Research Method Slides Chap 1 13 Complete

Chapter 1
Introduction to Research
Research © 2012 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Methods www.wiley.com/college/sekaran
Research Methods for
Business
Chapter 1

Definition of Business Research
• Business research: an organized and

systematic inquiry or investigation
into a specific problem, undertaken
with the purpose of finding answers
or solutions to it.

Applied versus Basic Research
• Basic research: generates a body
of knowledge by trying to
comprehend how certain problems
that occur in organizations can be
solved.
• Applied research: solves a current
problem faced by the manager in the
work setting, demanding a timely
solution.
Examples Applied Research
• Apple’s iPod fueled the company’s success in recent
years, helping to increase sales from $5 billion in 2001
to $32 billion in the fiscal year 2008. Growth for the
music player averaged more than 200% in 2006 and
2007, before falling to 6% in 2008. Some analysts
believe that the number of iPods sold will drop 12% in
2009. “The reality is there’s a limited group of people
who want an iPod or any other portable media player,”
one analyst says. “So the question becomes, what will
Apple do about it?”
• The existing machinery in the production department

has had so many breakdowns that production has
suffered. Machinery has to be replaced. Because of
heavy investment costs, a careful recommendation as
to whether it is more beneficial to buy the equipment
Research or to lease it is needed.
© 2012 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
More Examples of Research Areas in
Business
• Absenteeism
• Communication
• Motivation
• Consumer decision making
• Customer satisfaction
• Budget allocations
• Accounting procedures

Why managers should know about
research
• Being knowledgeable about research and
research methods helps professional managers
to:
– Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work
setting.
– Know how to discriminate good from bad research.
– Appreciate the multiple influences and effects of factors
impinging on a situation.
– Take calculated risks in decision making.
– Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their
influence in a situation.
– Relate to hired researchers and consultants more
effectively.
– Combine experience with scientific knowledge while
Research making decisions. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
The Manager–Researcher
Relationship
• Each should know his/her role
• Trust levels
• Value system
• Acceptance of findings and
implementation
• Issues of inside versus outside
researchers/consultants

Internal Researchers
• Advantages:
– Better acceptance from staff
– Knowledge about organization
– Would be an integral part of implementation
and evaluation of the research
recommendations.
• Disadvantages
– Less fresh ideas
– Power politics could prevail
– Possibly not valued as “expert” by staff
External Researchers
• Advantages
– Divergent and convergent thinking
– Experience from several situations in different
organizations
– Better technical training, usually
• Disadvantages
– Takes time to know and understand the
organization
– Rapport and cooperation from staff not easy
– Not available for evaluation and implementation
– Costs

Chapter 2
Scientific Investigation

Hallmarks of scientific
research:
• Hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research:
– Purposiveness
– Rigor
– Testability
– Replicability
– Precision and Confidence
– Objectivity
– Generalizability
– Parsimony
Hypothetico-Deductive
Research
• The Seven-Step Process in the
Hypothetico-Deductive Method
– Identify a broad problem area
– Define the problem statement
– Develop hypotheses
– Determine measures
– Data collection
– Data analysis
– Interpretation of data
Deduction and Induction
• Deductive reasoning: application of a
general theory to a specific case.
– Hypothesis testing
• Inductive reasoning: a process where

we observe specific phenomena and on
this basis arrive at general conclusions.
– Counting white swans
• Both inductive and deductive processes

are often used in research.
Chapter 3
Introduction to Research
The Research Process - The Broad
Problem Area and Defining the
Problem Statement

The Broad Problem Area
• Examples of broad problem areas that a
manager could observe at the workplace :
– Training programs are not as effective as
anticipated.
– The sales volume of a product is not picking up.
– Minority group members are not advancing in
their careers.
– The newly installed information system is not
being used by the managers for whom it was
primarily designed.
– The introduction of flexible work hours has
created more problems than it has solved in
many companies.
Research
16
Methods
Preliminary Information
Gathering
• Nature of information to be
gathered:
– Background information of the
organization.
– Prevailing knowledge on the topic.
Research
17
Methods
First Review of the
Literature
• Helps the researcher to:
– Structure research on work already done
– Develop problem statement with
precision and clarity
• Is beneficial in both basic and applied

research projects

Critical Literature Review
• A literature review is “the selection of
available documents (both published and
unpublished) on the topic, which contain
information, ideas, data and evidence
written from a particular standpoint to fulfill
certain aims or express certain views on the
nature of the topic and how it is to be
investigated, and the effective evaluation of
these documents in relation to the research
being proposed” (Hart, 1998, p. 13).

Functions Literature Review
• Research builds on existing knowledge
• One does “reinvent the wheel”
• Look at a problem from a specific angle
• Find out what variables are important to consider
• Introduce relevant terminology/provide
definitions
• Provide arguments for the relationships variables
• Testability and replicability are enhanced.
• Research findings are related to findings of
others.

Data sources
• Textbooks
• Academic and professional journals
• Theses
• Conference proceedings
• Unpublished manuscripts
• Reports of government departments and
corporations
• Newspapers
• The Internet
Searching for literature
• Most libraries have the following
electronic resources at their disposal:
– Electronic journals
– Full-text databases
– Bibliographic databases
– Abstract databases

Evaluating the literature
• Titles
• Abstract
• Table of contents/first chapter book
• Number of citations

Documenting the Literature
Review
• Literature review introduces
– Subject study
– Highlights the problem
– Summarizes work done so far

A good problem statement
• Research objective: why of the research
• Research objective applied research:

– to solve a specific problem in a work setting;
– to change something.
• Example:
– To determine factors that increase employee commitment
to the organization;
• Allows manager to increase commitment and hence to

decrease turnover, absenteeism and increase
performance levels.

Example
The purpose of this study is twofold:
1. to identify the factors that influence

the passenger’s waiting experience
and
2. to investigate the possible impact of

waiting on customer satisfaction and
service evaluations.
Research
Methods
A good problem statement
• Research questions:
– what of the research (what do you want to learn?)
– Translates problem into a specific need for information
• Research questions:
– Are related to the objective
– If objective is unclear we will not be able to formulate research
questions
• Example:
– What are the factors that affect the perceived waiting experience of
airline passengers
– To what extent do these factors affect the perception of waiting times?
– What are the affective consequences of waiting
– How does affect mediate the relationship between waiting and service
evaluations?
– How do situational variables (such as filled time) influence customer
reactions to the waiting experience?

Good problem statement
• Relevant
– for the organization
• Feasible
– you are able to answer the research
questions within the restrictions of the
research project.
• Interesting
– to you!

The research proposal
• The research proposal drawn up by
the investigator is the result of a
planned, organized, and careful
effort.

www.wiley.com/college/sekaran
Methods
Research Proposal contains
(1)
• Working title.
• Background of the study.
• The problem statement.
- The purpose of the study.
- Research questions.
• The scope of the study.
• The relevance of the study.

Research Proposal
contains (2)
• The research design offering details on:
a. Type of study
b. Data collection methods
c. The sampling design.
d. Data analysis.
• Time frame of the study
• Budget
• Selected bibliography.
Chapter 4
Theoretical
Framework &
Hypothesis
Development
Research © 2012 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 32
Theoretical framework
• Foundation deductive research project!
• Deductive research: moving from the general (a

theory) to the specific (observations).

Theoretical Framework
• A theoretical framework represents
your beliefs on how certain
phenomena (or variables or
concepts) are related to each other
(a model) and an explanation on why
you believe that these variables are
associated to each other (a theory).

Theoretical framework
• Basic steps:
– Identify and label the variables
correctly
– State the relationships among the
variables: formulate hypotheses
– Explain how or why you expect
these relationships

Variable
• Any concept or construct that
varies or changes in value
• Main types of variables:

– Dependent variable
– Independent variable
– Moderating variable
– Mediating variable

(In)dependent variables
• Dependent variable (DV)

– Is of primary interest to the researcher.
The goal of the research project is to
understand, predict or explain the
variability of this variable.
• Independent variable (IV)

– Influences the DV in either positive or
negative way. The variance in the DV is
accounted for by the IV.
Example

Moderators
• Moderating variable
– Moderator is qualitative (e.g., gender,
race, class) or quantitative (e.g., level of
reward) variable that affects the direction
and/or strength of relation between
independent and dependent variable.
Research
Methods
Mediating variable
• Mediating variable
– surfaces between the time the
independent variables start operating
to influence the dependent variable and
the time their impact is felt on it.

Hypothesis
• A proposition that is empirically testable. It
is an empirical statement concerned with
the relationship among variables.
• Good hypothesis:
– Must be adequate for its purpose
– Must be testable
– Must be better than its rivals
• Can be:
– Directional
– Non-directional
Exercise
Give the hypotheses for the following framework:
Service Customer
quality switching
Switching
cost

Exercise
Give the hypotheses for the following framework:
Service Customer Customer

quality satisfaction switching

Argumentation
• The expected relationships /
hypotheses are an integration of:
– Exploratory research
– Common sense and logical reasoning

Chapter 5
Elements of Research
Design

Research Design

Purpose of the Study
• Exploratory
• Descriptive
• Causal

• Exploratory study:
– is undertaken when not much is known
about the situation at hand, or no
information is available on how similar
problems or research issues have been
solved in the past.
• Example:
– A service provider wants to know why
his customers are switching to other
service providers?
• Descriptive study:
– is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to
describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in
a situation.
• Example:
– A bank manager wants to have a profile of the
individuals who have loan payments outstanding for 6
months and more. It would include details of their
average age, earnings, nature of occupation, full-
time/part-time employment status, and the like. This
might help him to elicit further information or decide
right away on the types of individuals who should be
made ineligible for loans in the future.

• Causal study:
– Delineating one or more factors that are
causing the problem.
• Example:
– A marketing manager wants to know if
the sales of the company will increase if
he increases the advertising budget.

Extent of Researcher
Interference
• Minimal interference
• Moderate interference
• Excessive interference

Study Setting
• Contrived: artificial setting
• Non-contrived: the natural

environment where work proceeds
normally

Research Strategies
• Experiments
• Survey Research
• Observation
• Case studies
• Grounded theory
• Action research
• Mixed Methods

Population to be studied
• Unit of analysis:
– Individuals
– Dyads
– Groups
– Organizations
– Cultures

Time Horizon
• Cross-sectional studies
– Snapshot of constructs at a single point in time
– Use of representative sample
• Multiple cross-sectional studies

– Constructs measured at multiple points in time
– Use of different sample
• Longitudinal studies
– Constructs measured at multiple points in time
– Use of same sample = a true panel

Chapter 6
Measurement of
Variables: Operational
Definition
Measurement
• Measurement: the assignment of
numbers or other symbols to
characteristics (or attributes) of
objects according to a pre-specified
set of rules.

(Characteristics of) Objects
• Objects include persons, strategic
business units, companies, countries,
kitchen appliances, restaurants, shampoo,
yogurt and so on.
• Examples of characteristics of objects are
arousal seeking tendency, achievement
motivation, organizational effectiveness,
shopping enjoyment, length, weight,
ethnic diversity, service quality,
conditioning effects and taste.
Types of Variables
• Two types of variables:
– One lends itself to objective and precise
measurement;
– The other is more nebulous and does
not lend itself to accurate measurement
because of its abstract and subjective
nature.

Operationalizing Concepts
• Operationalizing concepts: reduction
of abstract concepts to render them
measurable in a tangible way.
• Operationalizing is done by looking
at the behavioral dimensions, facets,
or properties denoted by the
concept.

Example

Chapter 7
Measurement of
Variables: Scaling,
Reliability, Validity
Scale
• Scale: tool or mechanism by which
individuals are distinguished as to
how they differ from one another on
the variables of interest to our study.

Methods
Nominal Scale
• A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign
subjects to certain categories or groups.
• What is your department?

O Marketing O Maintenance O Finance
O Production O Servicing O Personnel
O Sales O Public Relations O Accounting
• What is your gender?

O Male
O Female

Methods
Nominal Scale

Methods
Ordinal Scale
• Ordinal scale: not only categorizes variables in
such a way as to denote differences among
various categories, it also rank-orders categories
in some meaningful way.
• What is the highest level of education you have

completed?
O Less than High School
O High School/GED Equivalent
O College Degree
O Masters Degree
O Doctoral Degree

Methods
Ordinal Scale

Methods
Interval Scale
• Interval scale: whereas the nominal
scale allows us only to qualitatively
distinguish groups by categorizing
them into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive sets, and the
ordinal scale to rank-order the
preferences, the interval scale lets us
measure the distance between any
two points on the scale.
Methods
Interval scale
• Circle the number that represents your feelings at this particular
moment best. There are no right or wrong answers. Please answer
every question.
1. I invest more in my work than I get out of it
I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely
2. I exert myself too much considering what I get back in return
3. For the efforts I put into the organization, I get much in return

Methods
Interval scale

Methods
Ratio Scale
• Ratio scale: overcomes the
disadvantage of the arbitrary origin
point of the interval scale, in that it
has an absolute (in contrast to an
arbitrary) zero point, which is a
meaningful measurement point.
• What is your age?

Methods
Ratio Scale

Methods
Properties of the Four Scales
• Insert Table 12.1 here

Methods
Goodness of Measures

Methods
Validity

Methods
Reliability
• Reliability of measure indicates
extent to which it is without bias and
hence ensures consistent
measurement across time (stability)
and across the various items in the
instrument (internal consistency).

Methods
Stability
• Stability: ability of a measure to
remain the same over time, despite
uncontrollable testing conditions or
the state of the respondents
themselves.
– Test–Retest Reliability: The reliability
coefficient obtained with a repetition of
the same measure on a second
occasion.
– Parallel-Form Reliability: Responses on
two comparable sets of measures
Research
Methods
tapping the same construct are highly
Internal Consistency
• Internal Consistency of Measures is
indicative of the homogeneity of the items
in the measure that tap the construct.
– Interitem Consistency Reliability: This is a test
of the consistency of respondents’ answers to
all the items in a measure. The most popular
test of interitem consistency reliability is the
Cronbach’s coefficient alpha.
– Split-Half Reliability: Split-half reliability
reflects the correlations between two halves of
an instrument.
Methods
Chapter 8
Data Collection
Methods: Introduction
and Interviews
Sources of Data
• Primary data: information obtained firsthand by
the researcher on the variables of interest for the
specific purpose of the study.
• Examples: individuals, focus groups, panels
• Secondary data: information gathered from

sources already existing.
• Examples: company records or archives,

government publications, industry analyses
offered by the media, web sites, the Internet, and
so on.

Interviews
• Unstructured interviews:
– the interviewer does not enter the interview
setting with a planned sequence of questions to
be asked of the respondent.
• Structured interviews:
– Conducted when it is known at the outset what
information is needed.
– The interviewer has a list of predetermined
questions to be asked of the respondents either
personally, through the telephone, or via the
computer.
Personal interview
• Advantages
– Can clarify doubts about questionnaire
– Can pick up non-verbal cues
– Relatively high response/cooperation
– Special visual aids and scoring devises can be used
• Disadvantages
– High costs and time intensive
– Geographical limitations
– Response bias / Confidentiality difficult to be assured
– Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers
– Trained interviewers

Telephone interview
• Advantages
– Discomfort of face to face is avoided
– Faster / Number of calls per day could be high
– Lower cost
• Disadvantages
– Interview length must be limited
– Low response rate
– No facial expressions

Self-administered
• Advantages
– Lowest cost option
– Expanded geographical coverage
– Requires minimal staff
– Perceived as more anonymous
• Disadvantages
– Low response rate in some modes
– No interviewer intervention possible for clarification
– Cannot be too long or complex
– Incomplete surveys

Projective Methods
• Word association techniques:
– Asking the respondent to quickly associate a word
with the first thing that comes to mind.
– Often used to get at true attitudes and feelings.
• Thematic apperception tests (TAT):
– Call for respondent to weave a story around a
picture that is shown.
– To trace patterns and personality characteristics of
respondents.
• Inkblot tests:
– Form of motivational research, uses colored inkblots
that are interpreted by respondents.

Data Collection
Methods: Observation

Methods
Observation
• Observation involves going into ‘the
field’, - the factory, the supermarket,
the waiting room, the office, or the
trading room - watching what
workers, consumers, or day traders
do, and describing, analyzing, and
interpreting what one has seen.

Methods
Examples
• Shadowing a Wall Street broker engaged
in his daily routine.
• Observing in-store shopping behavior of
consumers via a camera.
• Sitting in the corner of an office to observe
how a merchant bank trader operates.
• Working in a plant to study factory life.
• Studying the approach skills of sales
people disguised as a shopper.

Methods
Key dimensions characterizing type
of observation
• Controlled versus Uncontrolled

Observational Studies
• Participant versus Non-Participant
Observation
• Structured versus Unstructured
Observational Studies
• Concealed versus Unconcealed
observation
Methods
Participant Observation
• The participatory aspect:
– Complete participation
– Moderate participation
– Active participation
• To what extent should I participate?

Methods
Participant Observation
• The observation aspect
– Obtaining permission
– Finding a ‘sponsor’
– Establishing rapport

Methods
What to observe?
• Descriptive observation stage:
– Space
– Objects
– Actors
– Feelings
– Events
Spradly, 1980

Methods
What to observe?
• Focused and selective observation stage:
– Look for a story line
– Sort out regular from irregular activities
– Look for variation in the storyline
– Look for negative cases or exceptions
– Develop a plan for systematic observation if
needed
DeWalt and DeWalt, 2002

Methods
Structured observation
• Looks selectively at predetermined
phenomena
• Different levels of structure

Methods
Coding schemes
• Focus
• Objective
• Ease of use
• Mutually exclusive and collectively

exhaustive
Methods
Standard Coding Schemes
• Simple checklist
• Sequence record
• Sequence record on time scale

Methods
Data Collection
Methods:
Questionnaires
Methods
Questionnaire Design
• Definition
A questionnaire is a pre-formulated, written set of
questions to which the respondent records his
answers
• Steps
1. Determine the content of the
questionnaire
2. Determine the form of response
3. Determine the wording of the questions
4. Determine the question sequence
5. Write cover letter
Methods
1. Questionnaire content
• Framework
Need information for all constructs in
framework
• Measurement: Operationalizing
– Objective construct:
• 1 element/items
=> 1 question
– Subjective construct:
• multiple elements/items
=> multiple questions
Methods
2. Response format
• Closed vs. Open-ended questions
– Closed questions
• Helps respondents to make quick
decisions
• Helps researchers to code
– Open-ended question
• First: unbiased point of view
• Final: additional insights
• Complementary to closed question: for
interpretation purpose
•
Research
Cfr. Measurement: Response scales
Methods
3. Question wording
• Avoid double-barreled questions
• Avoid ambiguous questions and words
• Use of ordinary words
• Avoid leading or biasing questions
• Social desirability
• Avoid recall depended questions

Methods
Question wording
• Use positive and negative statements

– Dresdner delivers high quality banking service
Dresdner has poor customer operational support
– Avoid double negatives
• Limit the length of the questions

Rules of thumb:
– < 20 words
– < one full line in print

Methods
4. Question sequence
Personal and sensitive data at the end

Methods
5. Cover letter
• The cover letter is the introductory
page of the questionnaire
• It includes:
– Identification of the researcher
– Motivation for respondents to fill it in
– Confidentiality
– Thanking of the respondent

Methods
Chapter 9
Sampling

Sampling
• Sampling: the process of selecting a sufficient
number of elements from the population, so
that results from analyzing the sample are
generalizable to the population.

Relevant Terms - 1
• Population refers to the entire group of
people, events, or things of interest that
the researcher wishes to investigate.
• An element is a single member of the

population.
• A sample is a subset of the population. It

comprises some members selected from it.

Relevant Terms - 2
• Sampling unit: the element or set of
elements that is available for
selection in some stage of the
sampling process.
• A subject is a single member of the

sample, just as an element is a single
member of the population.

Relevant Terms - 3
• The characteristics of the population such
as µ (the population mean), σ (the
population standard deviation), and σ2
(the population variance) are referred to
as its parameters. The central tendencies,
the dispersions, and other statistics in the
sample of interest to the research are
treated as approximations of the central
tendencies, dispersions, and other
parameters of the population.
Statistics versus Parameters

Advantages of Sampling
• Less costs
• Less errors due to less fatigue
• Less time
• Destruction of elements avoided

The Sampling Process
• Major steps in sampling:
– Define the population.
– Determine the sample frame
– Determine the sampling design
– Determine the appropriate sample
size
– Execute the sampling process

Sampling Techniques
• Probability versus nonprobability
sampling
• Probability sampling: elements in

the population have a known and
non-zero chance of being chosen

Sampling Techniques
• Probability Sampling
– Simple Random Sampling
– Systematic Sampling
– Stratified Random Sampling
– Cluster Sampling
• Nonprobability Sampling
– Convenience Sampling
– Judgment Sampling
– Quota Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
• Procedure
– Each element has a known and equal chance of being
selected
• Characteristics
– Highly generalizable
– Easily understood
– Reliable population frame necessary

Systematic sampling
• Procedure
– Each nth element, starting with random choice of an
element between 1 and n
• Characteristics
– Idem simple random sampling
– Easier than simple random sampling
– Systematic biases when elements are not randomly
listed

Cluster sampling
• Procedure
– Divide of population in clusters
– Random selection of clusters
– Include all elements from selected clusters
• Characteristics
– Intercluster homogeneity
– Intracluster heterogeneity
– Easy and cost efficient
– Low correspondence with reality

Stratified sampling
• Procedure
– Divide of population in strata
– Include all strata
– Random selection of elements from strata
• Proportionate
• Disproportionate
• Characteristics
– Interstrata heterogeneity
– Intrastratum homogeneity
– Includes all relevant subpopulations

(Dis)proportionate stratified sampling
• Number of subjects in total sample is allocated

among the strata (dis)proportional to the relative
number of elements in each stratum in the
population
• Disproportionate case:
– strata exhibiting more variability are sampled more than
proportional to their relative size
– requires more knowledge of the population, not just
relative sizes of strata

Example

Overview

Choice Points in Sampling Design

Tradeoff between precision and confidence
 We can increase both confidence and precision by

increasing the sample size

Sample size: guidelines
• In general: 30 < n < 500
• Categories: 30 per subcategory
• Multivariate: 10 x number of var’s
• Experiments: 15 to 20 per
condition
Sample Size for a Given Population Size

Chapter 10
Quantitative Data
Analysis

Getting the Data Ready for
Analysis
• Data coding: assigning a number to
the participants’ responses so they
can be entered into a database.
• Data Entry: after responses have

been coded, they can be entered into
a database. Raw data can be entered
through any software program (e.g.,
SPSS)
Editing Data
• An example of an illogical response is an outlier

response. An outlier is an observation that is
substantially different from the other
observations.
• Inconsistent responses are responses that are not

in harmony with other information.
• Illegal codes are values that are not specified in

the coding instructions.
Transforming Data

Getting a Feel for the Data

Frequencies

Descriptive Statistics: Central
Tendencies and Dispersions

Reliability Analysis

Chapter 11
Quantitative Data
Analysis: Hypothesis
Testing
Type I Errors, Type II Errors and
Statistical Power
• Type I error (): the probability of
rejecting the null hypothesis when it
is actually true.
• Type II error (): the probability of

failing to reject the null hypothesis
given that the alternative hypothesis
is actually true.
• Statistical power (1 - ): the

probability of correctly rejecting the
Choosing the Appropriate Statistical
Technique

Testing Hypotheses on a Single
Mean
• One sample t-test: statistical
technique that is used to test the
hypothesis that the mean of the
population from which a sample is
drawn is equal to a comparison
standard.

Testing Hypotheses about Two
Related Means
• Paired samples t-test: examines
differences in same group before and after
a treatment.
• The Wilcoxon signed-rank test: a non-
parametric test for examining significant
differences between two related samples
or repeated measurements on a single
sample. Used as an alternative for a paired
samples t-test when the population cannot
be assumed to be normally distributed.
Related Means - 2
• McNemar's test: non-parametric
method used on nominal data. It
assesses the significance of the
difference between two dependent
samples when the variable of interest
is dichotomous. It is used primarily in
before-after studies to test for an
experimental effect.

Unrelated Means
• Independent samples t-test: is done
to see if there are any significant
differences in the means for two
groups in the variable of interest.

Testing Hypotheses about Several
Means
• ANalysis Of VAriance (ANOVA) helps
to examine the significant mean
differences among more than two
groups on an interval or ratio-scaled
dependent variable.

Regression Analysis
• Simple regression analysis is used in
a situation where one metric
independent variable is hypothesized
to affect one metric dependent
variable.

18
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Model Squares df M ean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 8195.319 1 8195.319 233.901 .000
Residual 3398.640 97 35.038
Total 11593.960 98

SPSS cont’d
Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 34.738 2.065 16.822 .000
PHYS_ATTR .520 .034 .841 15.294 .000

Model validation
1. Face validity: signs and magnitudes make sense
2. Statistical validity:
– Model fit: R2
– Model significance: F-test
– Parameter significance: t-test
– Strength of effects: beta-coefficients
– Discussion of multicollinearity: correlation matrix
3. Predictive validity: how well the model predicts
– Out-of-sample forecast errors

SPSS
Model Summary

1 .841 .707 .704 5.919

Measure of Overall Fit: R2
• R2 measures the proportion of the variation in y that is
explained by the variation in x.
• R2 = total variation – unexplained variation

total variation
• R2 takes on any value between zero and one:

– R2 = 1: Perfect match between the line and the data points.
– R2 = 0: There is no linear relationship between x and y.

SPSS
Model Summary

1 .841 .707 .704 5.919
= r(Likelihood to Date, Physical Attractiveness)

Model Significance
• H0: 0 = 1 = ... = m = 0 (all parameters are zero)
H1: Not H0

Model Significance
• H0: 0 = 1 = ... = m = 0 (all parameters are zero)
H1: Not H0
• Test statistic (k = # of variables excl. intercept)
F = (SSReg/k) ~ Fk, n-1-k

(SSe/(n – 1 – k)
SSReg = explained variation by regression

SSe = unexplained variation by regression

SPSS
ANOVA
Sum of
Model Squares df M ean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 8195.319 1 8195.319 233.901 .000
Residual 3398.640 97 35.038
Total 11593.960 98

Parameter significance
• Testing that a specific parameter is significant (i.e., j 
0)
• H 0: j = 0
H 1: j  0
• Test-statistic: t = bj/SEj ~ tn-k-1
with bj = the estimated coefficient for j

SEj = the standard error of bj

SPSS cont’d
Coefficients
1 (Constant) 34.738 2.065 16.822 .000
PHYS_ATTR .520 .034 .841 15.294 .000

Conceptual Model
+
Physical Likelihood
Attractivenes to Date
s
Research
Methods
Multiple Regression
Analysis
• We use more than one (metric or
non-metric) independent variable to
explain variance in a (metric)
dependent variable.
Research
Methods
Conceptual Model
Perceived
Intelligence +
+
Physical Likelihood
s
Research
Methods
Model Summary

1 .844 .712 .706 5.895
ANOVA
Sum of
Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 8257.731 2 4128.866 118.808 .000
Residual 3336.228 96 34.752
Total 11593.960 98
Coefficients
1 (Constant) 31.575 3.130 10.088 .000
PERC_INTGCE .050 .037 .074 1.340 .183
PHYS_ATTR .523 .034 .846 15.413 .000
Research
Methods
Conceptual Model
Gende
Perceived
+ r
Intelligence +
+
Physical Likelihood
s
Research
Methods
Moderators
• Moderator is qualitative (e.g., gender, race, class) or
quantitative (e.g., level of reward) that affects the
direction and/or strength of the relation between
dependent and independent variable
• Analytical representation
Y = ß0 + ß1X1 + ß2X2 + ß3X1X2
with Y = DV
X1 = IV
X2 = Moderator
Research
Methods
Model Summary

1 .910 .828 .821 4.601
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 9603.938 4 2400.984 113.412 .000
Residual 1990.022 94 21.170
Total 11593.960 98
Research
Methods
Coefficients
1 (Constant) 32.603 3.163 10.306 .000
PERC_INTGCE .000 .043 .000 .004 .997
PHYS_ATTR .496 .027 .802 18.540 .000
GENDER -.420 3.624 -.019 -.116 .908
PI_GENDER .127 .058 .369 2.177 .032
interaction significant effect on dep. var.
Research
Methods
Conceptual Model
Gende
Perceived
+ r
Intelligence +
+
Physical Likelihood
s
+
Communality +
Perceived Fit
of Interests
Research
Methods
Mediating/intervening variable
• Accounts for the relation between the independent
and dependent variable
• Analytical representation
1. Y = ß0 + ß 1X
=> ß1 is significant
2. M = ß 2 + ß 3X
3. Y = ß 4 + ß 5X + ß 6M
=> ß5 is not significant
With Y = DV
X = IV
M = mediator
Research
Methods
Step 1
Mode l S umm ary
Adjus ted St d. E rror of

Model R R Square R Square the E stimate
1 .963 .927 .923 3. 020
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 10745.603 5 2149.121 235.595 .000
Residual 848.357 93 9.122
Total 11593.960 98
Research
Methods
Step 1 cont’d
Coefficients
1 (Cons tant) 17.094 2.497 6.846 .000
PERC_INTGCE .030 .029 .044 1.039 .301
PHYS_ATTR .517 .018 .836 29.269 .000
GENDER -.783 2.379 -.036 -.329 .743
PI_GENDER .122 .038 .356 3.201 .002
COMM_INTER .212 .019 .319 11.187 .000
significant effect on dep. var.
Research
Methods
Step 2
Mode l S umm ary

1 .977 .955 .955 2. 927
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 17720.881 1 17720.881 2068.307 .000
Residual 831.079 97 8.568
Total 18551.960 98
Research
Methods
Step 2 cont’d
Coefficients
1 (Cons tant) 8.474 1.132 7.484 .000
COMM_INTER .820 .018 .977 45.479 .000
significant effect on mediator
Research
Methods
Step 3
Mode l S umm ary

1 .966 .934 .930 2. 885
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 10828.336 6 1804.723 216.862 .000
Residual 765.624 92 8.322
Total 11593.960 98
Research
Methods
Step 3 cont’d
Coefficients
1 (Cons tant) 14.969 2.478 6.041 .000
PERC_INTGCE .019 .028 .028 .688 .493
PHYS_ATTR .518 .017 .839 30.733 .000
GENDER -2.040 2.307 -.094 -.884 .379
PI_GENDER .142 .037 .412 3.825 .000
COMM_INTER -.051 .085 -.077 -.596 .553
PERC_FIT .320 .102 .405 3.153 .002
insignificant effect of indep. var on dep. Var.

significant effect of mediator on dep. var.
Research
Methods
Chapter 12
Qualitative Data
Analysis

Qualitative Data
• Qualitative data: data in the form of
words.
• Examples: interview notes,

transcripts of focus groups, answers
to open-ended questions,
transcription of video recordings,
accounts of experiences with a
product on the internet, news
articles,
Research
Methods
and the like.
Analysis of Qualitative Data
• The analysis of qualitative data is
aimed at making valid inferences
from the often overwhelming amount
of collected data.
• Steps:
– data reduction
– data display
– drawing and verifying conclusions
Data Reduction
• Coding: the analytic process through
which the qualitative data that you
have gathered are reduced,
rearranged, and integrated to form
theory.
• Categorization: is the process of

organizing, arranging, and classifying
coding units.
Data Display
• Data display: taking your reduced
data and displaying them in an
organized, condensed manner.
• Examples: charts, matrices,

diagrams, graphs, frequently
mentioned phrases, and/or drawings.

Drawing Conclusions
• At this point where you answer your
research questions by determining
what identified themes stand for, by
thinking about explanations for
observed patterns and relationships,
or by making contrasts and
comparisons.

Reliability in Qualitative
Research
• Category reliability “depends on the
analyst’s ability to formulate categories
and present to competent judges
definitions of the categories so they will
agree on which items of a certain
population belong in a category and which
do not.” (Kassarjian, 1977, p. 14).
• Interjudge reliability can be defined degree
of consistency between coders processing
the same data (Kassarjian 1977).
Validity in Qualitative Research
• Validity refers to the extent to which
the qualitative research results:
– accurately represent the collected data
(internal validity)
– can be generalized or transferred to
other contexts or settings (external
validity).

Chapter 13
The Research Report

The Written Report
• The key purpose of any research report is to
offer a clear description of what has been done
in the various stages of the research process.
• Important to identify the specific purpose of the

report, so that it can be tailored accordingly.
• Examples
– Simple descriptive report
– Comprehensive report, offering alternative solutions

Presentation of Results
• Results of the study and recommendations
to solve the problem have to be effectively
communicated to the sponsor, so that
suggestions made are accepted and
implemented.
• Contents and organization of written report

and oral presentation depend on the
purpose of the research study, and the
audience to which it is targeted.
Characteristics of a Well-Written
Report
• Clarity
• Conciseness
• Coherence
• The right emphasis on important aspects
• Meaningful organization of paragraphs
• Smooth transition from one topic to the
next
• Apt choice of words
• Specificity
Contents of Research Report
• Title
• Executive summary or abstract
• Table of contents
• List of Tables, Figures, and Other Materials
• Preface
• Authorization Letter
• The introductory section
• The body of the report
• The final part of the report
• References
• Appendix

Oral Presentation
• Deciding on the Content
• Visual Aids
– For instance graphs, charts, tables
• The presenter
• The presentation
• Handling questions


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• Business research: an organized and

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• The existing machinery in the production department

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• Inductive reasoning: a process where

• Both inductive and deductive processes

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• Is beneficial in both basic and applied

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• Research objective applied research:

• Allows manager to increase commitment and hence to

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1. to identify the factors that influence

2. to investigate the possible impact of

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• Foundation deductive research project!

• Deductive research: moving from the general (a

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• Main types of variables:

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• Dependent variable (DV)

• Independent variable (IV)

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Service Customer Customer

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• Non-contrived: the natural

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• Multiple cross-sectional studies

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• What is your department?

• What is your gender?

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