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•Define motivation
•Compare and contrast early theories of
motivation
•Compare and contrast contemporary theories of
motivation
•Discuss current issues in motivation

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 2
What Is Motivation?
• Motivation – is the process by which a person’s efforts
are energized, directed, and sustained toward
attaining a goal.
3 key elements in the process
• Energy-measure of intensity and drive
• Direction-effort is channeled towards a direction that
benefits the organization
• Persistence-employees should persist in putting effort

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 3
Content Theories of Motivation
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 4
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Every person has a hierarchy of 5 needs-
physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-
actualization.
Each level in the needs hierarchy must be
substantially satisfied before the next level
becomes dominant. An individual gradually
moves up the hierarchy pyramid.

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 5
 Exhibit 16-1: Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 6
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs Theory (cont.)
• Physiological needs - a person’s needs for
food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and
other physical needs.
• Safety needs - a person’s needs for security
and protection from physical and emotional
harm.
• Social needs - a person’s needs for affection,
belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 7
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs Theory (cont.)
• Esteem needs - a person’s needs for internal
factors (e.g., self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement) and external factors (such as
status, recognition, and attention).
• Self-actualization needs - a person’s need to
become what he or she is capable of
becoming.

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 8
 Criticism of Maslow’s Theory

• Real life claims/tests show deficiencies in

Maslow’s Theory
• Practical evidence points to lesser number of
levels (less than 5)
• Physiological and safety needs are arranged in
hierarchical fashion
• But beyond that point any one of the needs
might be the single most important one
depending on the individual.
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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 9
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg wanted to know when people felt satisfied and
when they felt dissatisfied about their job.

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene factors - factors that eliminate job

dissatisfaction, but don’t motivate.
Motivators - factors that increase job satisfaction and
motivation.

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Exhibit 16-2: Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
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 Criticism of Herzberg’s Theory
• Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers are not the same for
everyone.
• One person’s satisfier might be another
person’s disatisfier

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 Process Theories
of Motivation
• Equity Theory
• Expectancy Theory
• Reinforcement Theory

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Equity Theory
Equity theory - an employee compares his or her
job’s output-input ratio with that of comparable
others and then corrects any inequity.

Correction of Inequity happens through

•Higher/lower productivity
•Improved/reduced quality of output
•Increased absenteeism
•Voluntary resignation

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 Exhibit 16-8: Equity Theory

Referent - the person or system against which

individuals compare themselves

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Expectancy Theory
An individual tends to act in a certain way based
on the expectation that
•the act will be followed by a certain outcome
and
•on the attractiveness of that outcome

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 Exhibit 16-9: Expectancy Model

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
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Expectancy Theory
There are 3 Expectancy Relationships
– Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)
• The perceived probability that an individual’s effort
will result in a certain level of performance.
– Instrumentality (performance-outcome linkage)
• The perception that a particular level of performance
will result in attaining a desired outcome (reward).
– Valence (attractiveness of reward linkage)
• The attractiveness/importance of the performance
reward (outcome) to the individual.

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 19
 Reinforcement Theory
• Behavior is a function of its consequences.
• Consequences immediately following a
behavior which increase the probability that
the behavior will be repeated are called
Reinforcers.
• Managers can use positive reinforcers to
influence employee behavior and motivate
employees to achieve organizational goals

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 20
 Job Design
The way tasks are combined to form complete jobs.
Jobs should be designed keeping in mind
•the environment
•technology
•employee skill and preferences.
Only then do jobs become motivating.

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
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Job Design
Managers design motivating jobs through
1. Job enlargement - the horizontal expansion of a job
that occurs as a result of increasing job scope.
Job Scope: The number of different tasks required to
complete a job.
2. Job enrichment - the vertical expansion of a job, that
occurs as a result of additional planning and evaluation
of responsibilities. This results in increased job depth.
Job depth - the degree of control employees have over
their work.
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Core Dimensions of Job
Jobs can be enriched by upgrading 5 core
dimensions of work.
1.Skill Variety: the degree to which the job
requires different skills and talents in a person
2.Task Identity: doing the job from beginning to
end with a visible outcome.
3.Task Significance: the degree to which the job
has a substantial impact on the lives of others

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
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Core Dimensions of Job
4. Autonomy: the degree to which the job
provides substantial freedom, independence
and discretion to person performing the job
5. Job Feedback: the degree to which there is
clear information regarding the effectiveness
of the the job being done.

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Management, Eleventh Edition by Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter
Publishing as Prentice Hall©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16- 24