Draft Report - Checking 58% 3 2nd

REDUCING THE AIR POLLUTION DUE TO ROAD TRANSPORT – A
CASE OF VISHAKAPATNAM, ANDHRA PRADESH
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF PLANNING
By
Dheeraj Balabadra
2016BPLN029
Under the Guidance
of Prof. Paulose N.
Kuriakose
SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE, BHOPAL

NEELBAD ROAD, BHAURI BHOPAL (MP)-462 030
July, 2022
Reducing air pollution due to road transportation: A case of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
Contents
No table of contents entries found.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
"Any chemical, physical, or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the
atmosphere (WHO, 2016)" defines air pollution as "the contamination of the indoor or
outdoor environment by any chemical, physical, or biological agent that modifies the natural
characteristics of the atmosphere." Smog and soot, hazardous air pollutants, greenhouse
gases, pollen and mould are the primary consequences of air pollution (John Walke, Clean
Air Project, NRDC), with smog and soot, hazardous air pollutants, greenhouse gases, pollen
and mould being the main effects of air pollution (NRDC). The presence of poisonous
substances or compounds in the air at concentrations that are hazardous to one's health. Air
pollution, in a larger sense, refers to the presence of chemicals or substances in the air that
are not normally present, lowering the quality of the air or causing negative changes in the
quality of life (environmental pollution centres).
In India, this problem's consciousness emerged long ago, in 1972, soon after the Stockholm
conference. To prevent air pollution, the "Air (Prevention and Regulation of Pollution) Act of
1981" was enacted. The "Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986" addresses the Act's
additional responsibilities (MOEFCC, 2020). Therefore, the “National air quality monitoring
Program (NAMP)” is responsible for reporting air quality data in real-time to control further
contamination in air quality. Initially, monitoring stations were installed at various locations
in metro cities, but today we have them for small and medium-scale cities (non-attainment
cities). Under NAMP 𝑆𝑜2, 𝑁𝑜2, Particulate matter is the most common traced contaminants.
The "National Environmental Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)" are in charge of establishing
benchmarks for comparing air quality degradation. The “National Air Quality Index” is a tool
to translate this complicated structure into a single number, defining each value's colour,
communicating the air quality laymen's terms (MOEFCC, 2019). Initially, these programs'
focus was the metro cities, and recently they considered small and medium cities called
non-attainment cities.
The "National Clean Air Program 2019" describes the pollution as urban-centric, and while
assessing, priority is to be given to all the urban areas. The “Air pollution knowledge
assessment city program” (non-attainment towns) is meant to provide a framework for an
understanding of “air quality” in urban areas since there is limited information available for
cities (other than metropolitan) on atmospheric monitoring and source impact (Urban
Emissions, 2019). It also notes that reliable data is needed to develop successful air quality
control for a city. Concluding that, the “Air pollution knowledge assessment city program” is
attempting to estimate the scope of the issue in each city. Cities are evaluated based on
population size and the development of airsheds (Sarath K. Guttikundaa, 2019).
The NCAP approached these non-attainment cities by a systematic science-based approach
in which the "source allocation" analysis is carried out. According to the survey, the Indo-
Gangetic Plain is the most affected by particulate matter than the southern states. The
reason for this is the topography (hilly) and meteorological features that create a landlock or
"valley effect" that stops air pollution from dispersing (MOEFCC, 2019). The city-scale
analysis of Indo-Gangetic plains was performed during the summer season with fewer
relative humidity effects. It has been observed that there are greater concentrations of
particulate matter in smaller metropolitan areas than in major metro cities (Ningombam
Linthoingambi Devia, 2020).
The Sustainable Development Scenario (S.D.S.) draws on the chosen U.N. S.D.G.s. It seeks to
include a roadmap that combines various tightly related but separate policy objectives:
ensuring universal access to safe, efficient, and renewable energy by 2030 "(SDG 7.1)";
drastically decrease "air quality" causing death and sickness "(SDG 3.9)"; power production,
industry, and transportation are major sources to air emissions Cities' negative per capita
environmental consequences should be decreased by 2030, with specific attention on "air
quality," "urban waste systems," and other waste management" (SDG 11.6). Eventually,
fossil fuels contribute significantly to climate change, putting heat, air, and water supplies at
risk and posing a direct threat to human health “(S.D.G. 13)” (Peter Rafaja, 2018).
The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MOEFCC) has welcomed India
into the "Climate & Clean Air Coalition" (CCAC). In the context of which India initiated the
National Clean Air Action Plan (NCAP) in January 2019, it included detailed policies to deter,
regulate and mitigate air pollution and enhance air quality monitoring throughout the
country (UNEP, 2019).
Fig. No.: -Annual average PM2.5 concentrations in 2017

(Source: - “World Health Organization” (WHO, 2020))
In 2012, air pollution was responsible for 6.7 percent of all fatalities globally. (WHO) In
accordance with the “2019 State of the Global Air Report”, The fifth leading cause of death
worldwide is air pollution that causes five million deaths a year. China and India are the
primary perpetrators as well as the primary victims of the situation (HEI, 2019).
Global Source Contributions (2015)
Industrial
20% 15% Natural dust
Transport
Combustion & Agriculture
18%
Domestic fuel burining
22%
25%
Fig. No: - Global Source Contributions (2015) of Air Pollution
1.2 Need of the Study

As per India's commitment to a clean climate and pollution-free atmosphere and meeting
sustainable development goals, measures are needed to increase air emissions. Over the
past few decades, India's economic development and rapid urbanization have resulted in
many Environmental issues, including degradation in “air quality,” which are prevalent,
especially in many cities. It implies that air pollution is majorly urban-centric and is a result
of anthropogenic activities. These anthropogenic activities are determined by the city's
spatial structure, i.e., the urban form. If levels remain unchanged, human exposure to such
sites may be harmful from a health perspective (MOEFCC, 2019). For planners and political
research, assessment, and characterization of how and to what extent different urban form
features influence the developing countries' air quality is crucial (Matthew J. Bechle, 2016).
It means that by limiting the unchecked spread of urban territory, greater air quality and
lower pollutant concentrations may be achieved through urban design and management
measures. Each city has its structure that enables the aggregation and dispersion of air to
develop a microclimate that collectively leads to the global climate change scenario. If it is
to be resolved, a rigorous urban form management approach is required.
According to a global collection of PM 2.5 particle pollution statistics by IQAir, a business
that mostly works on air filtration, India was the fifth most polluted country in 2019, with
Ghaziabad in the National Capital Region ranking as the most contaminated city in the
world.
In India, air pollution was responsible for 1.67 million fatalities in 2019, accounting for 17.8%
of the country's total mortality. (Puneeta Pandey, Rajveer Kaur 2021)
The main reasons of the study to reduce the air pollution from our lives are (UNEP)
o Polluted air is creating a health emergency
o Children are most at risk
o Climate risk
Fig.
No: -
Pollution Levels in India

Source: - (News18, Nov 4, 2019)
Indian Source ContributionsPM2.5

(2015)
Industrial
Natural dust
16% 4% Transport
21% Combustion & Agriculture
Domestic fuel burining
22%
37%
Fig. No: - Indian Source Contributions PM2.5(2015) of Air Pollution
1.2.1 Site Selection
Air pollution in the State has reached an alarming stage and is damaging the ecological
balance of Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Guntur, Nellore and Kurnool, Centre for Science and
Environment (CSE).
At Amaravati, Tirumala, Rajahmundry, and Visakhapatnam, the APPCB has real-time air
pollution monitoring equipment. In comparison to prior years, air pollution in Amaravati,
Tirumala, and Rajahmundry decreased, but Visakhapatnam city saw a minor increase. (From
the New Indian Express)
This year, Visakhapatnam's PM10 (particulate matter) level jumped to 141 micrograms per
cubic metre, up from 124 previous year.
Vishakhapatnam stand first in most polluted city in Andhra Pradesh (iqair) As per a study
report released by Greenpeace India, the city of Visakhapatnam is the most polluted in
South India. Annual PM10 levels in Visakhapatnam were seven times higher than WHO
standards, while PM2.5 levels were seven to eight times higher.
Fig. No: -
emissions PM2.5 inventory for the Greater Vishakhapatnam Municipal Corporation
Source ContributionsPM2.5 (2018)
3%3% Industrial
18% Natural dust
Transport
Combustion & Agriculture
6% Domestic fuel burining
70%
Fig. No: -- City Source Contributions PM2.5(2018) of Air Pollution
1.3 Aim of the Study

To analyze the causes of air pollution on various urban areas and to come up with suitable
recommendation of policy & Interventions to reduce local air pollution cause due to road
transportation.
1.4 Objectives
a) Objective I: To identify and analyze the transport emission in the city.
b) Objective II: To identify and analyze most specific locations regarding air pollution &
mode of road transport
c) Objective III: To recommend suitable planning interventions & policy to mitigate the
causes and local air pollution due to road transport
1.5 Expected Outcomes of the Study

The outcome of the study will be recommending suitable interventions to reduce air
pollution due to road transport
1.6 Scope of Work
a) To study and understand the current air pollution of road transport level in the city
with different air pollution parameters
b) To analyze the parameters of air pollution due to transport which mostly effect
human health
c) To understand the relation between the areas having different land use pattern and
transport emissions
d) To identify the measures and suitable approaches that can be recommend to reduce
the level of air pollution in most affected areas due to transport of the city
1.7 Limitations
 The study is limited to the evaluation of the air pollution on 1 source (road transport)
based on 7 pollution indicators
 The study will be limited to core area of Vishakhapatnam city. The real air pollution
problem due to road transport is in the study area, if we found out the way to
eliminate this pollution through core city, so this will automatically bring down the
air pollution level of the whole city.
 The Study will be carried out within the municipal boundaries of the
Vishakhapatnam city
 For the survey, time & resource restriction, area coverage of 166 sq. km, Data
acquisition from Government Offices & HH Survey
1.8 Research Methodology
The research methodology followed to undertake this study has been sequenced broadly in
three phases:
Stage 1: The Preliminary Stage
Stage 2: Data Collection and Analysis Stage
Stage 3: Final Outcomes Stage
STAGE 1: The preliminary stage is the inception stage which begins with topic identification.
Then, a background, need of the study, literature study was conducted to provide a
justification to the topic, signifying the importance of reducing air pollution from transport
in the Indian context and stating the current need for the study and its process. Then, an
appropriate study area was chosen based on restriction & air pollution level to continue the
study further. Setting the need for the study specific to the study area led to the formulation
of aim and objectives for the research. To achieve the same, extensive literature has been
reviewed to understand the concepts, definitions and the context of air pollution, effects,
and its causes. Learnings from the literature review have shaped the overall philosophy of
conducting this research
STAGE 2: The learnings from the first objective (literature review study) led to the
identification of various sub tasks required in the next three objectives. A comprehensive list
of data required to complete the sub-tasks was prepared, which involved both primary as
well as secondary data. The secondary data sources were mainly - Research Sources, APPCB,
A.Q.I, Visakhapatnam Metropolitan Region Development Authority (VMRDA). Ministry of
Rural Urban Government, Census 2011. The primary survey involved three types of
questionnaires - General Household Questionnaire; Focused on Travel behaviour. The data
collected from the field study will compiled and then compiled data was analysed based on
completion and review of respective sub-tasks. Firstly, to identify and analyze the transport
emission in the city. Secondly, To identify and analyze most specific locations with regard to
air pollution & mode of road transport by finding the main junction points in the city which
is the mail cause of traffic air pollution then analyzing the TVC data of those junction to find
the which mode of vehicle using there causing high pollution. Then the HH data is required
to find out the travel behavior. Key findings from the overall comprehensive analysis were
identified and shortlisted.
STAGE 3: The third and final stage provides the final outcomes stage, which involves
combining the outcomes/learnings from each objective and finally leading up to the third
and final objective, i.e. To identify the measures and suitable approaches that can be
recommend reducing the level of air pollution in most affected areas due to transport of the
city. Based on the key findings, appropriate mechanisms were identified and suggested to
address the issues which would help to mitigate local air pollution in the chosen study area.
The research methodology chart as shown in Figure below would help in giving a brief
understanding of this topic
Topic identification
Need of the study
Literature Study Area Selection

Aim & Objectives
Techniques, methods of study & Data required
Data Collection
Secondary Data
Primary data
Data compiling
Analysis & findings
Recommendations for Mitigating Air Pollution due to road transport
Fig. No: -Methodology
Objective I: To identify and analyze the transport emission in the city.
SIM-air model No of registered

vehicles
Vehicle
travelled(km/year)
Finding correct equation to find Emission factor
out the emission from vehicle (gm/km)
Emissions (tons/year) = Number of Vehicles * Vehicle km

traveled (km/year) * Emission factor (gm/km) * 10-6 (tons/gm)
Objective II: To identify and analyze most specific locations regarding air
pollution & mode of road transport
Identify the main junctions in the city Trip production pattern
Analyzing the TVC data of the selected

locations
Understanding the relation between the areas having different land use
pattern and transport emissions
Mode share Trip distribution Trip attraction pattern
Objective III: To recommend suitable planning interventions & policy to

mitigate the causes and local air pollution due to road transport
To identify the measures and suitable approaches that

can be recommend reducing the level of air pollution
in most affected areas due to transport of the city
Fig. No: -Objective - Methodology
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE STUDY

2.1 Air Pollution
Air pollution is any chemical, physical, or biological factor that contaminates the interior or
outdoor environment and alters the natural properties of the atmosphere. Air pollution is
commonly caused by household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial operations,
and forest fires. Particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur
dioxide are all serious public health concerns. Air pollution, both outside and inside, is a
leading cause of respiratory and other ailments, as well as a significant source of morbidity
and death. According to the World Health Organization (WHO).
The presence of poisonous substances or compounds in the air (including those of biological
origin) at amounts that are hazardous to one's health. Air pollution, in a larger sense, refers
to the presence of chemicals or substances in the air that are not normally present, lowering
the quality of the air or causing negative changes in the quality of life (such as the damaging
of the ozone layer or causing global warming). According to the ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION CENTERS (EPC).
Every year, an estimated seven million people die as a result of air pollution throughout the
world. According to WHO data, nearly all of the world's population (99%) breathes air that
exceeds WHO guideline limits and contains high levels of pollutants, with low and middle-
income nations bearing the brunt of the burden. WHO is supporting countries to address air
pollution.
One of the most significant factors affecting our well-being is the air we breathe. Low air
quality can cause several health issues, reducing one's quality of life. To minimize air
pollution, it is also essential to consider its causes and sources.
In accordance with the “2019 State of the Global Air Report”, The fifth leading cause of
death worldwide is air pollution that causes five million deaths a year. China and India are
the primary perpetrators as well as the primary victims of the situation (HEI, 2019).
In the last three decades, India has experienced growing economic development, which has
contributed to rapid urbanization and industrial output, significantly affecting air quality in
urban areas. Nowadays, small, and medium-sized towns also experience air pollution
(MOEFCC, 2019).
The number of contaminants produced by the source, the atmospheric capacity to disperse
these emissions, the meteorological and topographical conditions decide the concentration
of air pollutants at a specific location (MOEFCC, 2020).
Air pollution is a huge hazard to health and the environment, from haze hanging over cities
to smoking within the house. Millions of people die prematurely each year as a result of the
combined impacts of ambient (outside) and domestic air pollution, mostly due to increased
mortality from stroke, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer,
and acute respiratory infections (WHO).
2.2 Ambient(outdoor) air pollution

Air pollution is a huge hazard to health and the environment, from the haze that hangs over
cities to the smoke that fills our homes. Stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, acute and
chronic respiratory disorders are estimated to account for 4.2 million fatalities per year
owing to ambient air pollution (WHO). Nearly all of the world's population lives in areas
where air quality exceeds WHO standards. While both industrialised and developing nations
are affected by ambient air pollution, low- and middle-income countries bear the brunt of
the load, according to the WHO. Regions of the Western Pacific and Southeast Asia
Air pollution comes from a variety of places, each with its own set of problems. Residential
energy for cooking and heating, cars, electricity generation, agriculture/waste incineration,
and industry are all important contributors of outdoor pollution. Sustainable land use,
cleaner home energy and transportation, energy-efficient housing, power production,
industry, and improved municipal waste management policies and investments may
effectively reduce significant sources of ambient air pollution.
Globally, air quality is inextricably tied to the earth's climate and ecosystems. Many of the
factors that contribute to air pollution (such as the burning of fossil fuels) also contribute to
greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, policies to decrease air pollution offer a "win-win"
solution for both climate and health, reducing the burden of disease caused by air pollution
while also contributing to near- and long-term mitigation of climate change.
2.2.1 Background
Outdoor air pollution is a serious public health issue that affects people in low-, middle-, and
high-income nations alike.
In 2016, it was estimated that ambient (outdoor) air pollution caused 4.2 million premature
deaths worldwide in both cities and rural areas; this mortality is due to exposure to fine
particulate matter (PM2.5) with a diameter of 2.5 microns or less, which causes
cardiovascular and respiratory disease, as well as cancers.
People in low- and middle-income countries bear a disproportionate share of the burden of
outdoor air pollution, with low- and middle-income nations accounting for 91 percent (of
the 4.2 million premature deaths) and the WHO South-East Asia and Western Pacific regions
bearing the largest burden. The most recent burden estimates highlight the critical impact
that air pollution plays in cardiovascular disease and mortality. Evidence linking ambient air
pollution to the risk of cardiovascular disease is becoming increasingly available, including
research from extremely polluted places.
According to the World Health Organization, ischaemic heart disease and stroke accounted
for 58 percent of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths in 2016, while chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease and acute lower respiratory infections accounted for 18
percent and lung cancer for 6%, respectively.
At the same time, certain fatalities may be related to more than one risk factor. Lung cancer
is influenced by both smoking and ambient air pollution, for example. Some lung cancer
fatalities may have been avoided if ambient air quality had been improved or tobacco
smoking had been reduced.
Outdoor air pollution is carcinogenic to humans, according to a 2013 evaluation by WHO's
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), with the particulate matter component
of air pollution being most closely connected with increased cancer incidence, particularly
lung cancer. There's also a link between outdoor air pollution and a rise in cancers of the
urinary tract and bladder.
To safeguard public health, all risk factors for noncommunicable illnesses, including air
pollution, must be addressed.
Indoor smoke from domestic air pollution is a severe health danger for the 2.6 billion people
who cook and heat their houses with biomass fuels and coal, in addition to outdoor air
pollution. In 2016, home air pollution was responsible for 3.8 million premature deaths. The
burden was almost entirely borne by low- and middle-income nations. In both urban and
rural locations, household air pollution is a major source of outdoor air pollution, accounting
for up to 50% in some parts of the world.
2.3 Household air pollution

In the developing world, household air pollution is one of the primary causes of sickness and
early mortality.
Cooking fire smoke causes 3.8 million premature deaths per year, the majority of which
occur in low- and middle-income nations. Particulate matter (PM), methane, carbon
monoxide, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and volatile organic compounds are all
produced when dung, wood, and coal are burned in inefficient stoves or open hearths
(VOC). Kerosene combustion in basic wick lamps emits a substantial number of fine particles
and other pollutants. Particulate matter is a particularly dangerous contaminant. Numerous
research has found a direct link between PM exposure and harmful health effects. Particles
with a smaller diameter (PM2.5 or less) are more harmful, and ultrafine particles (one
micron in diameter or less) may permeate tissues and organs, providing an even larger
threat.
Indoor air pollution can cause a variety of health problems in both children and adults,
ranging from respiratory ailments to cancer to vision impairments. Burns, poisonings,
musculoskeletal injuries, and accidents are all more likely in families that use polluting fuels
and equipment. The World Health Organization (WHO) claims that (WHO).
2.3.1 Background
Around 2.6 billion people still cook over open flames or inefficient stoves using solid fuels
(such as wood, agricultural wastes, charcoal, coal, and dung) and kerosene. The vast
majority of these individuals are impoverished and reside in low- and middle-income
nations.
These cooking methods are inefficient, and they rely on fuels and technology that pollute
home air with a variety of harmful pollutants, including microscopic soot particles that
penetrate deep into the lungs. Indoor smoke levels can be 100 times higher than permitted
values for fine particles in poorly ventilated houses. Women and small children, who spend
the most time around the household fireplace, are particularly vulnerable.
2.3.2 Impacts on health
Every year, more than 3.8 million people die prematurely as a result of home air pollution
produced by inefficient use of solid fuels and kerosene for cooking. Among the 3.8 million
deaths were the following:
 27% are due to pneumonia
 18% from stroke
 27% from ischaemic heart disease
 20% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
 8% from lung cancer.
a) Pneumonia
Household air pollution almost doubles the risk of paediatric pneumonia, accounting for 45
percent of all pneumonia fatalities in children under the age of five. Adults are at risk for
acute lower respiratory infections (pneumonia) from household air pollution, which
accounts for 28% of all adult fatalities from pneumonia.
b) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
In low- and middle-income nations, exposure to home air pollution causes one out of every
four fatalities from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD is more than twice
as common in women who are exposed to high amounts of indoor smoke than in women
who utilise cleaner fuels and technology. Exposure to home air pollution nearly doubles the
risk of COPD in males (who already have a greater risk of COPD due to their higher rates of
smoking).
c) Stroke
The everyday exposure to home air pollution caused by cooking with solid fuels and
kerosene is responsible for 12% of all stroke fatalities.
d) Ischaemic heart disease
Exposure to home air pollution is responsible for around 11% of all fatalities related to
ischemic heart disease, accounting for over a million premature deaths per year.
e) Lung cancer
Exposure to carcinogens from home air pollution generated by cooking with kerosene or
solid fuels like wood, charcoal, or coal is responsible for around 17% of lung cancer deaths in
adults. Because of their involvement in food preparation, women are at a higher risk.
f) Other health impacts and risks
Small particulates and other pollutants in indoor smoking irritate the airways and lungs,
limiting immune response and lowering the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity.
Household air pollution has also been linked to low birth weight, TB, cataracts, and
nasopharyngeal and laryngeal malignancies.
High blood pressure, a poor diet, a lack of physical exercise, and smoking are all risk factors
for death from ischemic heart disease and stroke. Other causes of childhood pneumonia
include inadequate breastfeeding, being underweight, and being exposed to second-hand
smoke. Active smoking and second-hand tobacco smoke are also major risk factors for lung
cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
2.3.3 Impacts on health equity, development, and climate change

Without significant policy changes, the overall number of people without access to clean
fuels and technology would stay virtually constant by 2030 (International Energy Agency,
2017), making the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development more difficult to accomplish.
 • Gathering fuel raises the risk of musculoskeletal harm, takes up a lot of time for
women and children, hinders other useful activities (like revenue creation), and
keeps kids out of school. Women and children are at danger of harm and assault
while obtaining fuel in less safe locations.
 Inefficient stove combustion emits black carbon (sooty particles) and methane,
which are potent climate change pollutants.
 Many of the fuels and technology that people use in their homes for cooking,
heating, and lighting are dangerous. Kerosene poisoning is the most common cause
of children poisoning, and home energy consumption for cooking, heating, and/or
lighting is connected to a substantial percentage of serious burns and injuries in low-
and middle-income nations.
 One billion people living without electricity (many of whom use kerosene lamps for
lighting) are exposed to extremely high amounts of fine particulate matter in their
homes. Other health concerns, such as burns, accidents, and poisonings, are
introduced by the use of polluting lighting fuels, as are other chances for health and
development, such as learning or engaging in minor crafts and trades that require
proper illumination.
2.4 Air pollutants
Many contaminants may pollute the air in a large variety of forms. Almost any toxic
chemical could make its way into the atmosphere to pollute the air that we breathe. Aerosol
particles (clouds of liquid and solid particles in a gas) that are found in the air may also
contain pollutants.
The chemical compounds that lower the air quality are usually referred to as air pollutants.
These compounds may be found in the air in two major forms:
 in a gaseous form (as gases),
 in a solid form (as particulate matter suspended in the air).
The WHO Global air quality guidelines offer global guidance on thresholds and limits for key
air pollutants that pose health risks.
The Guidelines apply worldwide to both outdoor and indoor environments and are based on
expert evaluation of current scientific evidence for:
 particulate matter (PM)
 ozone (O3)
 nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 sulphur dioxide (SO2).
The Guidelines also include qualitative good practice recommendations for black
carbon/elemental carbon, ultrafine particles (<=1um) and particles derived from sand and
dust storms.
2.4.1 Particulate matter (PM)

2.4.1.1 Definition and principal sources
PM is a common proxy indicator for air pollution. It affects more people than any other
pollutant. The major components of PM are sulphate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride,
black carbon, mineral dust, and water. It consists of a complex mixture of solid and liquid
particles of organic and inorganic substances suspended in the air. While particles with a
diameter of 10 microns or less, (≤ PM 10) can penetrate and lodge deep inside the lungs, the
even more health-damaging particles are those with a diameter of 2.5 microns or less, (≤
PM2.5). PM2.5 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the blood system. Chronic exposure to
particles contributes to the risk of developing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as
well as of lung cancer.
Air quality measurements are typically reported in terms of daily or annual mean
concentrations of PM10 particles per cubic meter of air volume (m 3). Routine air quality
measurements typically describe such PM concentrations in terms of micrograms per cubic
meter (μg/m3). When sufficiently sensitive measurement tools are available, concentrations
of fine particles (PM2.5 or smaller), are also reported.
2.4.1.2 Health effects
There is a close, quantitative relationship between exposure to high concentrations of small
particulates (PM10 and PM2.5) and increased mortality or morbidity, both daily and over time.
Conversely, when concentrations of small and fine particulates are reduced, related
mortality will also go down – presuming other factors remain the same. This allows
policymakers to project the population health improvements that could be expected if
particulate air pollution is reduced.
Small particulate pollution has health impacts even at very low concentrations – indeed no
threshold has been identified below which no damage to health is observed. Therefore, the
WHO Global guideline limits aimed to achieve the lowest concentrations of PM possible
2.4.2 WHO Air quality guideline values & properties

2.4.2.1 Particulate matter (PM)
a. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5)
5 μg/m3 annual mean
15 μg/m3 24-hour mean
b. Coarse particulate matter (PM10)
In addition to guideline values, the WHO Global air quality guidelines provide interim targets
for concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 aimed at promoting a gradual shift from high to lower
concentrations.
If these interim targets were to be achieved, significant reductions in risks for acute and
chronic health effects from air pollution can be expected. Achieving the guideline values,
however, should be the ultimate objective.
The effects of PM on health occur at levels of exposure currently being experienced by many
people both in urban and rural areas and in developed and developing countries – although
exposures in many fast-developing cities today are often far higher than in developed cities
of comparable size.
In low- and middle- income countries, exposure to pollutants in and around homes from the
household combustion of polluting fuels on open fires or traditional stoves for cooking,
heating, and lighting further increases the risk for air pollution-related diseases, including
acute lower respiratory infections, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, and lung cancer.
There are serious risks to health not only from exposure to PM, but also from exposure to
ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). As with PM, concentrations are
often highest largely in the urban areas of low- and middle-income countries. Ozone is a
major factor in asthma morbidity and mortality, while nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide
also can play a role in asthma, bronchial symptoms, lung inflammation and reduced lung
function.
2.4.2.1.1 Chemical Properties
PM, or particulate matter, can be of various sizes. The Environmental Protection Agency
uses two: PM-10 (10 micrometres or less) and PM-2.5 (2.5 micrometres or1less).
The main source of particulate matter is burning fuels, meaning anything from diesel and
gasoline to wood and leaves. Construction sites, roadwork, factories, and quarries are other
sources of particulate matter.
2.4.2.1.2 Toxicity
High concentrations of fine particulate matter can accumulate in the lungs or along the
respiratory tract and become harmful for humans. The longer the exposure and the higher
the amount of particulate matter, the more serious the effects, including:
 coughing
 shortness of breath
 irritation of the respiratory tract
 hoarseness and wheezing
 lung dysfunctions
 chronic bronchitis
 cancer, especially lung cancer
2.4.2.2 Ozone (O3)

100 μg/m3, 8-hour daily maximum
60 μg/m3 8-hour mean, peak season
99th percentile, (i.e. 3-4 exceedance days per year)
Peak season is defined as an average of daily maximum 8-hour mean O 3 concentration in the
six consecutive months with the highest six-month running average O3 concentration
2.4.2.2.1 Chemical properties

Ozone at ground level – not to be confused with the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere –
is one of the major constituents of photochemical smog. It is formed by the reaction with
sunlight (photochemical reaction) of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NO x) from vehicle
and industry emissions and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by vehicles,
solvents, and industry. As a result, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during periods
of sunny weather.
2.4.2.2.2 Toxicity
Excessive ozone in the air can have a marked effect on human health. It can cause breathing
problems, trigger asthma, reduce lung function and cause lung diseases.
2.4.2.3 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
10 μg/m3 annual mean
The current WHO guideline value of 10 µg/m3 (annual mean) was set to protect the public
from the health effects of gaseous nitrogen dioxide.
Nitrogen oxides are present all around us, as a mostly unfortunate by-product of industrial
civilization. While they have many beneficial uses, they can also be heavy pollutants.

NO2 is the main source of nitrate aerosols, which form an important fraction of PM 2.5 and, in
the presence of ultraviolet light, of ozone. The major sources of anthropogenic emissions of
NO2 are combustion processes (heating, power generation, and engines in vehicles and
ships).
Nitrogen oxides are gases made up of nitrogen and oxygen. Many of them can be man-
made and extremely harmful to human health. The most common ones are nitric oxide
(NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O).
Most of them are colourless or brownish at room temperatures and have a distinctive smell.
2.4.2.3.2 Toxicity
Epidemiological studies have shown that symptoms of bronchitis in asthmatic children
increase in association with long-term exposure to NO2. Reduced lung function growth is
also linked to NO2 at concentrations currently measured (or observed) in cities of Europe
and North America.
Nitrogen oxides are polluting the air through car exhaust, electric power plants, the burning
of various fuels, cigarette smoking, electroplating, welding etc.
When combined with volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides form smog; when
combined with sulphur dioxides, they form acid rain.
Depending on the level and length of exposure, nitrogen oxides can cause serious health
problems:
 Breathing difficulties
 Throat spasms
 Headache
 Fatigue
 Nausea
 Dizziness
 Lung fluid build-up
 Decreased fertility in women
 Mental confusion
 Birth defects
 Coughing
2.3.2.3.3 Uses
Nitric oxide is used to bleach rayon and produce nitric acid. Nitrogen dioxide is used to
produce among other chemicals rocket fuels and explosives. Nitrogen dioxide is sometimes
used to bleach flour.
2.3.2.4 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Studies indicate that a proportion of people with asthma experience changes in pulmonary
function and respiratory symptoms after periods of exposure to SO 2. Health effects are now
known to be associated with much lower levels of SO 2 than previously believed. More
protection is needed. Although the causality of the effects of low concentrations of SO 2 is
still uncertain, reducing SO2 concentrations is likely to decrease exposure to co-pollutants.
Sulphur oxides are all around us. Some of them are naturally occurring (for instance in
volcanic eruptions), and relatively harmless; some, however, can be man-made as a by-
product of industrial processing, and are extremely toxic.
SO2 is a colourless gas with a sharp odour. It is produced from the burning of fossil fuels
(coal and oil) and the smelting of mineral ores that contain sulphur. The main anthropogenic
source of SO2 is the burning of sulphur-containing fossil fuels for domestic heating, power
generation and motor vehicles.
Sulphur oxides can be any of several compounds formed by sulphur and oxygen. The most
common are sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3). Sulphur dioxide is a very
poisonous gas that can occur both naturally or anthropogenically; it is colourless and smells
like a match that has just been struck. Sulphur trioxide is also highly poisonous, highly
reactive and very corrosive.
2.3.2.4.2 Toxicity
SO2 can affect the respiratory system and the functions of the lungs and causes irritation of
the eyes. Inflammation of the respiratory tract causes coughing, mucus secretion,
aggravation of asthma and chronic bronchitis and makes people more prone to infections of
the respiratory tract. Hospital admissions for cardiac disease and mortality increase on days
with higher SO2 levels. When SO2 combines with water, it forms sulfuric acid; this is the main
component of acid rain which is a cause of deforestation.
Sulphur dioxide is a common pollutant in most civilized countries, from industrial processing
plants (coal, oil, cement, metal, wood, copper, electric power plants etc.). It can cause
various serious health problems, especially with long-term exposure, exposure to critical
levels, exposure in children or in people with pre-existing heart and lung conditions:
 temporary respiratory problems
 chronic bronchitis
 emphysema
 decreased fertility
 coughing
 stomach pain
 menstrual disorders
 nausea
 inhibition of thyroid function
 headache
 convulsions
 dizziness
2.3.2.4.3 Uses
Sulphur dioxide can be used for several things:
 aid in the preparation of sulfuric acid and sulphites
 refrigerant,
 disinfectant
 food preservative
 as a bleach for various items (flour, grains, fruit, textile fibres, gelatin etc.)
2.3.2.5 Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a known pollutant, almost omnipresent in present-day cities around the
world. It is produced during the process of burning fuel (gasoline, oil, diesel, wood, charcoal
etc.). This means it’s present in vehicle exhaust and tobacco smoke, as well as unvented
spaces where fuel is being burned.
Carbon monoxide (one carbon molecule + one oxygen molecule) is a toxic colourless,
odourless, and tasteless gas with the chemical formula CO.
2.3.2.5.2 Toxicity
Effects depend on the concentration of carbon monoxide you are exposed to, and can
include the following:
 Confusion, vision and balance problems
 Loss of consciousness
 Nausea and vomiting
 Headaches
 Muscle weakness
 Fatigue
 Shortness of breath
 Memory loss
 Miscarriage
 Birth defects
 Damage to the nervous system
2.3.2.5.3 Uses
Carbon monoxide is commonly used in the production of several kinds of chemicals. It is
part of the processing, preparation or production of phosgene, methanol etc., used in meat
colouring, as well as in metallurgy to extract metals from ores. It is also naturally present in
the human body, as a neurotransmitter.
2.3.2.6 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide is a natural compound present in the atmosphere, in Earth’s water and land
etc. It absorbs heat and contributes to global warming, which makes it both useful and very
dangerous to humans’ future.
Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas that occurs naturally in volcanic eruptions, tree
felling, spring water etc., and anthropogenically, especially in the burning of fuels, but also
through the various industrial uses of carbon dioxide. Its chemical formula is CO2.
2.3.2.6.2 Toxicity
Carbon dioxide can be very toxic to humans when inhaled or in direct contact, especially in
confined spaces. Exposure can lead to serious health problems:
 Hyperventilation
 Loss of vision
 Muscle contractions
 Headaches
 Numbness
 Dizziness
 Unconsciousness
 Nervous system damage
 Memory loss
 Confusion
 Skin burns
 Elevated blood pressure
 Birth defects
2.3.2.6.3 Uses
There are dozens of uses for carbon dioxide:
 Refrigeration
 Food processing
 Metal works
 Cement production
 Carbonation of soft drinks
 Fertilizers
 Lime manufacturing
 Extinguishers
 Gas extraction
 Electric power plant
 Brewing
 Waste incinerators
2.3.2.7 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Volatile organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon and can quickly turn into
vapours or gases. These VOCs can be released by several products or items in contemporary
life, from burning gasoline or coal to solvents, glues, dry-cleaning products etc., and they
contribute to air pollution and serious health conditions.
Organic compounds contain carbon, and they are the basis of life. Volatile organic
compounds are thus called because they can easily turn from solids into vapours or gases
(think of glues or gasoline, more specifically of the vapours and toxic gases they can
release). They can contain fluorine, bromine, sulphur, nitrogen and other elements.
2.3.2.7.2 Toxicity
 Whenever the weather is hot, VOCs are more likely to be present in the air we
breathe, and therefore more dangerous to human health. Not all VOC are known to
be toxic, however in some cases there are clear negative effects, depending on the
compound, the length and intensity of the exposure. Formaldehyde, diesel exhaust,
styrene, benzene and perchloroethylene are known or suspected carcinogens, and
heavy traffic, smoking and various types of workplace exposure can pose serious
health risks. Known health effects include:
 respiratory tract problems
 headaches
 fatigue
 dizziness
 nausea
 liver and/or kidney damage
 problems of the central nervous system
2.3.2.7.3 Uses
Volatile organic compounds can be found in household products or items commonly used in
contemporary society, from gasoline to office supplies. Some of their uses are:
 paint thinners
 degreasers
 aerosol cans
 dry-cleaning products
 paints
 photographic supplies
 printers and photocopying machines and supplies
2.3.2.8 Gaseous Hg
Mercury is known to be extremely harmful to human health in any form, a strong
neurotoxin that can occur naturally or be released from power plants and many other
sources and spread across land, soil, air, and water.
Mercury is a heavy metal that, at room temperature, occurs in liquid form, but with an
already high vapor pressure
2.3.2.8.2 Toxicity
While mercury is very toxic when it builds up in water and soil, it is even more dangerous
when in gaseous form, because it is even more easily inhaled, swallowed, or deposited on
our body.
The toxic effects of gaseous mercury include:
 Developmental problems
 Reproductive problems
 Thyroid dysfunction
 Kidney dysfunction
 Neuropsychological problems
2.3.2.8.3 Uses
There are many uses for mercury in liquid form; however, there are relatively few uses
when it is in gaseous form. Mercury vapours enable electricity to produce ultraviolet light
that then produces fluorescent light. Some electron tubes, skin tanning lamps, disinfection
lamps also use gaseous mercury.
2.3.2.9 Ammonia (NH3)
Ammonia is a naturally occurring compound that can also be manufactured. When naturally
occurring, it is present in decaying matter, but also in water, soil, and air. When
manufactured, it is most often found in liquid form and has numerous industrial, and
household uses. It is commonly sold in liquid form and is a corrosive chemical.
The chemical formula for ammonia is NH3. It is a colourless gas with a distinctive, unpleasant
odour. It is a source of nitrogen for the living world, however in large amounts it can be
quite toxic.
2.3.2.9.2 Toxicity
High levels of ammonia can be extremely harmful to human health. Toxic effects include:
 Eye, skin, throat irritation
 Coughing
 Headaches
 Laryngitis
 Chest pain
 Asthma
 Increased blood pressure
 Abdominal pain
 Lung fluid build-up
 Lung collapse
 Seizures
 Blindness
2.3.2.5.3 Uses
There are numerous uses for manufactured ammonia:
 Fertilizer
 Pesticides
 Explosives
 Synthetic fibers
 Cleaning products
 Fuel cells
 Industrial stabilizers
 Refrigerants
 Floor wax
 Smelling salts
 Rocket fuel
 Leather tanning
2.5 Causes of Air Pollution
Air pollution is probably one of the most serious environmental problems confronting our
civilization today. Most often, it is caused by human activities such as mining, construction,
transportation, industrial work, agriculture, smelting, etc. However, natural processes such
as volcanic eruptions and wildfires may also pollute the air, but their occurrence is rare and
they usually have a local effect, unlike human activities that are ubiquitous causes of air
pollution and contribute to the global pollution of the air every single day.
“Most air pollution comes from energy use and production,” says John Walke, director of
the Clean Air Project, part of the Climate and Clean Energy Program at NRDC. “Burning fossil
fuels releases gases and chemicals into the air.” And in an especially destructive feedback
loop, air pollution not only contributes to climate change but is also exacerbated by it. “Air
pollution in the form of carbon dioxide and methane raises the earth’s temperature,” Walke
says. “Another type of air pollution, smog, is then worsened by that increased heat, forming
when the weather is warmer and there’s more ultraviolet radiation.” Climate change also
increases the production of allergenic air pollutants, including mold (thanks to damp
conditions caused by extreme weather and increased flooding) and pollen (due to a longer
pollen season).
“We’ve made progress over the last 50 years improving air quality some countries through
the Clean Air Act,” says Kim Knowlton, senior scientist, and deputy director of the NRDC
(Natural Resources Défense Council) Science Centre. “But climate change will make it harder
in the future to meet pollution standards, which are designed to Protect Health.
In most cases, air pollutants cannot be seen or smelled. However, that does not mean that
they do not exist in high enough amounts to be a health hazard! Additionally, a few gases
are linked to the so-called "greenhouse effect", which means that those gases retain more
heat and thus contribute to the overall global warming. The most common example of a
greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, which is emitted from many industrial processes. Another
example is methane, which is also an explosive gas.
Air pollution may be caused by various processes, either natural or anthropogenic (man-
made). Some of them leave evident traces in the air; others can go unnoticed unless specific
tests are conducted - or until you become ill from their effects.
2.5.1 Natural Causes
 Volcanic activities - volcanic eruptions emit a series of toxic gases (including sulphur
and chlorine) as well as particulate matter (ash particles) but are usually restricted to
localized areas.
 Winds and air currents - can mobilize pollutants from the ground and transport them
over large areas.
 Wildfires - add carbon monoxide, as well as particulate matter, to the atmosphere
(containing organic contaminants such as PAHs); could affect significant areas,
although in general they are restricted and may be contained.
 Microbial decaying processes - microorganisms which are present in any
environment have a major role in natural decaying processes of living organisms as
well as environmental contaminants; this activity results in the natural release of
gases especially methane gas.
 Radioactive decay processes - for example, radon gas is emitted due to natural decay
processes of Earth’s crust which has potential to accumulate in enclosed spaces such
as basements.
 Increasing temperatures - contribute to an increase in the amounts of contaminants
volatilizing from polluted soil and water into the air.
2.5.2 Anthropogenic Causes
 Mining and smelting – emit into the air a variety of metals adsorbed on particulate
matter that is suspended in the air due to crushing & processing of mineralogical
deposits.
 Mine tailing disposal – due to their fine particulate nature (resulting after crushing
and processing mineral ores) constitute a source of metals to ambient air which
could be spread by the wind over large areas.
 Foundry activities – emit into the air a variety of metals absorbed on particulate
matter that is suspended in the air due to processing of metallic raw materials
(including the use of furnaces).
 Various industrial processes -emit both organic and inorganic contaminants through
accidental spills and leaks of stored chemicals or the handling and storage of
chemicals, especially of volatile inorganic chemicals
 Transportation – emits a series of air pollutants (gases – including carbon monoxide,
sulphur oxides, and nitrogen oxides - and particulate matter) through the tailpipe
gases due to internal combustion of various fuels (usually gasses such as oxides of
carbons, of sulphur, of nitrogen, as well as organic chemicals as PAHs).
 Construction and Demolition activities – pollute the air with various construction
materials. Of special threat is the demolition of old buildings which may contain a
series of banned chemicals such as PCBs, PBDEs, asbestos.
 Coal Power Plants – when burning coal this may emit a series of gases as well as
particulate matter with metals (such as As, Pb, Hg) and organic compounds
(especially PAHs).
 Heating of buildings – emits a series of gases and particulate matters due to burning
fossil fuels.
 Waste Incineration – depending on waste composition, various toxic gases, and
particulate matter is emitted into the atmosphere.
 Landfill disposal practices – usually generate methane due to the intensification of
natural microbial decaying activity in the disposal area.
 Agriculture – pollute the air usually through emissions of ammonia gas and the
application of pesticides/herbicides/insecticides which contain toxic volatile organic
compounds.
 Control burning in forest and agriculture management – includes controlled burning
that will emit gases and particulate matter (like wildfires described above)
 Military activities – may introduce toxic gases through practices and training.
 Smoking – emits a series of toxic chemicals including a series of organic and
inorganic chemicals, some of which are carcinogenic.
 Storage and use of household - products such as paint, sprays, varnish, etc that
contains organic solvents which volatilize in the air (hence the smell we all feel while
using them).
 Dry cleaned clothes - may retain and emit in the atmosphere small amounts of
chlorinated solvents (such as PCE) or petroleum solvents that have been used by the
dry cleaners; this could eventually create a health risk if the clothes returned from
the dry cleaners are stored in enclosed indoor spaces.
2.6 Effects of Air Pollution
The effects of air pollution on the human body vary depending on the type of pollutant and
the length and level of exposure—as well as other factors, including a person’s individual
health risks and the cumulative impacts of multiple pollutants or stressors.
Air pollution has serious effects on the human health. Depending on the level of exposure
and the type of pollutant inhaled, these effects can vary, ranging from simple symptoms like
coughing and the irritation of the respiratory tract to acute conditions like asthma and
chronic lung diseases.
Skin problems and irritations can develop due to prolonged exposure to several air
pollutants, and a variety of cancer forms may develop after inhaling air contaminants.
Air pollutants that have serious negative effects on the human health can be classified as
a) Toxic
i. Carcinogenic
asbestos, PCE, TCE, vinyl chloride (VC), benzene, PAHs (such as
benzo[a]pyrene), ethylene dibromide (EDB), ethylene dichloride (EDC), PCBc,
As, Cd, Ni, Cr, some Hg compounds, arsenic oxide, some nitrates,
pesticides/insecticides/herbicides, radon.
ii. Non-Carcinogenic
lead, carbon monoxide, ammonia, acetone
b) non-toxic
These pollutants can still asphyxiate by oxygen depletion; therefore, they are still not
safe in certain quantities and/or contexts.
i. Non-explosives:
carbon dioxide
ii. Explosives:
Methane
The effects of air pollution involve a large variety of illnesses, starting with the
simple irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat or diminished energy levels, headache, and
dizziness, but also potentially more serious conditions - of which the most common are:
 Respiratory and lung diseases, including:
o Asthma attacks
o Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease –COPD
o Reduced lung function
o Pulmonary cancer – caused by a series of carcinogen chemicals that enter the
body through inhalation
o Mesothelimo – a particular type of lung cancer, usually associated with
exposure to asbestos (it usually occurs 20-30 years after the initial exposure)
o Pneumonia
 Leukemia – a type of blood cancer usually associated with exposure to benzene
vapours (through inhalation)
 Birth defects and immune system defects
 Cardiovascular problems - heart disease and stroke (an increased risk especially due
to particulate matter)
 Neurobehavioral disorders - neurological problems and developmental deficits due
to air toxins such as mercury (which is the only volatile metal)
 Liver and other types of cancer – caused by breathing carcinogenic volatile chemicals
 Premature death
According to cornell University study, air pollution from smoke and various chemicals kills 3
million people a year!
2.6.1 Smog and Soot
These are the two most prevalent types of air pollution. Smog (sometimes referred to as
ground-level ozone) occurs when emissions from combusting fossil fuels react with sunlight.
Soot (also known as particulate matter) is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil,
smoke, dust, or allergens—in the form of either gas or solids—that are carried in the air. The
sources of smog and soot are similar. “Both come from cars and trucks, factories, power
plants, incinerators, engines, generally anything that combusts fossil fuels such as coal, gas,
or natural gas,” Walke says.
Smog can irritate the eyes and throat and damage the lungs, especially those of children,
senior citizens, and people who work or exercise outdoors. It’s even worse for people who
have asthma or allergies: these extra pollutants can intensify their symptoms and trigger
asthma attacks. The tiniest airborne particles in soot, whether gaseous or solid, are
especially dangerous because they can penetrate the lungs and bloodstream and worsen
bronchitis, lead to heart attacks, and even hasten death. In 2020 a report from Harvard’s T.
H. Chan School of Public Health showed COVID-19 mortality rates in areas with more soot
pollution were higher than in areas with even slightly less, showing a correlation between
the virus’s deadliness and long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and illuminating
an environmental justice issue.
2.6.2 Hazardous air pollution
Several air pollutants pose severe health risks and can sometimes be fatal even in small
amounts. Almost 200 of them are regulated by law; some of the most common are mercury,
lead, dioxins, and benzene. “These are also most often emitted during gas or coal
combustion, incinerating, or—in the case of benzene—found in gasoline,” Walke says.
Benzene, classified as a carcinogen by the EPA, can cause eye, skin, and lung irritation in the
short term and blood disorders in the long term. Dioxins, more typically found in food but
also present in small amounts in the air, can affect the liver in the short term and harm the
immune, nervous, and endocrine systems as well as reproductive functions. Mercury attacks
the central nervous system. In large amounts, lead can damage children’s brains and
kidneys, and even minimal exposure can affect children’s IQ and ability to learn.
Another category of toxic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are by-
products of traffic exhaust and wildfire smoke. In large amounts they have been linked to
eye and lung irritation, blood, and liver issues, and even cancer. In one study, the children of
mothers exposed to PAHs during pregnancy showed slower brain-processing speeds and
more pronounced symptoms of ADHD.
2.6.3 Greenhouse gases
By trapping the earth’s heat in the atmosphere, greenhouse gases lead to warmer
temperatures, which in turn lead to the hallmarks of climate change: rising sea levels, more
extreme weather, heat-related deaths, and the increased transmission of infectious
diseases. In 2018 carbon dioxide accounted for 81 percent of the country’s total greenhouse
gas emissions, and methane made up 10 percent. “Carbon dioxide comes from combusting
fossil fuels, and methane comes from natural and industrial sources, including large
amounts that are released during oil and gas drilling,” Walke says. “We emit far larger
amounts of carbon dioxide, but methane is significantly more potent, so it’s also very
destructive.” Another class of greenhouse gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), are thousands
of times more powerful than carbon dioxide in their ability to trap heat. In October 2016
more than 140 countries reached an agreement to reduce the use of these chemicals—
which are found in air conditioners and refrigerators—and develop greener alternatives
over time. According to David Doniger, senior strategic director of NRDC’s Climate and Clean
Energy program, “the agreed-to HFC phasedown will avoid the equivalent of more than 80
billion tons of carbon dioxide over the next 35 years.”
2.6.4 Pollen and mold
Mold and allergens from trees, weeds, and grass are also carried in the air, are exacerbated
by climate change, and can be hazardous to health. Though they aren’t regulated and are
less directly connected to human actions, they can be considered a form of air pollution.
“When homes, schools, or businesses get water damage, mold can grow and can produce
allergenic airborne pollutants,” Knowlton says. “Mold exposure can precipitate asthma
attacks or an allergic response, and some molds can even produce toxins that would be
dangerous for anyone to inhale.”
Pollen allergies are worsening because of climate change. “Lab and field studies are showing
that pollen-producing plants—especially ragweed—grow larger and produce more pollen
when you increase the amount of carbon dioxide that they grow in,” Knowlton says.
“Climate change also extends the pollen production season, and some studies are beginning
to suggest that ragweed pollen itself might be becoming a more potent allergen.” If so,
more people will suffer runny noses, fevers, itchy eyes, and other symptoms.
Air pollution is now the world’s fourth-largest risk factor for early death. According to the
most recent state of Global Air report-which summarizes the latest scientific understanding
of air pollution around the world—4.5 million deaths were linked to outdoor air pollution
exposures in 2019, and another 2.2 million deaths were caused by indoor air pollution.
“Despite improvements in reducing global average mortality rates from air pollution, the
world’s most populous countries, India and China, continue to bear the highest burdens of
disease,” says Vijay Lamaye, staff scientist at the NRDC Science Centre. “This report is a
sobering reminder that the climate crisis threatens to worsen air pollution problems
significantly if we fail to act to cut carbon pollution.”
CHAPTER 3. STUDY AREA
3.1 Introduction
With a population of over 1.73 million, Visakhapatnam is the second biggest
urban region in Andhra Pradesh (Census, 2011). Because the city has been and
continues to be a focus of economic activity in the region, its growth is essential
to the region's overall development. As a result of this urban expansion, an
increasing number of individuals are moving to the city. Travel is a derived
demand of this population, which engages in activities like work, education,
recreation, health etc., for the sake of improving their socio-economic
wellbeing. As a result, having suitable transportation infrastructure is an
important aspect of the city's growth. However, more transportation activity
may result in more pollution, congestion, and accidents in the city. As a result,
proper planning is required to promote safe mobility and accessibility for
individuals of all socioeconomic backgrounds while also protecting the
environment's health.
3.2 Delineation of planning area
The study area is the 534km2 Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation
(GVMC), which represents the city's urban agglomeration region. Hills, woods,
the harbour, and industry encompass huge swaths of area in the city. Except for
these places, the city's urban built-up area is concentrated in 166km2 throughout
534km2 of total city area. Figure depicts the Base map, which includes the
GVMC borders, road network, and built-up area.
Fig. No: - Planning area and road network of the GVMC
3.3 City profile

From 1858, when its ‘Municipal Association’ was formed, to 2012, the city has
developed into a significant economic, educational, health and tourism hub for
the people of north-eastern Andhra Pradesh and southern Orissa. The National
Highway (NH-5) that runs through the city is well connected both nationally
and domestically. Railways, the airport, and the harbour are all close by. The
city is also an education, health, and tourism hub for the region, and hence
attracts a daily floating population to access these services.
The city's demographic profile reveals a relatively young population, with 68
percent of residents under the age of 40. The 1.73 million population of the city
comprises of 875,000 males and 855,000 females, i.e., 977 females per 1000
males in the city. (Census 2011)
3.4 City structure
The former Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (VMC), Gajuwaka
municipality, and 32 smaller villages merged to become the Greater
Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) in 2005. The parts that follow
describe the current city structure.
3.4.1 Land use patterns
Table 1 shows the existing land use pattern in the city. As explained above, only
166km2 out of 534km2 in the city is currently built up, while the rest is covered
by hills, forests, and water bodies. The usage pattern of the built-up area is
shown below. It is observed that industries occupy 57 per cent of the city area,
forming the predominant land use type. Among other land uses, residential use
is the major land use type while commercial and public spaces only occupy 1
per cent each. This is disproportionately low compared to the residential areas.
Even these commercial areas are all concentrated in the core city area, thereby
inducing long-distance trips from the people residing in the outskirts of the city.
There is a need to encourage mixed land use and increase the commercial areas
in all outgrowths of the city.
Land use type Built up area (in Km2) % area occupied
Industrial 95 57%
Residential 38 23%
Commercial 2 1%
Public spaces 1 1%
Roads 17 10%
Railways + airport + bus 11 6%
terminals
Other 2 1%
Total 166 100%
Table 1 Land use patterns in Visakhapatnam
(Data Source: VMRDA, Revised Master Plan for Visakhapatnam Metropolitan Region – 2021)
3.4.2 Regional Linkages

Situated almost midway between Chennai in the south (762km) and Kolkata in
the north (879km), this region occupies an important place in the development
of modern Andhra Pradesh. To the region’s east is the Bay of Bengal, while in
the north is Srikakulam district, in the southeast is Godavari district of Andhra
surrounds. In the region’s western side lies the rest of Visakhapatnam district,
which is surrounded by the state of Orissa in its extreme western limits. There
are five major urban centres: Visakhapatnam, Gajuwaka, Anakapalli, and
Bheemunipatnam in Visakhapatnam district, and Vizianagaram in
Vizianagaram district. The principal city in this region is Visakhapatnam. The
old state capital Hyderabad is 637km from Vizag, well connected with road,
railway, and air. (Source: VMRDA, Revised Master Plan for Visakhapatnam
Metropolitan Region – 2021)
3.4.3 Population density
The city's average population density is roughly 3,300 persons per square
kilometre, with a population of 1.73 million (Census 2011) and a total area of
530km2.However, since the effective built-up area is only around 166km2, the
effective population density in the city is around 10,400 people per square
kilometre. Within this, 50km2 of the core city area holds up to 50 per cent of the
city population and has a very high population density of 27,000 people per
square kilometre. Some areas in the city's heart have population densities of up
to 60,000 persons per square kilometre. In summary, the population density is
concentrated mostly in the core city area while the outgrowths have a sparse
density.
CHAPTER 4. DATA ANALYSIS

Data collected from primary survey and different Secondary survey analysed in
this section.
4.1 Trips in the city
The city's per capita travel rate is 1.66 trips per day, with males having a greater
trip rate of 1.81 trips per day than females, who make 1.52 journeys per day. As
a result, the 1.73 million individuals who use various means of transportation
make a total of 2.88 million journeys in the city every day. These travels are
divided into two categories: trip purpose and gender. It has been noticed that
equal numbers of men and women participate in educational tours. However,
the share of female journeys on business visits is quite low, reflecting women's
low labor-force participation rates.
Trip Purpose Male Female Proportion of trips
Work 33% 39% 39%
Education 16% 32% 32%
Recreational 4% 27% 27%
Others 2% 2% 2%
Trips purpose in the city

35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Work Educational Recreational Others
Male Female
4.2 Mode share

Non-motorised modes such as walking and cycling account for up to 55% of all
journeys, according to the aggregate mode share for various trips. Cars account
for barely 2% of all trips undertaken in the city. Buses are the most common
means of transportation for vehicle travel, followed by 2-wheelers and auto-
rickshaws. The mean shares of males and females are clearly different. Women
walk up to 70% of the time they travel, followed by bus and auto-rickshaw,
which account for roughly 23% of their travels. The remaining modalities
account for a modest portion of the journeys. However, in the case of males,
two-wheelers account for a large amount of the mode-share, accounting for 22%
of all trips.
Mode Male Female Total
Walk 37% 69% 52%
Car 2% 1% 2%
2-Wheeler 22% 6% 15%
Bus 22% 14% 18%
Auto-Rickshaw 10% 9% 9%
Cycle 5% 1% 3%
Others 1% 0% 1%
Mode shares
3% 1%
9%
18%
52%
15%
2%
Walk Car 2-Wheeler Bus

Auto-rickshaw Cycle Others
4.3 Trip purpose-wise mode shares

These modal shares vary depending on the purpose of the travel, the user's
income level, and the length of the journey. Walking is still the most popular
means of transportation for all types of trips. Two-wheelers are the most
popular means of transportation for business travels, while buses and auto-
rickshaws are the most common modes of transportation for educational
journeys. It should also be mentioned that cycle utilisation is higher on business
excursions than on educational ones. This demonstrates that cycling riders are
confined to that mode and cannot afford the costs associated with taking the bus
or an auto-rickshaw.
Trip purpose-wise mode shares

120%
100% 1% 2% 0%
1%
6% 3% 9%
2%
80% 32%
46%
43%
60% 73%
9%
40% 21% 15% 15%
6% 13%
20% 28% 29%
8%
15%
11%
0% 3% 5%
0% 1% 3%
Work Education Recreational Others
Car 2-Wheeler Bus Auto-Rikshaw

Walk Cycle Others
4.4 Trips lengths

Seventy-one percent of all journeys in the city are shorter than 3km in duration,
explaining the city's high number of walk trips. The average journey length in
the city is 4.1 kilometres.
Trip length % of trips
Less then 1 Km 54%
1-3 Km 17%
3-5 Km 9%
5-10 Km 10%
More then 10 Km 9%
Trip length distribution
9%
10%
9%
54%
17%
<1Km 1-3Km 3-5Km 5-10Km >10Km
4.5 Mode wise avg Trips length

The trip length trends demonstrate a noticeable distinction between mode
usages. the average journey length of different modes It can be seen that each
mode caters to a certain trip duration category, and the mode choice is heavily
influenced by the journey length. Non-motorized forms of transportation, such
as walking and cycling, are typically employed for short excursions. Despite its
huge size, the average commute length in the city is only 4.1km, indicating that
people choose to reside near their objectives.
Mode Avg trip length (in Km)
Car 9.3
2-Wheeler 5.8
Bus 11.7
Auto-rickshaw 5.9
Walk 0.7
Cycle 3.2

Draft Report - Checking 58% 3 2nd

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Draft Report - Checking 58% 3 2nd

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

REDUCING THE AIR POLLUTION DUE TO ROAD TRANSPORT – A

CASE OF VISHAKAPATNAM, ANDHRA PRADESH

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

Under the Guidance

SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE, BHOPAL

Fig. No.: -Annual average PM2.5 concentrations in 2017

Fig. No: - Global Source Contributions (2015) of Air Pollution

1.2 Need of the Study

o Children are most at risk

Pollution Levels in India

Indian Source ContributionsPM2.5

Fig. No: - Indian Source Contributions PM2.5(2015) of Air Pollution

Fig. No: -- City Source Contributions PM2.5(2018) of Air Pollution

1.3 Aim of the Study

a) Objective I: To identify and analyze the transport emission in the city.

1.5 Expected Outcomes of the Study

1.8 Research Methodology

Need of the study

Literature Study Area Selection

Techniques, methods of study & Data required

Analysis & findings

Recommendations for Mitigating Air Pollution due to road transport

Fig. No: -Methodology

Objective I: To identify and analyze the transport emission in the city.

SIM-air model No of registered

Emissions (tons/year) = Number of Vehicles * Vehicle km

Identify the main junctions in the city Trip production pattern

Analyzing the TVC data of the selected

Mode share Trip distribution Trip attraction pattern

Objective III: To recommend suitable planning interventions & policy to

To identify the measures and suitable approaches that

Fig. No: -Objective - Methodology

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE STUDY

2.2 Ambient(outdoor) air pollution

2.3 Household air pollution

2.3.2 Impacts on health

f) Other health impacts and risks

2.3.3 Impacts on health equity, development, and climate change

2.4 Air pollutants

2.4.1 Particulate matter (PM)

2.4.1.2 Health effects

2.4.2 WHO Air quality guideline values & properties

2.4.2.1.1 Chemical Properties

2.4.2.2 Ozone (O3)

2.4.2.2.1 Chemical properties

2.4.2.3.1 Chemical properties

CHAPTER 3. STUDY AREA

3.3 City profile

3.4.2 Regional Linkages

CHAPTER 4. DATA ANALYSIS

Trips purpose in the city

4.2 Mode share

Walk Car 2-Wheeler Bus

4.3 Trip purpose-wise mode shares

Trip purpose-wise mode shares

40% 21% 15% 15%

Car 2-Wheeler Bus Auto-Rikshaw

4.4 Trips lengths

<1Km 1-3Km 3-5Km 5-10Km >10Km

4.5 Mode wise avg Trips length

You might also like