2.

The scientific research in

perspective

Overview of the research process

 Aims elaboration
• Literature review result in refining the aim
of the study
• Type of research aims
• Exploration
• Description
• Explanatory
• Correlation
 Types of research aims
• Exploratory: this is when research is
carried out in an area that has not been
addressed
• It is aimed at addressing the what part of
the research
• It is a fact finding mission
• The aim is to develop and clarify ideas,
formulate hypothesis for an in-depth study
 Specific concerns of exploratory
aims
• To familiarise with the basic facts, people
problems that need to be addressed
• To develop a clear picture of the event (s)
• To develop various ideas, tentative theories and
postulations
• To formulate questions and refine phenomena
with a view to more systematic investigation
• To develop techniques and determine the
direction of further investigation.
 Descriptive research type
• This attempts to describe a phenomenon
paying attention to how it came about
• Obviously a topic must be explored before
it is described to allow the how and why
questions to be pursued
• The research begins with a specific
definition in order to give a thorough and
accurate description of the topic
 Concerns of descriptive research
• To give an accurate profile of the research group
• To describe a process mechanism or
relationship
• To give verbal or numerical picture (eg
percentage)
• To generate information that will stimulate new
possible explanations
• To compile a series of categories or to classify
types
• To explain certain sequences, phases or steps
• To document information disproving previous
findings about a particular topic
 Explanatory research
• This is designed to gain insight into a
situation, phenomenon, community or
person relationship
• It addresses the question of why by
identifying the causative relationship.
• This is developed from descriptive and
exploratory aims by trying to find out why
the problem occurred in the first instance
 Concern of Explanatory type
• Determines the accuracy of a theory or principle
• Finding out which of the various possible
explanation is the best
• Promoting knowledge of the underlying process
• Combining different factors or topics under a
general statement
• Expanding a theory into new area
• Provide data to prove or disprove an explanation
 Correlational type
• This refers to the systematic investigation of
relationships between two or more variables to explain
the nature of the relationship in the world.
• This study is aimed at finding relationship of past events
hence there is no need to manipulate the independent
variables
• The relation does not indicate causation but the change
in one variable should correspond with change in
another
• eg birth of babies with defects due thalidomide, sedative
drug taken by mothers during pregnancy
 Time dimension of research
• Cross sectional research: snap shot of events, appropriate for describing
phenomena at fixed point in time concentrating on the here and now eg
professionalism of environmental students as they progress through the four
year course, different views of the aesthetic value of a resource
• Longitudinal research; usually descriptive and explanatory in nature
– Studying time related process eg evolutionary issues eg physical growth
– Determining time sequence- sequence of phenomena eg depression and
reproduction
– Advantage can point out to true causality
Examples of longitudinal studies
– Panel studies: sample of subject providing data, this same group or organisation
investigated over various periods of time
– Follow up studies eg follow up on former smokers
– Tracers: this follows the life of an individual say prisoner or animals say a lion
tagged
– Trends; current behaviour used to predict future
– Cohort studies: focus on same experience people studied over a period of time
 The Cyclical nature of research
• Research begin with an observation (O)
• Making a statement of goals (G) sometimes referred to
as objectives
• Develop or ask questions (Q) focusing on observable
issue, asking right question about what does it mean?
Where? Why? To what extent?
• Problem identification result: if you cant find immediate
answers to the above question then it means you have a
problem at stake
• Gap analysis between Goals and P and this requires a a
research method to fill the gap (M)
• Note: statement of the goal defines why you want to
solve the problem and the method how you want to
reach that goal
• Also note the link between sub problems and sub
question
 Research topic
• Attributes of good research topic
• 1. Does the topic meet specification of examination
board
• 2. Is the topic something you are really fascinated
(interested )
• 3. Does your research contain issues that have a clear
link to theory
• 4. Do you have the skills
• 5. Is the research achievable in terms of time, finances
• 6. Would you have access to data eg health issues data
• 7. Are you able to clearly state you research objectives
and question
• 8. Does the research match your career goals
 Problem statement
• definition
• A problem statement is a clear concise description of the issue(s) that need(s) to be addressed by
a problem solving team or individual. This focuses the individual or the team right from the start,
keep one on track during the research and validates whether the deliverable is tandem with
focused outcome.

• Vision – how would the environment look like if the problem is solved?
• Issue Statement - one or two sentences that describe the problem using specific issues.
• Method – How do you intend to solve the problem.

• Who - Who does the problem affect? Specific groups, organizations, customers, etc.
• What - What are the boundaries of the problem, e.g. organizational, work flow, geographic,
customer, segments, etc. - What is the issue? - What is the impact of the issue? - What impact is
the issue causing? - What will happen when it is fixed? - What would happen if we didn’t solve the
problem?
• When - When does the issue occur? - When does it need to be fixed?
• Where - Where is the issue occurring? Only in certain locations, processes, products, etc.
• Why - Why is it important that we fix the problem? - What impact does it have on the business or
customer? - What impact does it have on all stakeholders, e.g. employees, suppliers, customers,
shareholders, etc. Each of the answers will help to zero in on the specific issue(s) and frame the
Issue Statement. Your problem statement should be solveable. That is, it should take a
reasonable amount of time to formulate, try and deploy a potential solution.
(http://www.ceptara.com/blog/how-to-write-problem-statement )
 Concern about quality of problem statement (Elsevier)
• what is a problem statement?
• In reviewing numerous manuscripts for possible
publication in this peer-reviewed journal, as well as
reading numerous studies published in other journals,
we repeatedly find that problem statements are absent
or incomplete, and there seems to be continuing
confusion as to what comprises a problem statement.
• Are purpose and problem statement synonymous?
• Does a study objective, hypothesis, or summary of the
content of the report comprise a problem statement?
• To add to the confusion, research methods textbooks in
the social sciences do not clarify the matter, although
they may note that research examines problems or that it
engages in problem solving.
 Problem statement concern Continued
• More than a decade ago, Hernon and Metoyer (Hernon & Metoyer-Duran, 1993;
MetoyerDuran & Hernon, 1994) supplied sample problem statements to researchers in
library and information science and other social science disciplines in an attempt to
investigate different attitudes toward the composition of a problem statement. They
discovered nine attributes that respondents associated with problem statements
(Hernon & Metoyer-Duran, 1993, pp. 82–83):

• 1. clarity and precision (a well-written statement does not make sweeping

generalizations and irresponsible statements);
• 2. identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words
and terms;
• 3. identification of an overarching question and key factors or variables;
• 4. identification of key concepts and terms;
• 5. articulation of the study's boundaries or parameters;
• 6. some generalizability;
• 7. conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification (regardless of the
type of research, it is important to address the “so what” question and to demonstrate
that the research is not trivial);
• 8. no use of unnecessary jargon; and
• 9. conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing a
snapshot.
• Reinforcing the seventh point, Moffatt (1980, p. B2) noted that “a great deal of
published academic writing in any field is mediocre and pedestrian,” even if it appears
in peer-reviewed journals. Consequently, manuscripts submitted for publications
should be able to withstand any scrutiny
 Justification
• Main attributes
• Provide support evidence that there is a problem, factual
support, eg cows dying down stream, loss of business
• also important to mention that the problem/topic
identified could be solvable through your research
approach
• who are the intended beneficiaries of the end product
• What contribution will it bring to the academic world or
the society or the business
• Cost benefit analysis (utility element)
 Goals and objectives
• Goals and objectives
• What does one intends to do?
• This sets out the scope of the project.
• This also sets the boundaries of the project alluding to what is or not
to be covered
• objectives states what is new and especially that which warrants
investigation to fill the gap
• Objectives should be SMART …
• Specific
• Measurable
• Achievable
• Realistic
• Timely.
Research question and hypothesis
• Research question: this is the question you are trying to
provide answers to by carrying out research on a given
topic
• It must be specific and capture the gist of the research.
Sometimes you may need two research question to
compliment each other
• Examples of research topic
• Say you are studying the effect of mushroom on the carbon
fixation in a woodland
– What is the effect of mushroom in carbon fixation in a woodland?
Or
– Do mushroom have any effect in fixing carbon in a woodland?
 Hypothesis
• What is a hypothesis: A hypothesis is a
statement that can be proved or
disproved. A research question can be
made into a hypothesis by changing it into
a statement. For example, the research
question above can be made into the
hypothesis:
• Mushroom have an effect in fixing carbon
in a woodland
 The Null hypothesis
• This is the hypothesis to be disproved (abbreviated H0)
for example in the hypothesis above the null could be:
• Mushroom have no effect in the fixation of carbon in a
woodland
• Null hypotheses are the domain of sciences. For
example the research aimed at explanatory and
descriptive outcome, a null hypothesis is formulated, and
then a scientific investigation is conducted to try to
disprove the null hypothesis. If it can be disproved,
another null hypothesis is constructed and the process is
repeated.
• Ref.
http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/media/us/samplechapt
ers/9780323057431/Chapter%2002.pdf
 Reflection
• A project is a…
• “...series of activities designed to achieve a
specific outcome within a set budget and
timescale”.
• Simple phases
• 1. initiation or conception
• 2. planning and design
• 3. implementation or executing
• 4. monitoring and controlling
• 5. closure