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D654-F2-Guideline For LCC and Rams Analysis
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Integrated Project (IP) Thematic Priority 6:
Project No. TIP5-CT-2006-031415 Sustainable Development,
Global Change and Ecosystems
Cost category:
material costs
Cost categories
Technical structure
Life Cycle Phases Life Cycle Phase: Operation
Cost element:
Material cost of component A in
the LCC phase operation
Deliverable D6.5.4
Contributions
Glossary
Table of Figures
1. Executive Summary
•
•
•
•
2. Introduction and current state-
of-the-art
Status Quo Innovation / Optim. Economical effects
Decision by Life Cycle Cost
Technical performance Technical performance Change in initial
• Reliability investment (t=0)
Life cycle costing
• Reliability
• Availability • Availability Migration costs
• Maintainability • Maintainability Costs for new regulations
• … • Tolerance against
conditions Decreasing costs for
Environmental perform.
• … environmental
• Noise
Environmental perform. sustainability
• Ground born vibration
• Noise Decrease maintenance
• …
• Ground born cost
Costs (drivers) vibration Decrease costs
• Investment • … for non availability
• Operation Change in Costs …
• Maintenance • ...
• Non availability Additional income?
Traffic prognosis Social economical effects
Frequencies of service life []
Over designed
Under designed
d
Ba
First change of components
Availability []
Time [a]
Tech. optimum
Economical
optimum?
•
•
•
•
3. Principles of RAMS and LCC
Analysis
Maintenance
Inspection / Diagnostic Service Repair
preventive Maintenance corrective Maintenance
(punctual equipment condition
monitoring, unwanted condition
is already happened)
Deferred Immediate
Condition-based Maintenance planned / predetermined
(equipment condition monitoring, Maintenance
Activity on condition) (no equipment condition
monitoring)
Conceptual Establishing Data Determination Formulating
Formulation the basics assessment of LCC values Recommen-
dation
Description of the Choice of the
Cost-Breakdown- Processing Interpretation
LCC tasks, right tool, software
Structure (CBS) of data of the results
specs
LCC values
Boundary Product-Breakdown- Determination Evaluation of the (Break-Even,
Conditions Structure (PBS) of data LCC Annuity, key value)
Formulating
Definition Analyse of Sensitivity of a
Of variants data Analysis recommendation
Cost Matrix
NPV of the Base for
In/Out Frame CBS, PBS, Resilient LCC data
variants decision
Variants
Monitoring, Feedback
Making decision
Implementation Update of LCC data
Developing of LCC contract
Validation Ensuring the circuit of
Tender procedure
knowledge
Definition
Establishment Data RAMS (LCC) Validation, Report Monitoring,
of
of the basics asssessment analyse Output Implementation Feedback
RAMS/LCC task
Approval of RAMS RAMS targets, RAMS (LCC) RAMS (LCC) Monitoring,
Output specs preferred variants
RAMS data
analyse results
Implementation
Feedback
specify the task, definition of RAMS report
processing of modelling, interpretation of
problem, question parameter, targets, (compilation of monitoring
data review of models the results
to be solved needs (CRS) the results)
system or feedback from
component? definition of determination taking reference to operation to
RAMS analyse implementation
existing or bound. conditions, of data the fixed specs planning,
new track? construction
To Do
definition of the analyse and update and
combined validation of RAMS
specs, assessement of assessment
Variant study RAMS/LCC and LCC
requirements, data of RAMS data
analyse calculations
key values (verification)
RAMS analysis
System
necessary,feasible?
Requirements
any expecting
Specs (SRS)
benefit?
Chapter, LCC/RAMS
LCC/RAMS task
task In/Out
In/Out Frame
Frame Database
Databse
Database
Databse e.
e. g.
g. D-LCC,
D-LCC, Validation Implementation
Implementation Maintenance
Maintenance
Validation
Temp- RAMSOffice
RAMSOffice database
database
Key
Keyvalues
values
late, Chapter
Chapter4.1,
4.1, 4.2,
4.2, Chapter
Chapter4.6
4.6 –– 4.9,
4.9,
Chapter
Chapter4.3
4.3--4.5
4.5 Chapter
Chapter
Chapter 3.0,
3.0, 4.6
Chapter 4.6 Chapter
Chapter6.0
6.0 Chapter
Chapter7.1,
7.1, 7.3
7.3
Tool 4.6
4.6 5.2
5.2 -- 5.3
5.3 chapter
chapter4.10,
4.10,7.2
7.2
Shareholders, Customer, team Team Team Team Shareholder, Asset Manager.
Who customer, team customer, team Team, supplier
according to the LCC procedure of WMP from DB (dated: 05.09.2006)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Development
Construction
(Prototype)
Procurement
(incl. Disposal)
(Test)
Production LCC
Installation
Operation, Maintenance,
Operation
Non-availability
Decommissioning
see Procurement costs
Disposal
•
•
•
Cost category:
material costs
From EN
From EN 60300-3-3
60300-3-3 the
the Cost categories
shown cost
shown cost matrix
matrix is
is
known.
known.
Basis:
Basis: means
means of
of production.
production.
Technical structure
Component: A
This
This view
view separates
separates the
the Life Cycle Phases Life Cycle Phase: Operation
life
life cycle phases
cycle phases
and
and thethe categories
categories Cost element:
in
in two
two dimensions
dimensions Material cost of component A in
the LCC phase operation
Cost matrix – top level
I. Procurement II. Operation III. Maintenance IV. Non Availability
I.1 Preparation - one-time II.1 Service III.1 Inspection and IV.1 Planned
II.1.2 Energy service (track) IV.1.1 Malfunctions
I.2 Preparation recurrent IV.1.2 Delays
project-specific III.2 Maintenance –preventive IV.1.3 Serviceability
I.3 Investment III.4 Maintenance - corrective IV.2 Unplanned
IV.2.1 Malfunctions
I.4 Imputed residual value III.7 Design and system IV.2.2 Delays
support IV.2.3 Serviceability
I.5 Decommissioning /
retraction / sale /
removal (tasks)
I.6 Disposal / recycling
I.10 Other costs II.10 Other costs III.10 Other costs IV.10 Other costs
V. Social Economics
V.1 Energy consumption V.3 Delay
V.2 Environment V.10 Other costs
1 1
C2 · C6 ·
(1+i)2 (1+i)6
Purchase
costs
...
Reference: Current costs from
Delivery year 1. year 2. year 3. year 4. year 5. year 6. year
554€
312€
1 1
C2· C6·
(1+i)2 (1+i)6
e.q.:
Current costs in
NPV i=1,08/1,02 -1 1. year 2. year 3. year 4. year 5. year 6. year
•
•
BV 4.0 %
DB 5.9 % For infrastructure
NR 6.5 %
ProRail 4.0 %
Public investor ≅ 4.0 %
Private investor 5.0 % ++ Depending on risk
InnoTrack ≅ 4-5 % For comparison
P ri
vat
e
Public
•
•
Public
DB
NR
Private
•
•
TLT − TH TH
RV = V Asset = V Asset 1 −
TLT TLT
RV VAsset
1 5
Calculatory
residual value
Calculatory residual value A
respectively disposal
t0 t40 t
Normalisation of period of TLT
time for analysis
Financial return (e.g.
scrap return) or costs for
disposal B
t0 t40 t
TLT
Disposal costs
TLT – Technical lifetime
In/Out-frame
to clarify
Inside of the LCC calculation
Outside of calc.
I. Procurement II. Operation III. Maintenance IV. Non Availability
I.1 Preparation - one-time II.1 Service III.1 Inspection and IV.1 Planned
II.1.2 Energy service (track) IV.1.1 Malfunctions
I.2 Preparation recurrent IV.1.2 Delays
project-specific III.2 Maintenance –preventive IV.1.3 Serviceability
I.3 Investment III.4 Maintenance - corrective IV.2 Unplanned
IV.2.1 Malfunctions
I.4 Imputed residual value III.7 Design and system IV.2.2 Delays
support IV.2.3 Serviceability
I.5 Decommissioning /
retraction / sale /
removal (tasks)
I.6 Disposal / recycling
I.10 Other costs II.10 Other costs III.10 Other costs IV.10 Other costs
V. Social Economics
V.1 Energy consumption V.3 Delay
V.2 Environment V.10 Other costs
Parameter Reference case Innovation A
Technical Parameter 1
Technical Parameter 2
Technical Parameter 3
Technical Parameter …
Technical Parameter n
Remarks
Nom. discount rate: __ % The nominal discount rate should based on asset life
Mean inflation rate: __ % The inflation rate should be estimated from the last years
Effective rate: __ %
Time horizon __ years:
Data
Cost block structure Reference case Innovation A
Euro
Cycle
Investment Source
Quality
Euro
Cycle
Operation Source
Quality
Euro
Maintenance Cycle
Activity A Source
Quality
Euro
Maintenance Cycle
Activity B Source
Quality
Euro
Maintenance Cycle
Activity C Source
Quality
•Tender
procedure &
placing
•Developing a •Monitoring /
LCC-contract Verification
•Making a
•Formulating decision
of
recommenda
tion
•Determination
of LCC-data
End
•Processing of •Ensuring
data the circuit of
knowledge
•Establishing the
basics •Conceptual
formulation
Start
1
• Investment - material
• Life time
High
• Long-term behaviour
Influence on LCC
• Investment - installation
• Quality • Maintenance
• Time to market
Low
0
0
Development,
manufacturing Operation
installation
•
•
•
•
Conceptual probability distribution Cumulative probability distribution
Innovation
Reference
•
•
•
•
1
Concept
Verification and 12
2 Validation Performance
Monitoring 12
System Definition
11 13
3 Operation & Modification &
Risk Analysis Maintenance Retrofit
4 10 14
System System Integration & Decommissioning &
Requirements Acceptance Disposal
5 9
Apportionment of
System Validation
System
system Requirements
requirements
Project 6 8
Definition Design & Project Test and
Installation
Implementation Integration
7
Manufacturing
•
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•
Control loop of Reliability Management:
Description of object
Definition of Modelling
Definition of event
the targets
Description of environment Amount
Allocation of data,
Homogeneity
Quality of data Plausibility
Consistency
Analysis, Prediction
and Optimisation
Documentation Impact on product Results and
History & process Verification
•
•
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•
•
•
•
Definition of specifications regarding operation and maintenance quality
Description of quality specifications through RAMS values Technical
specifications
R A M S
Reliability Availability Maintainability Safety
Operation &
Maintenance
Procurement Operation Maintenance Non-Availability
LCC
Definition of specifications regarding total life cycle costs Economical
specifications
Cost / Benefit
4. RAMS and LCC Analysis
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Conceptual phase Engineering phase Realisation phase Operational phase
11. Operation &
Maintenance
10. System12. Performance monitoring
Integration
13. Modification & retrofit
& Accep-
2.System 4.System tance 14. Decommissioning &
1. Concept 9. System
definition Require- 5. Apportion- disposal
Validation
ments ment 6.Design & 8.Installation
Implemen-
tation 7.Manufacturing
Project Y / N Client System Specifications Detailled
RequirementsRequirements for contract design
Time
Specification Specification
Reliability Availability Maintainability Safety
MTBF, Mean Time Be- Train delay MTTR or Hazard Rate
tween Failure for correc- hours MART, Mean
tive maintenance Time to Repair Number of de-
or Mean Active railment due to
MTBM, Mean Time Be- PPM, Passenger asset
tween Maintenance for Performance Repair Time
preventive maintenance Measure Number of acci-
MTTM, Mean dents
MTBCF, Mean Time Be- Time to Main-
tween Critical Failure tain
MTBSAF, Mean Time MDT, Mean
Between Service Affect- Down Time
ing Failure
•
•
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•
•
Tα
MTBF =
λ
αλ
Χ
•
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•
2A Varianten 2B Preferred
Analyse 1 Investigation Variant Study 3 Realisation
Study
RA
S question
RAMS
LCC input New Infra output
phase 1 / 2A / 2B / 3
RAMS / LCC
method
Social Cost and
Benefit analyses
RAMS / LCC spec
Example of Faster from Tunnel or Concrete or Galvanizing
AB bridge steel or paint
degree of detail
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1
Costs of Corrective Maintenance as part of the life cycle costs relate not only to the disrup-
tions caused by timetable affecting errors, but also to the errors that do not directly affect the
train service.
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Social Cost and
Benefit Analysis
R LCC
M
+
A
# trains
Cost for # passengers
Value of Time
unavailability
S
+
Shorter journey SCBA
Function
…….. others
Σ (€)
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5. General analytic methods and
tools
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2
The list of tools shows only a small extract of possible tools
Cost Breakdown Structure
Cost Breakdown Structure
1 LCC
1.1 INVESTMENT
1.1.1 Investment (Renewal)
1.1.1.1 Ballast
1.1.1.2 Sleeper incl. Fastening/ Freight
1.1.1.3 USP/ UBP
Product Tree 1.1.1.4 Rail incl. Freight
Product Tree
1.1.1.5 Substructure Measure
1 TRACK 1.1.1.6 Installation
1.1 Rail 1.1.2 Rail Renewal
1.1.3 Disposal
1.1.1 UIC 60
1.1.3.1 Residual Value
1.2 Rail Pad ZW700
1.1.3.2 Recycling
1.3 Sleeper 1.2 MAINTENANCE
1.3.1 B 70 W 1.2.1 Inspection Vehicle
1.4 Under Sleeper Pad 1.2.2 Visual Inspection
1.5 Ballast 1.2.3 Day-To-Day Track Maintenance
1.6 Subsoil 1.2.4 Ballast Tamping
1.2.5 Rail Grinding
1.2.6 Control of the Vegetation
1.2.7 Change ZW/ZWP
1.3 NON-AVAILABILITY
1.3.1 Planned
1.3.1.1 Day-To-Day Track Maintenance
1.3.1.2 Ballast Tamping
1.3.1.3 Rail Grinding
1.3.1.4 Rail Relying
1.3.1.5 Track Stoppage Reinvestment
1.3.2 Not-Planned
1.3.2.1 Track Stoppage
1.3.2.2 Speed Restriction
6. Compilation of results
7. Operational Phase and Imple-
mentation
•
•
•
•
•
•
Asset management
Innovations
Maintenance
Track/network
Optimisation
Investment Innovation
strategies
management
Actual & further and
requirements Assessment and
Organisation implementation
risk management
Standards Asset Management
Specifications Technical &
and strategies Asset Service economical data
Fault Documentation
Planning Construction Maintenance Rebuilding
management data
Annex I Examples
Timetable affecting errors
function
Number Average func- Average
Performance level crossing: timetable af- repair
of er- tion repair number of
fecting errors time
rors time [hour] errors
[hour]
Error caused by technique 7,550 6 1,258 0,200
Error caused by third parties 30,050 20 1,503 0,667
Error caused by wheather 7,267 2 3,633 0,067
Non-timetable affecting errors
function
Number Average func- Average
Performance level crossing: non-timetable repair
of er- tion repair number of
affecting errors time
rors time [hour] errors
[hour]
Non-timetable affecting errors 731,150 125 5,849 4,167
For underpasses in comparable situations (12 found) no timetable affecting errors are regis-
tered in the last 3 years. For non-timetable affecting errors no reliable data was found.
Based on every hour four passenger trains and one freight train per direction this leads to
delay and cancellation of trains. Knowing it is not correct we simplified the model by assuming
for this study that a timetable affecting error only leads to cancellation of trains.
All Level
Comparable
crossings Comparable
Performance data Level cross-
average Tunnel
ing
Netherlands
Number of hours not available (due to errors) 0.535 1.496 0
Number of cancelled passenger trains 4.280 11.964 0
Number of delayed freight trains 0.535 1.496 0
Safety:
Like performance also safety on a level crossing near a station has its own specific key fig-
ures. We searched for safety figures for comparable level crossings, see next table:
Seriously Slightly
Deaths /
Safety data injured / injured /
year
year year
Level crossing 0,044 0,022 0,00
Underpass 0 0 0
Cost data:
For the two variants the cost data is shown in the next table:
Cost data Level crossing Tunnel Comment
Total Investment (including station and perron) 6.455.000 1.458.100
Investment (excluding station and perron) 1.854.000 9.974.000
Social costs for train free period during realization Figures can vary per
phase Infra Manager
Cost data Level crossing Tunnel Comment
• 1 period of 29 hours in weekend 98.000
• 1 period of 52 hours in weekend 201.000
Preventive maintenance cost per year 40.000
Periodic replacements level crossing
• Roaddeck (40 year) 354.300
• Replace track (20 year) 75.000
• Half barrier (25 year, 6 pcs) 60.000
• Barrier motor (15 year, 6 pcs) 15.000
• Maintain track (15 year) 10.000
Maintenance tunnel
• Small maintenance (1 year) 5.500
• Large inspection (10 year) 1.500
• Painting (15 year) 8.500
• Large construction repairs (40 year) 100.000
Social cost for road transport 57.000
Cost for safety:
• Deaths 1.500.000 Figures can vary per
• Seriously injured 200.000 Infra Manager
• Slightly injured 30.000
Economic value of delayed freight train per hour 1.000 1.000
Cost for repair in case of errors 1.000 1.000
Cost for cancelled train on track Eindhoven – Weert:
• Week days: based on 263 passengers per
Figures can vary per
train 15.233
Infra Manager
• Weekend days: based on 124 passengers
per train
Based on the performance, safety and cost data it is possible to make a complete RAMS /
LCC analyses using the methodology shown in this guideline.
LCC:
Next table shows the LCC costs using Net Present Value (interest + inflation = 4 %),:
Level
LCC Tunnel
crossing
Net Present Value 30 year 3.853.417 9.890.259
Net Present Value 50 year 4.372.113 9.934.517
Net Present Value 100 year 4.717.799 9.956.606
Including all the social cost – benefits the total costs during the lifetime using Net Present
Value (interest + inflation = 4 %) are:
Level
LCC + social cost – benefits Tunnel
crossing
Net Present Value 30 year 7.812.598 9.890.259
Net Present Value 50 year 9.238.223 9.934.517
Net Present Value 100 year 10.238.176 9.956.606
So based on all these data the decision for a variant can be made. But be aware that RAMS /
LCC is not the only parameter the project managers uses to choose for a variant!
Technical optimisation Process optimisation
Steel grades Maintenance strategy
• R260 • Corrective
• R350 HT • Predictive
• R370Cr HT • Grinding / milling machine
• R400 HT • Possession time
• Metal removal
Rail type • Undergrinding of
• S54 head checks
• UIC60
• UIC70plus
Important boundary conditions
Probability density functions
• Crack growth
• Wear
Wear and RCF values
Technical parameters
based on field tests
- Grinding specs - limit values
- Service life time - wear
- undergrinding of HC
Head-Check
Boundary conditions
Load
- Track category
LCC Model
Wear (vertical)
- Rail type
- Steel grade
- Radius class
Load
- Actual Load [MGT/a]
Process parameters
wear (side)
-Type of grinding machine
- Maintenance strategy
Load
- Metal removal
- Possession time
NPV of R260 vs. R350HT dep. on Load
700
600
500
NPV [€/Tm]
400 R260
300 R350HT
200
100
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100
Load [MGT]
relevant for
metal removal
In/Out-frame – Standard rail grade vs. hard rail grade
In/Out-frame
to clarify
Inside of the LCC calculation
R 260 Cost for Same grinding
Regulations of
and investment and performance for
each country
R350HT non-availability HT grade
Maintenance –
Interactions with Grinding Wear and RCF
fault clearance
other SPs
Corrective Service life of Variable load of
maintenance the rails track
Mixed traffic
Load dependent Reference to
Radius 700–
maintenance test sites and
1500 m
costs experiments
20-30 MGT/a
Outside of
calculation Same grinding
welding quality
performance for
and costs
HT grade?
Used cost elements
I. Procurement II. Operation III. Maintenance IV. Non Availability
I.1 Preparation - one-time II.1 Service III.1 Inspection and IV.1 Planned
II.1.2 Energy service (track) IV.1.1 Malfunctions
I.2 Preparation recurrent IV.1.2 Delays
project-specific III.2 Maintenance –preventive IV.1.3 Serviceability
I.3 Investment III.4 Maintenance - corrective IV.2 Unplanned
IV.2.1 Malfunctions
I.4 Imputed residual value III.7 Design and system IV.2.2 Delays
support IV.2.3 Serviceability
I.5 Decommissioning /
retraction / sale /
removal (tasks)
I.6 Disposal / recycling
I.10 Other costs II.10 Other costs III.10 Other costs IV.10 Other costs
V. Social Economics
V.1 Energy consumption V.3 Delay
V.2 Environment V.10 Other costs
LCC - standard rail grade vs. hard rail grade
Reference case Innovation
Parameter R260 (standard rail grade) R350 HT (hard rail grade)
20 years 40 years
Service life (R 700-1500 m)
for 30 MGT/a for 30 MGT/a
w1: 0,3 mm/100 MGT, w1: 0,2 mm/100 MGT,
Wear rates
w3: 0,7 mm/100 MGT w3: 0,4 mm(100 MGT
RCF rate / Head-Check 0,75 mm/100 MGT 0,30 mm/100 MGT
Grinding interval for 0,8 mm ∼2 [a] ∼6 [a]
metal removal 30 MGT/a 30 MGT/a
Load dependent, at least 1
Rail renewal Load dependent
during 40 years
Remark: RCF measurements at DB
Discount rate: 8%
Inflation rate: 2%
Effective rate : 5.8 %
LCC - standard rail grade vs. hard rail grade
Data Reference case Innovation
Cost block structure R260 (standard rail grade) R350 HT (hard rail grade)
Euro xxx €/Tm*) xxx €/Tm
Cycle load dependent, nom. 20 year load dependent, nom. 40 year
Investment Source Procurement Procurement
Quality Experts / Analysis Experts / Analysis
Euro
Cycle
Operation Source
N/a N/a
Quality
Euro xxx €/Tm 1xxx €/Tm
Maintenance Cycle load dependent, nom. 20 year load dependent, nom. 40 year
Rail renewal Source IM IM
Quality Experts / Analysis Estimation / Experts / Analysis
Euro x-xx €/m per shift x-xx €/m per shift
Maintenance Cycle load-, radius dependent , 1 year load-, radius dependent , 3 year
Rail grinding Source RIM IM
Quality Experts / Analysis Experts / Analysis
Euro Track Category dependent Track Category dependent
Cycle load dependent load dependent
Non-Availability Source IM IM
Quality Analysis Analysis
*) Tm = Track meter
Annex II Questions per project
phase per RAMS / LCC
analysis
Questions 1 Investigation 2A Variants 2B Preferred al- 3 Implementa-
study ternative tion
RA What change in What change in What change in What change in
reliability and avail- RA performance RA performance is RA performance
ability of the train is expected for expected for the is expected for
routes can (as a the different different options of the chosen
consequence of variants, in rela- the preferred vari- technical solu-
infrastructural tion to the exist- ant in relation to tion in relation to
changes) be ex- ing situation? the current situa- the existing
pected if the func- tion? situation?
tion change is
implemented?
M What change in What change in What change in What change in
maintenance work maintenance maintenance work maintenance
(hours, money) is work (hours, (hours, money) is work (hours,
expected when the money) is ex- expected for the money) is ex-
change is imple- pected from the different options of pected after im-
mented in relation different variants the preferred vari- plementation in
to the current situa- in relation to the ant in relation to relation to the
tion? current situa- the existing situa- existing situa-
tion? tion? tion?
S What change in the What change in What change in What change in
safety of the railway the safety of the the safety of the the safety of the
system can be ex- rail system is railway system is railway system
pected if the in- expected from expected for the is expected for
tended function the different different options of the selected
change is imple- variants in rela- the preferred vari- technical solu-
mented? tion to the exist- ant in relation to tion in relation to
ing situation? the existing situa- the existing
tion? situation?
LCC What change in life What life cycle What life cycle What life cycle
cycle costs is asso- costs are asso- costs are associ- costs are ex-
ciated with the im- ciated with the ated with the dif- pected after im-
plementation of the different vari- ferent options? plementation?
function change? ants?
RAMS / What reliability, What level of What option has What technical
LCC availability and reliability, avail- the highest level of solution pro-
safety can be ability and reliability, availabil- vides the high-
achieved at what safety can be ity and safety at est level of
life cycle costs? achieved per the lowest life cy- reliability, avail-
variant at what cle costs? ability and
life cycle costs? safety at the
lowest life cycle
costs?
Social What expected What expected What expected What costs and
cost – costs and benefits costs and bene- costs and benefits benefits are ex-
benefit relate to the func- fits relate to relate to every op- pected after the
analysis tion change? every variant? tion? implementation?
RAMS / What RAMS re- What RAMS What RAMS re- What RAMS
LCC quirements can we requirements quirements can we performance is
specifica- specify, and at what can we specify specify and at expected in the
tion maximum life costs and at what what maximum life operational
should it be possi- maximum life cycle costs should phase and what
ble to implement cycle costs it be possible to are the maxi-
the function should it be achieve the infra mum life cycle
change? possible to im- change? costs for the
plement the in- selected techni-
fra change? cal solution?
Annex III References
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