195098 Assignment No 2 Zain Gul

Information Research
Some Basic Research Terminologies
• Data
Data is defined as a collection of individual facts or statistics. Data can come in the form of text,
observations, figures, images, numbers, graphs, or symbols. Data is a raw form of knowledge and,
on its own, doesn’t carry any significance or purpose
For example, data might include individual prices, weights, addresses, ages, names, temperatures,
dates, or distances.
• Information :
Information is defined as knowledge gained through study, communication, research, or
instruction. Essentially, information is the result of analyzing and interpreting pieces of data.
For example, a set of data could include temperature readings in a location over several years.
Without any additional context, those temperatures have no meaning. However, when you analyze
and organize that information, you could determine seasonal temperature patterns or even broader
climate trends.
• Business Intelligence :
The subset of data and information that actually has some explanatory power enabling effective decisions
to be made .The decision we take on the based on available information is known as intelligence .
intelligence is decision-support. It’s a tool for making intelligent predictions about the future based
on solid understanding of the present—in order to take a course of action that improves outcomes.
(Zikmund n.d.)
• Concept :
A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain
events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors. Classifying and categorizing objects or
events that have common characteristics beyond any single observation creates concepts . We use
numerous concepts daily in our thinking, conversing, and other activities. In the level of abstraction
, The High level of abstraction or the most leads to concept of that thing .
For example, we see a man passing and identify that he is running, walking, skipping, crawling,
or hopping. These movements all represent concepts. We also have abstracted certain visual
elements by which we identify that the moving object is an adult male, rather than an adult female
or a truck or a horse.
• Construct :
A construct is an image or abstract idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory-
building purpose. We build constructs by combining the simpler, more concrete concepts,
especially when the idea or image we intend to convey is not subject to direct observation . In the
level of abstraction , The low level of abstraction or the most concrete leads to construct t of that
thing .
For example , Organizational Performance is a concept , but for Human resource department its
means Low turnover , Decentralization that is Construct because now we study specifically for
Human resource Similarly for marketing , its means High Sales and customer loyality .
(R.Cooper n.d.)
• Variable :
The term variable is used as a synonym for construct, or the property being studied. In this context,
a variable is a symbol of an event, act, characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be measured and to
which we assign values.
A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at various
times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different objects or persons. Examples
of variables are production units, absenteeism, and motivation .
Four main types of Variables
1. The dependent variable (the criterion variable) .
2. The independent variable ( the predictor variable ).
3. The moderating variable.
4. The mediating variable.

1. The Dependent Variable ( DV ) :

The dependent variable is also known as the criterion variable . The dependent variable is the
variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe
the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it. In other words, it is the main
variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable factor. Through the analysis of the dependent
it is possible to find answers or solutions to the problem. For this purpose, the researcher will be
interested in quantifying and measuring the dependent variable, as well as the other variables that
influence this variable.
This variable is measured, predicted, or otherwise monitored and is expected to be affected by
manipulation of an independent variable .
2. The Independent variable ( IV ) :
The predictor variable as a synonym for independent variable (IV). This variable is manipulated
by the researcher, and the manipulation causes an effect on the dependent variable. We recognize
that there are often several independent variables and that they are probably at least somewhat
“correlated” and therefore not independent among themselves.
The independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or
negative way. That is, when the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also
present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease
in the dependent variable. In other words, the variance in the dependent variable is accounted for
by the independent variable .
For Example :

3. Mediating Variable
A mediating variable (or intervening variable) is one that surfaces between the time the
independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact
is felt on it. There is thus a temporal quality or time dimension to the mediating variable. In other
words, bringing a mediating variable into play helps you to model a process. The mediating
variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable operating in any situation, and helps to
conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable .

For Example :

4. The Moderating variable :

The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable–
dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating variable)
modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable .
So whenever the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable
becomes contingent or dependent on another variable, we say that the third variable has a
moderating effect on the independent variable–dependent variable relationship. The variable that
moderates the relationship is known as the moderating variable.

For Example :

(Sekaran n.d.)

• Classifications of variable :
There are two classification of variable
1. Latent variable
2. Observed variable

1. Latent variable
A latent variable is a variable that cannot be observed. The presence of latent variables, however,
can be detected by their effects on variables that are observable. Most constructs in research are
latent variables.
For Example : Satisfaction , loyalty , and happiness etc
2. Observed variables
Observed variables (sometimes called observable variables or measured variables) are actually
measured by the researcher. The questions in the surveys are observed variable because we can
measure it .
For Example : Age , Years of Experience , and Gender etc