage issue with time. This will affect the compressive strength of concrete
adversely.

(2) Curing Conditions

Proper curing conditions is a kind of preparation of concrete before letting it to
service conditions. The extent of curing of concrete is performed based on the anticipated
exposure conditions of the structures. Properly cured and high-quality concrete is not
affected by extreme conditions with age. Effective curing hence improves the concrete
compressibility.
 25
 

(3) Temperature
Studies have shown that high temperature speeds up the hydration reaction, but the
products gained won’t be uniform or of good quality. This can leave pores which affect the
strength of concrete.

(4) Environmental Conditions

Concrete structure with age is subjected to environmental conditions like rain,
freezing and thawing, chemical attacks etc. An impermeable concrete can undergo moisture
penetration, frequent freeze, and thaw that creates cracks in concrete. Chemical attacks can
corrode the reinforcement reducing the yield strength of reinforcement. All these can affect
the concrete strength capacity.
 CHAPTER 3
TESTING ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STUDIED MATERIALS

3.1. General
Local materials used in this study are AAA cement, Crown cement and Irrawaddy
river sand (fine sand). Coarse aggregate with 19 mm maximum size is used. Materials used
in this study are abundant in Myanmar. Five physical tests are performed for each cement
and three physical tests are performed for each sand and coarse aggregate. In this study, the
physical properties of local materials are tested according to ASTM procedure.

3.2. Tests on Cement

Cement is one of the important ingredients along with aggregates in preparing the
concrete. Cement acts as a binding material which forms a matrix in the presence of water
and aggregates together. Since it is a basic material for a construction, it is necessary that it
should have certain properties of its own. This is basically to know the quality of the cement.

The performed tests for this study are given below.

1. Fineness (Specific surface) test
2. Normal consistency test
3. Setting time test
4. Soundness test
5. Specific gravity test

3.2.1. Fineness (Specific Surface) Test

Fineness of cement is a vital property of cement which affects the rate of hydration,
and higher fineness increases the rate at which cement hydrate causes greater early strength
and more rapid generation of heat. This test is carried out according to ASTM C204.
Fineness of cement is tested by Blaine Air-Permeability apparatus. In this test, the cement
sample weighting 3 gm is taken and put into the permeability cell. Then attach the
permeability cell to the manometer tube. The air is slowly evacuated in the one arm of the
manometer U-tube until the liquid reaches the top mark, and then close the valve tightly.
Timer is started when the bottom of the meniscus of the manometer liquid reaches the second
mark and is stopped when the bottom of the meniscus of liquid reaches the third mark. The
 27

time interval is noted and recorded in seconds. Specific surface is then calculated by using
equation 2.1. Test results for the fineness (specific surface) of cements are shown in Tables
3.1 and 3.2. Testing of fineness is described in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. Testing for Fineness of Cement

Table 3.1. Fineness (Specific Surface) of AAA Cement

Test No. Time Interval, T (sec) T Specific Surface, S (m2/kg)

1 173 13.15 422

2 176 13.27 426

3 171 13.08 420

Average Specific Surface 423

Standard Limit, Minimum 260

Table 3.2. Fineness (Specific Surface) of Crown Cement

Test No. Time Interval, T (sec) √T Specific Surface, S (m2/kg)

1 177 13.30 427

2 180 13.42 431

3 174 13.19 424

Average Specific Surface 427

Standard Limit, Minimum 260

 28

From the test results, it is found that all specific surface values are more than ASTM
C150 limitation values, minimum 260 m2/kg.

3.2.2. Normal Consistency Test

This test method, ASTM C187, is intended to be used to determine the amount of
water required to prepare hydraulic cement pastes with normal consistency, as required for
certain standard test; such as initial setting time, final setting time and the Le-Chatelier
soundness test. The consistence is measured by the Vicat apparatus. Trial pastes are made
with varying percentages of water until the normal consistency is obtained. The plunger is
then brought into contact with the top surface of the paste and released. Under the action of
its weight, the plunger penetrated the paste about 10 mm from surface. Normal consistency
is calculated by using equation 2.2. Test results for normal consistency of both cements are
shown in Tables 3.3 and 3.4.

Table 3.3. Normal Consistency of AAA Cement

Test No. Wt. of Cement (gm) Wt. of Water (gm) Normal Consistency (%)

1 300 81 27

2 300 81 27

3 300 81 27

Average Normal Consistency 27

Standard Limit Range 26 - 33

Table 3.4. Normal Consistency of Crown Cement

Test No. Wt. of Cement (gm) Wt. of Water (gm) Normal Consistency (%)

1 300 87 29

2 300 87 29

3 300 87 29

Average Normal Consistency 29

Standard Limit Range 26 - 33

From the test results, it is found that the normal consistency of each cement is within
the ASTM C150 standard limit range.
 29

3.2.3. Setting Time Test

The setting time test is conducted by using the Vicat apparatus, except that a 1 mm
diameter needle for penetration. The initial setting time is the time being measured from
adding the mixing water to the cement and until the time when the penetration is at 25 mm.
The Vicat final time of setting is the time elapsed between initial contact of cement and
water and the time when the needle does not leave a complete circular impression in the
paste surface. This test is performed according to ASTM C191. The minimum initial setting
time not less than 45 minutes and the final setting not more than 375 minutes for Ordinary
Portland cement (Type I) which are prescribed by ASTM standard. Setting times can be
calculated by using equations 2.3 and 2.4. Test results for setting times of cements are shown
in Tables 3.5 and 3.6. Figure 3.2 shows testing for initial setting time of cement.

Figure 3.2. Testing for Initial Setting Time of Cement

Table 3.5. Setting Time of AAA Cement

Test No. I II III

Weight of Cement (gm) 300 300 300

Weight of Water (gm) 81 81 81

Initial Setting Time, TI (min) 110 118 118

Final Setting Time, TF (min) 232 243 247

Average Initial Setting Time (min) 115

Standard Limit for Initial Setting Time (min) Not Less than 45

Average Final Setting Time (min) 240

Standard Limit Final Setting Time (min) Not More than 375
 30

Table 3.6. Setting Time of Crown Cement

Test No. I II III

Weight of Cement (gm) 300 300 300
Weight of Water (gm) 87 87 87
Initial Setting Time, TI (min) 118 121 118
Final Setting Time, TF (min) 215 216 221
Average Initial Setting Time (min) 119
Standard Limit for Initial Setting Time (min) Not Less than 45
Average Final Setting Time (min) 217
Standard Limit Final Setting Time (min) Not More than 375

From the test results, it is found that the setting time of each cement is within the
ASTM C150 standard limit.

3.2.4. Soundness Test

Soundness test is performed with the help of Le-Chatelier apparatus. The mould is
placed on a glass plate and filled with prepared cement paste as stated in consistency test. It
is covered at top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at top and the whole
assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours. The temperature of water is about 27°C. After
24 hours, the assembly is taken out of water and it is heated slowly in such a way that boiling
of water is achieved in about half an hour. The boiling of water is continued for three hours,
after which mould is taken out and allowed to cool down. The distance between the two
measurements represents the expansion of cement and it shall not exceed 10 mm. The
soundness of cement is calculated by equation 2.5. The results of soundness test for AAA
and Crown cement are shown in Tables 3.7 and 3.8. The specimen for soundness of cement
is shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3. Testing for Soundness of Cement

 31

Table 3.7. Soundness of AAA Cement

Test No. I II III

Cement after 24 hrs Immersing in Water, DB (mm) 11.8 15.0 9.5

Cement after Boiling, DA (mm) 12.7 16.1 10.2

Soundness (mm) 0.9 1.1 0.7

Average Soundness Value (mm) 0.9

Standard Limit, Maximum (mm) 10

Table 3.8. Soundness of Crown Cement

Test No. I II III

Cement after 24 hrs Immersing in Water, DB (mm) 7.6 8.6 24.6

Cement after Boiling, DA (mm) 8.1 9.2 26.0

Soundness (mm) 0.5 0.6 1.4

Average Soundness Value (mm) 0.83

Standard Limit, Maximum (mm) 10

From the test results, the soundness for both cements are less than 10 mm, expansion
limit of cement is acceptable.

3.2.5. Specific Gravity Test

The purpose of this test is to determine the weight per unit volume of the cement
particles. The specific gravity of good Portland cement should be between 3.15 and 3.2. This
test is carried out according to ASTM C188. The specific gravity of cement can be calculated
by using equations 2.6 and 2.7. The specific gravity test results of AAA and Crown cements
are shown in Tables 3.9 and 3.10. Figures 3.4 to 3.7 show the testing of specific gravity.

Table 3.9. Specific Gravity of AAA Cement

Test No. I II III

Weight of Cement (W) (gm) 64 64 64
Volume of Kerosene + Cement (V1) (ml) 20.4 20.4 20.4
Volume of Kerosene (V2) (ml) 0 0.1 0.1
Density of Cement (gm/cm3) 3.14 3.15 3.15
 32

Table 3.9. (Continued)

Test No. I II III

Density of Water at 4°C (gm/cm3) 1 1 1
Specific Gravity of Cement 3.14 3.15 3.15
Average Specific Gravity of Cement 3.15
Standard Limit Range 3.1 - 3.25

Table 3.10. Specific Gravity of Crown Cement

Test No. I II III

Weight of Cement (W) (gm) 64 64 64
Volume of Kerosene + Cement (V1) (ml) 20.5 20.4 20.3
Volume of Kerosene (V2) (ml) 0.2 0 0
Density of Cement (gm/cm3) 3.15 3.14 3.15
Density of Water at 4°C (gm/cm3) 1 1 1
Specific Gravity of Cement 3.15 3.14 3.15
Average Specific Gravity of Cement 3.15
Standard Limit Range 3.1 - 3.25

The specific gravity of both cements is within the standard limit range for Portland
cement. All test results of physical properties of cement in this study meet the standard
limits.

Figure 3.4. Kerosene 0.1 ml Capacity for Testing Specific Gravity of Cement
 33

Figure 3.5. Weighting Cement for Testing Specific Gravity of Cement

Figure 3.6. Putting Cement into Le-Chatelier Flask for Testing Specific Gravity of Cement

Figure 3.7. Testing for Specific Gravity of Cement

 34

3.3. Testing on Aggregates

Fine aggregate is obtained from Irrawaddy river and coarse aggregate is collected
from Patheingyi. The following tests are carried out for aggregates.
1. Sieve Analysis of Aggregate
2. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption

3.3.1. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate

This analysis covers procedure of the determination of the particle size distribution
of fine aggregates using sieve with square openings. The method is also applicable to the
screening with round openings. Fine aggregate is defined as aggregate, which passes entirely
through a 9.5 mm sieve and passes through a 4.75 mm sieve with more than 85%.
Fineness modulus test (sieve analysis) is carried out according to ASTM C136.
Fineness modulus is calculated by using equation 2.8. Table 3.11 shows the result of sieve
analysis of fine aggregate. The sieve analysis of fine aggregate is shown in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate

Table 3.11. Fineness Modulus of Fine Aggregate by Sieve Analysis

Weight Accumulated
Sieve Sieve Percent Percent
Retained Percent Retained
No. Opening Retained (%) Passing (%)
(gm) (%)

4 4.75 mm - - - 100

8 2.36 mm 1.70 0.34 0.34 99.66

16 1.18 mm 6.10 1.22 1.56 98.44

 35

Table 3.11. (Continued)

Weight Accumulated
Sieve Sieve Percent Percent
Retained Percent Retained
No. Opening Retained (%) Passing (%)
(gm) (%)

30 600 µm 25.10 5.02 6.58 93.42

50 300 µm 286.90 57.38 63.96 36.04

100 150 µm 169.80 33.96 97.92 2.08

Pan - 10.40 2.08 - -

Total - 500.00 100.00 170.36

Total sand retained = 170.36%

170.36
Fineness Modulus = = 1.7
100
From the test result, it is found that the fineness modulus of fine aggregate is 1.7.
Limitation value of the fineness modulus of fine sand is between 1.35 and 2.25. Therefore,
the fineness modulus of fine aggregate is within the limit.

3.3.2. Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate

Determination of the grading of materials is necessary for calculating of mix design.
Aggregate includes various grading sizes. This test is necessary for checking where the
aggregate meets the requirements and controlling the quality of mixture of aggregates.
Coarse aggregate is defined as aggregate which is retained on a 4.75 mm sieve with
more than 85%. This test is performed according to ASTM C136. Fineness modulus is
calculated by using equation 2.8. Sieve analysis test results of coarse aggregate are shown
in Table 3.12. Sieves, sieve analysis and grading of coarse aggregate are shown in Figures
3.9 to 3.11.

Table 3.12. Fineness Modulus of Coarse Aggregate by Sieve Analysis

Weight of Accumulated
Sieve Opening Percent Retained
Sieve No. Aggregate Percent
(mm) (%)
Retained (kg) Retained (%)

1 in 25.00 - - -
 36

Table 3.12. (Continued)

Weight of Accumulated
Sieve Opening Percent Retained
Sieve No. Aggregate Percent
(mm) (%)
Retained (kg) Retained (%)

3/4 in 19.00 0.63 4.223 4.223

1/2 in 12.50 11.79 79.021 83.244

3/8 in 9.50 2.38 15.952 99.169

No. 4 4.75 0.12 0.804 100

No. 8 2.36 - - 100

No. 16 1.18 - - 100

No. 30 0.60 - - 100

No. 50 0.30 - - 100

No. 100 0.15 - - 100

Total - 14.92 100 786.636

Total aggregate retained = 786.636%

786.636
Fineness Modulus = = 7.9
100
From the test result, it is found that the fineness modulus of coarse aggregate is 7.9.
Limitation value of the fineness modulus of coarse aggregate is between 6.5 and 8 according
to ASTM. Therefore, the fineness modulus of coarse aggregate is within the limit.

Figure 3.9. Sieves for Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate

 37

Figure 3.10. Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate

Figure 3.11. Grading of Coarse Aggregate Used in the Study

3.3.3. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate

The objective of this test is to determine the specific gravity and water absorption of
fine aggregate for use in concrete. The specific gravity of fine aggregate estimated on the
basics of weight of saturated surface-dry (SSD) is required for determining the mix
proportion of concrete. The saturated surface-dry aggregate is defined as the aggregate
whose pores are completely filled with water, but have no water adhering to the outside
surface. This test is carried out according to ASTM C128. Specific gravity of fine aggregate
is calculated by using equation 2.9. The result of specific gravity of fine aggregate is shown
in Table 3.13. The specific gravity test of fine aggregate and the performance of making
SSD aggregate are shown in Figures 3.12 and 3.13.
 38

Figure 3.12. Specific Gravity Test of Fine Aggregate

Figure 3.13. Saturated Surface-Dry Fine Aggregate

Table 3.13. Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregate

Test No. I II III

Weight of Fine Aggregate (SSD), W1 (gm) 407.3 384.6 349.7

Weight of Bottle (gm) 152.7 154.1 157.8

Weight of Bottle Filled with Water to

682.8 682.7 677.5
Calibration Mark, W2 (gm)

Weight of Bottle Filled with Water and Sand

934.1 921.1 894.4
to Calibration Mark, W3 (gm)

Specific Gravity 2.61 2.63 2.63

Average Specific Gravity 2.62

Standard Limit, Minimum 2.50

According to the test result, it is found that the specific gravity of fine aggregate is
2.62 which is greater than minimum standard limit 2.5. Thus, the result is satisfied.

Water absorption of fine aggregate is calculated by using equation 2.11. The test
result of water absorption for fine aggregate used in this study is shown in Table 3.14.
 39

Table 3.14. Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate

Test No. I II III

Wt. of Container + Wet Fine Aggregate (SSD) (gm) 214.9 220.7 213.3

Wt. of Container + Dry Fine Aggregate (OD) (gm) 213.5 219.4 211.9

Wt. of Container (gm) 54.7 64.4 54.7

Wt. of Water, Ww (gm) 1.4 1.3 1.4

Wt. of Dry Sand, Ws (gm) 158.8 155 157.2

Absorption (%) 0.88 0.84 0.89

Average Water Absorption (%) 0.87

Standard Limit Less than 3%

From the test result, it is found that the water absorption of fine aggregate is 0.87%.
According to ASTM standard limit, water absorption should be less than 3%. So, the result
is reasonable for use.

3.3.4. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

These tests are specified to determine the quality of coarse aggregate and mixing
water of concrete based on weight of ingredients. The specific gravity and water absorption
of coarse aggregate used in this experiment are estimated on the basis of weight of saturated
surface-dry aggregate. These tests are performed according to ASTM C127. Specific gravity
of coarse aggregate is calculated by using equation 2.10. Test result for specific gravity of
coarse aggregate is shown in Table 3.15. Testing on specific gravity of coarse aggregate and
testing apparatuses for specific gravity test are shown in Figures 3.14 and 3.15.

Figure 3.14. Specific Gravity Test of Coarse Aggregate

 40

Figure 3.15. Testing Apparatuses for Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate

Table 3.15. Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate

Test No. I II III

Wt. of SSD Sample in Air, W1 (gm) 1432 1307 1412

Wt. of SSD Sample in Water, W2 (gm) 910 829 898

Specific Gravity 2.74 2.73 2.75

Average Specific Gravity 2.74

Standard Limit Range 2.6 ~3.0

Water absorption of coarse aggregate is calculated by using equation 2.12. Test result
for water absorption of coarse aggregate is shown in Table 3.16. Figure 3.16 show water
absorption test for coarse aggregate.

Figure 3.16. Water Absorption Test for Coarse Aggregate

 41

Table 3.16. Water Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

Test No. I II III

Wt. of SSD Sample in Air, W1 (gm) 1432 1307 1412

Wt. of Oven Dry Sample, W2 (gm) 1423 1298 1403

Absorption (%) 0.63 0.69 0.64

Average Water Absorption (%) 0.65

Standard Limit Range (%) 0~2

From the test results, it is found that the specific gravity of coarse aggregate is 2.74
and water absorption of coarse aggregate is 0.65% respectively. Limit of specific gravity for
coarse aggregate should be the range between 2.6 and 3.0 and water absorption must be
within 0% and 2%. Thus, the results are within the limitation values.
 CHAPTER 4
TESTING ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VARIATION OF
CONCRETE WITH AGE

4.1. General
Strength of hardened concrete is measured by performing the compression test. The
compression strength of concrete is the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to
compress it. The compressive strength of concrete may be affected by quality of cement,
water-cement ratio, and curing age. This chapter relates with testing on compressive strength
of concrete with age. The compressive strength of concrete is tested with two types of local
cement brands, AAA cement and Crown cement, and two types of mix proportions, 1:2:4
and 1:1.5:3. The main purpose of this chapter is to study on the compressive strength
variation of concrete with age.

4.2. Testing on Compressive Strength of Concrete

The purpose of this test is to study the compressive strength of two mix proportions
varying with age. Compressive strength is a measure of the maximum resistance that
concrete specimen can maintain against axial loading. The test pieces are subjected to a
crushing force and the force required to break the specimen is measured. The compressive
strength of concrete can be calculated by the failure load divided with the cross-sectional
area resisting the load and reported in mega Pascal. The compressive strength of normal
concrete varies between 25 and 50 MPa. Figure 4.1 shows compressive strength test of
concrete.

Figure 4.1. Compressive Strength Test of Concrete

 43

The test results of compressive strength for 1:2:4 mix proportion for two types of
cement are described in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 and the results of 1:1.5:3 mix proportion are
described in Tables 4.3 and 4.4. Figures 4.2 and 4.3 show the compressive strength test
results of 1:2:4 mix proportion for AAA and Crown cement. Table 4.5 shows summary of
compressive strength for two mix proportions using two different brands of cement. Figures
4.4 and 4.5 show the compressive strength test results of 1:1.5:3 mix proportion for AAA
and Crown cement. Figure 4.6 shows the compressive strength of concrete for two mix
proportions using AAA cement and Figure 4.7 shows the compressive strength of concrete
for two mix proportions using Crown cement.

Table 4.1. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:2:4 Mix Proportion (AAA Cement)

Number of Strength of Each Average Strength

Days Remark
Sample Sample (MPa) (MPa)

23.10

3 7 24.49 24.80

26.80

28.65

3 14 29.11 29.26

30.03

34.66

3 28 34.66 34.81 All-time curing

35.12

35.35

3 90 35.58 35.50

35.58

37.24

3 150 37.89 37.83

38.35

36.04 Dry condition

3 90 36.27 36.73 after 28 days

curing
37.89
 44

Table 4.1. (Continued)

Number of Strength of Each Average Strength
Days Remark
Sample Sample (MPa) (MPa)

31.88 Dry condition

3 150 32.34 32.34 after 28 days

curing
32.81

AAA 1:2:4
53
50
Compressive Strength (Mpa)

47
44
41
38
35
32
29
26
23
7 28 49 70 91 112 133 154
Age (Days)
All-time curing Dry condition after 28 days curing

Figure 4.2. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:2:4 Mix Proportion (AAA)

Figure 4.2 shows the variation in compressive strength of concrete of 1:2:4 mix
proportion with AAA cement at the age of 7th, 14th, 28th, 90th and 150th day for all-time curing
and another 90th and 150th day for dry condition after 28 days curing. The compressive
strength test result at 7th day is 24.8 MPa and the compressive strength increases from 24.8
MPa to 29.26 MPa on 14th day. From 14th day to 28th day, the compressive strength increases
again from 29.26 MPa to 34.81 MPa. From results, it can be seen that the compressive
strength of concrete increases continuously from 7th day to 28th day under all-time curing.
After that, for all-time curing, the compressive strength results increase for both 90th
day and 150th day and their values are 35.5 MPa and 37.83 MPa. For dry condition after 28
days curing, the compressive strength of concrete increases to 36.73 MPa at 90th day. But
the result is different for 150th day as the strength decreases to 32.34 MPa. At 150th day, all-
time curing specimens have a maximum strength of 37.83 MPa whereas specimens under
 45

dry condition after 28 days curing have only about 32.34 MPa. From the test result, it can
be seen that the higher the curing age, the higher the compressive strength of concrete.

Table 4.2. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:2:4 Mix Proportion (Crown Cement)

Number of Strength of Each Average Strength

Days Remark
Sample Sample (MPa) (MPa)

21.26

3 7 24.03 23.72

25.88

25.41

3 14 26.34 26.18

26.80

31.88

3 28 31.88 32.50 All-time curing

33.73

32.81

3 90 31.88 32.62

33.18

34.19

3 150 40.20 34.65

29.57

37.20

3 90 38.12 37.43
Dry condition
36.97
after 28 days
36.87 curing
3 150 36.97 37.09

37.43
 46

Crown 1:2:4
Compressive Strength (MPa) 53
50
47
44
41
38
35
32
29
26
23
7 28 49 70 91 112 133 154
Age (Days)
All-time curing Dry condition after 28 days curing

Figure 4.3. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:2:4 Mix Proportion (Crown)

Figure 4.3 shows the variation in compressive strength of concrete of 1:2:4 mix
proportion with Crown cement at the age of 7th, 14th, 28th, 90th and 150th day for all-time
curing and another 90th and 150th day for dry condition after 28 days curing. The compressive
strength test result at 7th day is 23.72 MPa and the compressive strength increases from 23.72
MPa to 26.18 MPa on 14th day. From 14th day to 28th day, the compressive strength increases
from 26.18 MPa to 32.5 MPa. From results, it can be seen that the compressive strength of
concrete increases continuously from 7th day to 28th day under all-time curing.
After that, for all-time curing, the compressive strength results increase for both 90th
day and 150th day which are 32.62 MPa and 34.65 MPa. For dry condition after 28 days
curing, the compressive strength of concrete increases to 37.43 MPa at 90th day. But the
result is different for 150th day as the strength decreases to 37.09 MPa. At 150th day, concrete
specimens under dry condition after 28 days curing have a maximum strength of 37.09 MPa
and all-time curing specimens have a strength of 34.65 MPa.

Table 4.3. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:1.5:3 Mix Proportion (AAA Cement)

Number of Strength of Each Average Strength

Days Remark
Sample Sample (MPa) (MPa)

26.80
3 7 27.72 27.72 All-time curing
28.65
 47

Table 4.3. (Continued)

Number of Strength of Each Average Strength
Days Remark
Sample Sample (MPa) (MPa)

31.88
3 14 32.53 32.56
33.27
43.43
3 28 43.43 44.05
45.28
All-time curing
48.52
3 90 48.52 48.67
48.98
48.52
3 150 48.79 49.01
49.72
39.28
3 90 40.66 40.35
Dry condition
41.12
after 28 days
33.45
curing
3 150 33.73 33.95
34.66

AAA 1:1.5:3
53
50
Compressive Strength (Mpa)

47
44
41
38
35
32
29
26
23
7 28 49 70 91 112 133 154
Age (Days)
All-time curing Dry condition after 28 days curing
Figure 4.4. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:1.5:3 Mix Proportion (AAA)
 48

Figure 4.4 shows the variation in compressive strength of concrete of 1:1.5:3 mix
proportion with AAA cement at the age of 7th, 14th, 28th, 90th and 150th day for all-time
curing and another 90th and 150th day for dry condition after 28 days curing. The compressive
strength test result at 7th day is 27.72 MPa and the compressive strength increases from 27.72
MPa to 32.56 MPa on 14th day. From 14th day to 28th day, the compressive strength increases
from 32.56 MPa to 44.05 MPa. According to the results, the compressive strength of
concrete increases continuously from 7th day to 28th day.
After that, for all-time curing, the compressive strength increases for both 90th day
and 150th day and their values are 48.67 MPa and 49.01 MPa. For dry condition after 28
days curing, the compressive strength of concrete decreases to 40.35 MPa at 90th day. From
90th day to 150th day, the strength decreases continuously from 40.35 MPa to 33.95 MPa. At
150th day, all-time curing specimens have a maximum strength of 49.01 MPa whereas
specimens under dry condition after 28 days curing have only 33.95 MPa. From the test
result, it can be seen that the higher the curing age, the higher the compressive strength of
concrete.

Table 4.4. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:1.5:3 Mix Proportion (Crown Cement)

Number of Strength of Each Average Strength

Days Remark
Sample Sample (MPa) (MPa)

30.96

3 7 33.73 32.96

34.19

36.97

3 14 36.04 37.58

39.74
All-time curing
49.90

3 28 42.97 44.51

40.66

49.81

3 90 48.33 48.89

48.52
 49

Table 4.4. (Continued)

Number of Strength of Each Average Strength
Days Remark
Sample Sample (MPa) (MPa)

49.44

3 150 52.21 50.36 All-time curing

49.44

36.97

3 90 46.76 41.62
Dry condition
41.12
after 28 days
40.66 curing

3 150 44.82 39.74

33.73

Crown 1:1.5:3
53
Compressive Strength (Mpa)

50
47
44
41
38
35
32
29
26
23
7 28 49 70 91 112 133 154
Age (Days)
All-time curing Dry condition after 28 days curing

Figure 4.5. Compressive Strength of Concrete for 1:1.5:3 Mix Proportion (Crown)

Figure 4.5 shows the variation in compressive strength of concrete of 1:1.5:3 mix
proportion with Crown cement at the age of 7th, 14th, 28th, 90th and 150th day for all-time
curing and another 90th and 150th day for dry condition after 28 days curing. The compressive
 50

strength test result at 7th day is 32.96 MPa and the compressive strength increases from 32.96
MPa to 37.58 MPa on 14th day. From 14th day to 28th day, the compressive strength increases
again from 37.58 MPa to 44.51 MPa. According to the results, the compressive strength of
concrete increases continuously from 7th day to 28th day.
After that, for all-time curing, the compressive strength results increase for both 90th
day and 150th day and their values are 48.89 MPa and 50.36 MPa. For dry condition after 28
days curing, the compressive strength of concrete decreases to 41.62 MPa at 90th day. From
90th day to 150th day, the strength decreases from 41.62 MPa to 39.74 MPa. At 150th day,
all-time curing specimens have a maximum strength of 50.36 MPa whereas specimens under
dry condition after 28 days curing have39.74 MPa. From the test result, it can be seen that
the higher the curing age, the higher the compressive strength of concrete.
According to Figures 4.2, 4.4 and 4.5, the compressive strength of concrete is
influenced by curing age and Figure 4.3 is the only one that the compressive strength of
concrete is not sharply increased by curing age. Curing helps to increase or maintain
compressive strength of concrete.

Table 4.5. Summary of Compressive Strength for Study

Average Strength (MPa)

Days 1:2:4 1:1.5:3 Remark

AAA Crown AAA Crown

7 24.80 23.72 27.72 32.96

14 29.26 26.18 32.56 37.58

28 34.81 32.50 44.05 44.51 All-time curing

90 35.50 32.62 48.67 48.89

150 37.83 34.65 49.01 50.36

90 36.73 37.43 40.35 41.62 Dry condition after

28 days curing
150 32.34 37.09 33.95 39.74
 51

53
Compressive Strength (Mpa) 50
47
44
41
38
35
32
29
26
23
7 28 49 70 91 112 133 154
Age (Days)

AAA 1:2:4 all-time Curing

AAA 1:2:4 Dry condition after 28 days curing
AAA 1:1.5:3 all-time curing
AAA 1:1.5:3 dry condition after 28 days curing

Figure 4.6. Compressive Strength of Concrete for AAA cement

53
50
47
Compressive Strength (Mpa)

44
41
38
35
32
29
26
23
7 28 49 70 91 112 133 154
Age (Days)

Crown 1:2:4 all-time curing

Crown 1:2:4 dry condition after 28 days curing
Crown 1:1.5:3 all-time curing
Crown 1:1.5:3 dry condition after 28 days curing

Figure 4.7. Compressive Strength of Concrete for Crown Cement

 52

From Figures 4.6 and 4.7, it can be seen that the concrete compressive strength is
influenced by mix proportion, water-cement ratio and curing condition.
In mix proportion and water-cement ratio, it is found that coarse-fine aggregate ratio
and aggregate-cement ratio influence the strength of concrete. Firstly, it is coarse-fine
aggregate ratio which influences the strength of concrete. The proportion of fine aggregate
is increased in relation to the coarse aggregate, and as a result, the overall aggregate surface
area increases. Since the surface area of the aggregate has increased, the water demand also
increases. As the water demand has increased, the water-cement ratio increases. Since the
water-cement ratio has increased, the compressive strength of concrete decreases. Secondly,
it is aggregate-cement ratio which also influences the strength of concrete. Although the
proportion of cement remains the same in two mix proportion as 1-part cement, the increase
in proportion of aggregate increases the surface area of the solid. Although the surface area
of the solid has increased, the water demand stays the same for the constant workability. An
increase in cement content for no increase in water demand results in the decrease of water-
cement ratio. Since the water-cement ratio is reduced, the strength of the concrete increases.
It is found that the concrete workability and strength are greatly influenced by cement
content. For a given workability an increase in the proportion of cement in a mix has little
effect on the water demand and results in a reduction in the water-cement ratio. The
reduction in water-cement ratio leads to an increase in strength of concrete. Therefore, for a
given workability, an increase in the cement content results in an increase in strength of
concrete. That’s why concrete strength of 1:1.5:3 mix proportion is more than concrete
strength of 1:2:4 mix proportion.
From Figures 4.6 and 4.7, it is found that the strength of concrete under curing is
always increasing albeit at an ever-reducing rate. If the concrete is allowed to dry out, the
hydration reaction will stop as the hydration reaction cannot proceed without moisture.
Water-cement ratio plays an important role in increasing concrete strength at later ages.
Water-cement directly relates to water content. Although higher water-cement ratio leads to
lower concrete strength, it can increase the concrete strength at later ages. From Figures 4.6
and 4.7, it is found that concrete strength of 1:2:4 mix proportion of both cements at 90th day
under dry condition after 28 days curing is more than 28th day strength. This shows that the
water content contained in those can maintain the increase of concrete strength until 90th
day. After 90th day, the water contained in specimens is runout by evaporation and the
hydration process is stopped. It is also found that the concrete strength of 1:1.5:3 mix
proportion of both cements stop increase under dry condition after 28 days
curing and becomes decrease. Decreasing in strength is the result from the lack of water or
moisture to react with unhydrated compounds in the cement paste. On the other hand,
 53

hydration will continue as long as water is present and there are still unhydrated compounds
in the cement paste. Therefore, curing age is also the important factor in controlling the
compressive strength of concrete.
 CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Discussions and Conclusion

This study presents the relationship between compressive strength and age of
concrete by using AAA and Crown cement. In this study, 1:2:4 and 1:1.5:3 mix proportions
are used in concrete production for both cements. Water-cement ratio 0.6 is used for 1:2:4
mix proportion and 0.5 is used for 1:1.5:3 mix proportion. To know whether physical
properties of cement meet the standard requirements or not, fineness test, normal consistency
test, setting time test, specific gravity test and soundness test are carried out. From the test
results, the greater the fineness of cement, the more water is needed to get the normal
consistency of cement. The greater the fineness, the faster the setting time of cement. From
soundness test, the volume expansion of both cements is less than 10 mm. The test value of
specific gravity for both AAA and Crown cement is 3.15. From test results, both cements
meet the standard requirements of cement.
For fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, sieve analysis test, specific gravity test and
water absorption test are also carried out. According to the test result, fineness modulus of
fine aggregate is 1.7 which is within 1.35 to 2.25. Fine sand has much effect on paste
requirements for good workability. Specific gravity of fine aggregate is 2.62 and water
absorption of fine aggregate is 0.87%. Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate is 7.9 and
specific gravity is 2.74. And water absorption of coarse aggregate is 0.65%. Therefore, all
test results meet the standard limit.
The compressive strength tests of concrete for both cements are carried out to study
on the compressive strength variation of concrete with age. The compressive strengths of
concrete are tested for the concrete age of 7 days, 14 days, 28 days, 90 days, 150 days under
all-time curing or moisture condition and another 90 days, 150 days under dry condition.
The mix proportion influences the concrete strength in first place. The more cement content
contains, the more strength concrete gains. Water-cement ratio also influences the concrete
strength at both early and later ages. Then the concrete strength is affected by curing
condition, too. The strength of concrete is increasing continuously with time under curing
until there is unhydrated compounds in cement paste. The hydration reaction is a never -
ending process. So, the compressive strength goes on increasing rapidly in the early stage
 55

and very slow in later days.

From this study, it can be concluded that the compressive strength of concrete is
influenced by cement content, mix proportion, water-cement ratio and curing age.

5.2. Recommendations
Based on this study, the following recommendations should be done for further
study.
1. Besides AAA and Crown cements, testing may be made with other local cement
brands.
2. Various workability conditions should be considered with other slump
conditions.
3. Mix design should be carried out to achieve target strength.
 REFERENCES

[16ACI] ACI Committee 308: Guide to External Curing of Concrete, ACI 308,
American Concrete Institute, (2016).
[11Ste] Steven H. Kosmatka and Michelle L. Wilson: Design and Control of
Concrete Mixtures, Fifteenth Edition, (2011).
[10Nev] Nevile. A.M., Books. J.J.: Concrete Technology, English Language Book
Society, (2010).
[08Bha] Bhatty, Javed I., and Tennis, Paul D., U.S. and Canadian Cement
Characteristics: 2004, R&D SN2879, Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, Illinois, (2008).
[08Con] Concrete Scientific Principles, (2008).
[76Bay] Baykof and Syglof, (1976).