UNIT II ACTUATORS

• Actuators are output devices which convert energy from

pressurized hydraulic oil or compressed air into the required
type of action or motion. In general, hydraulic or pneumatic
systems are used for gripping and/or moving operations in
industry. These operations are carried out by using actuators.
Actuators can be classified into three types.
• Linear actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic
energy into linear motion.
• Rotary actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic
energy into rotary motion.
• Actuators to operate flow control valves: these are used to
control the flow and pressure of fluids such as gases, steam or
liquid.

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 ACTUATORS

• The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear actuators is

similar. However they differ at their operating pressure ranges. Typical
pressure of hydraulic cylinders is about 100 bar and of pneumatic
system is around 10 bar.
• Cylinders are linear actuators which convert fluid power into
mechanical power. They are also known as JACKS or RAMS.
• Hydraulic cylinders are used at high pressures and produce large
forces and precise movement. For this reason they are constructed of
strong materials such as steel and designed to withstand large forces.
• Because gas is an expansive substance, it is dangerous to use
pneumatic cylinders at high pressures so they are limited to about 10
bar pressure. Consequently they are constructed from lighter
materials such as aluminum and brass. Because gas is a compressible
substance, the motion of a pneumatic cylinder is hard to control
precisely. The basic theory for hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders is
otherwise the same.

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 Single Acting Cylinders
• A simple single acting cylinder is shown
below. The cylinder is only powered in one
direction and needs another force to return
it such as an external load (e.g. in a car
hoist or jack) or a spring. No hydraulic fluid
is present on the low pressure side.

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 Double Acting Cylinders
• In this case the fluid pressure is applied to
one side and pressure on the other side is
usually atmospheric.

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• The force applied by a piston depends on
both the area and the applied pressure.
• Let A be the full area of the piston and a be
the cross sectional area of the rod. If the
pressure is acting on the rod side, then the
area on which the pressure acts is (A - a).
• F = pA on the full area of piston.
• F = p(A-a) on the rod side.

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• Identical pressure is applied to both sides
of a piston. This produces an extend force
Fe and a retract force Fr. Because Fe is
greater than F r, the cylinder extends

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• The ratio A/Aa of 2:1 is given by a large
diameter rod.
• This can be used to give an equal extend
and retract force when connected as
shown.

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DOUBLE ROD CYLINDERS
• The basic design of a double rod cylinder is
shown below. The design allows equal force
and speed in both directions. It is useful in
robotic mechanisms were the rod is
clamped at both ends and the body moves
instead.

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 TELESCOPIC CYLINDERS
• These cylinders produce long
strokes from an initial short
length. Each section slides inside
a larger section.
• These cylinders have from 2 to
five stages. They are typically
used in refuse lorries for ejecting
the compacted refuse. They are
also used for lifts, tipping
platforms, lifting platforms and
other commercial vehicle
applications

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 Impact Cylinder
• Pneumatic cylinders are used for metal forming, an operation requiting large forces.
Pressures in pneumatic systems are lower than in hydraulic systems, but large impact
loads can be obtained by accelerating a hammer to a high velocity then allowing it to
strike the target. Such devices are called impact cylinders.
• Pressure is initially applied to port B to retract the cylinder. Pressure is then applied to
both ports A and B, but the cylinder remains in a retracted state because area X is less
than area Y. Port B is then vented rapidly. Immediately, the full piston area experiences
port A pressure.
• With a large volume of gas stored behind the piston, it accelerates rapidly to a high
velocity (typically 10m s-l).

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 Double acting cylinder
• The main parts of a hydraulic double acting cylinder are: piston,
piston rod, cylinder tube, and end caps. The piston rod is connected
to piston head and the other end extends out of the cylinder. The
piston divides the cylinder into two chambers namely the rod end
side and piston end side. The seals prevent the leakage of oil between
these two chambers. The cylindrical tube is fitted with end caps. The
pressurized oil, air enters the cylinder chamber through the ports
provided. In the rod end cover plate, a wiper seal is provided to
prevent the leakage of oil and entry of the contaminants into the
cylinder. The combination of wiper seal, bearing and sealing ring is
called as cartridge assembly. The end caps may be attached to the
tube by threaded connection, welded connection or tie rod
connection. The piston seal prevents metal to metal contact and wear
of piston head and the tube. These seals are replaceable. End
cushioning is also provided to prevent the impact with end caps.

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 SEALS AND BEARINGS
• The main seals used are:
1. Piston seals to prevent leakage from one side to the other.
2. Rod seal to prevent leakage from the rod end.
3. Static seals to prevent leakage from joints between the barrel
and end caps.
4. Wiper seal to stop dirt being drawn inside with the rod.
• The bearings are:
1. The rod end bearing made of brass or bronze. This takes the
side loads on the rod and ensures lubrication and reduced
wear. It also prevents the seal distorting and leaking.
2. The pistons bearing to take the sideways forces and reduce
wear.

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 Double Acting Cylinder
• The main parts of a hydraulic double acting cylinder are: piston,
piston rod, cylinder tube, and end caps.
• The piston rod is connected to piston head and the other end extends
out of the cylinder. The piston divides the cylinder into two chambers
namely the rod end side and piston end side.
• The seals prevent the leakage of oil between these two chambers.
The cylindrical tube is fitted with end caps. The pressurized oil, air
enters the cylinder chamber through the ports provided. In the rod
end cover plate, a wiper seal is provided to prevent the leakage of oil
and entry of the contaminants into the cylinder.
• The piston seal prevents metal to metal contact and wear of piston
head and the tube. These seals are replaceable. End cushioning is also
provided to prevent the impact with end caps.

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 Cylinder Cushioning
• Shockloads at extremes of piston travel
arise not only from fluid pressure, but
also from kinetic energy of the moving
parts ofthe cylinder and load.
• These end of travel shock loads can be
reduced with cushion valves built into
the end caps. Exhaust flow is
unrestricted until the plunger enters the
cap.
• The exhaust flow route is now via the
deceleration valve which reduces the
speed and the end of travel impact. The
deceleration valve is adjustable to allow
the deceleration rate to be set.
• A check valve is also included in the end
cap to bypass the deceleration valve and
give near full flow as the cylinder
extends.

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• Cylinders are very vulnerable to side loads,
particularly when fully extended. In Figure a
cylinder with a 30 cm stroke is fully extended and
subject to a 5 kg side load. When extended there is
typically 1 cm between piston and end beating.
Simple leverage will give side loads of 155 kg on the
bearing and 150 kg on the piston seals. This
magnification of side loading increases cylinder
wear. The effect can be reduced by using a cylinder
with a longer stroke, which is then restricted by an
internal stop tube as shown in Figure

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Cylinder with side loads and stop
tube

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 Rotary Actuator- Gear Motor
• Rotary actuators convert energy of
pressurized fluid into rotary motion. Rotary
actuators are similar to electric motors but
are run on hydraulic or pneumatic power.
• It consists of two inter meshing gears inside
a housing with one gear attached to the
drive shaft. The air enters from the inlet,
causes the rotation of the meshing gear due
to difference in the pressure and produces
the torque. The air exists from the exhaust
port. Gear motors tend to leak at low speed,
hence are generally used for medium speed
applications.

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 Rotary actuator-Vane motor
• A rotary vane motor consists of a rotor with
sliding vanes in the slots provided on the
rotor (Fig. 6.4.5). The rotor is placed
eccentrically with the housing. Air enters
from the inlet port, rotates the rotor and
thus torque is produced. Air is then
released from the exhaust port (outlet).

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 Limited rotation actuators
• It consists of a single rotating vane
connected to output shaft as shown in
Figure 6.4.6. It is used for double acting
operation and has a maximum angle of
rotation of about 270°. These are generally
used to actuate dampers in robotics and
material handling applications. Other type
of limited rotation actuator is a rack and
pinion type actuator.

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 Speed Control of Cylinder-Pump Volume Control
• For an actuator, the operational speed is determined by the fluid flow rate
and the cylinder actuator area or the motor displacement. The speed can
only be controlled by adjusting the fluid flow to the actuator, because the
physical dimension of the actuator is fixed. Since the air is compressible,
flow control is difficult as compared to the hydraulic system.
• There are essentially four ways in which fluid flow can be controlled. The
first is shown in Figure where a pump delivers a fluid volume V per minute.
Because the pump is a fixed displacement device this volume of fluid must
go either back to the tank or to the actuator. When the control valve moves
from its centre position, the actuator moves with a velocity:
• v=V / A
where A is the piston area. If
pump delivery volume V can be
adjusted (by altering swash plate
angle, say,) and the pump feeds no
other device, no further speed
control is needed.
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 Cylinder Speed Control Meter In
Circuit
• In the second speed control method of a
pump controls many devices and is loaded
by a solenoid-operated valve . Unused fluid
goes back to the tank via relief valve V 3.
The pump output is higher than needed by
any individual actuator, so a flow restrictor
is used to set the flow to each actuator. This
is known as a 'meter in' circuit, and is used
where a force is needed to move a load.

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 Cylinder Speed Control Meter In
Circuit
• Check valve V 1 gives a full-speed
retraction, and check valve V 2 provides a
small back pressure to avoid the load
running away. The full pump delivery is
produced when the pressure reaches the
setting of relief valve V 3, so there is a
waste of energy and unnecessary
production of heat in the fluid

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Cylinder Speed Control Meter Out Circuit
• When the load run away from the actuator,
the third speed control method; the 'meter
out' circuit is used. This gives a controlled
extension speed, and full retraction speed
(allowed by check valve V1). As before, the
pump delivers fluid at a pressure set by the
relief valve, leading to heat
generation.
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 Bleed-off speed control
Finally, in the fourth speed control method a bleed-off valve V 1 is
incorporated. This returns a volume v back to the tank, leaving a volume V-
v to go to the actuator (where V is the pump delivery volume). Pump
pressure is now determined by the required actuator pressure, which is
lower than the pressure set on the relief valve. The energy used by the
pump is lower, and less heat is generated. The circuit can, however, only be
used with a load which opposes motion. Check valve V 2 again gives a small
back pressure. Any unused fluid from the pump is
returned to the tank at high
pressure leading to wasted
energy; even with the more
efficient 'bleed'-off circuit. One
moral, therefore, is to have a
pump delivery volume no larger
than necessary.
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 Flow control valve
• In this valve a constant pressure drop across an
orifice restriction in the line is maintained, the rate
being adjusted by altering orifice size. The
construction of such a device.
• The orifice is formed by a notch in a shaft which
can be rotated to set the flow. The pressure drop
across the orifice is the difference in pressure
between points X and Y, and is applied to the
moveable land. The pressure at X, in conjunction
with the spring pressure, causes a downward force,
while pressure at Y causes an upward force. If the
land moves up the flow reduces,

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 Flow control valve
• If the land moves down the
flow increases. The piston thus
moves up and down until the
pressure differential between X
and Y matches the spring
compressive force.
• The device thus maintains a
constant pressure drop across
the orifice, which implies
constant flow through the
valve, and is known as a
pressure- compensated flow
control valve.

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 Actuator synchronisation
• An unbalanced load is to be lifted by two cylinders. The right-hand
cylinder is subject to a large force F, the left-hand cylinder to a smaller
force f.
• The right-hand piston requires a pressure of
F/A to lift, while the left-hand piston needs
f/A. When lift is called for on valve V 1, the
pressure rises to the lower pressure f/A, and
only the left-hand piston moves. The
unbalanced load results in faulty operation. A
similar result can occur where two, or more,
cylinders
operate against ill-defined
frictional forces
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 Flow Divider Valve
• The flow divider valve of works on a similar
principle, dividing the inlet flow equally (to
a few percent) between two outlet ports.
The spool moves to maintain equal
pressure drops across orifices X and Y, and
hence equal flow through them.

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• Flow dividers are used to split the flow from a single
source into two equal flow rates for two actuators.
• Flow divider includes a spool , which automatically
changes the opening slots to compensate for the
difference in pressures p1 and p2. These pressures
act on the opposite sides of the spool through the
drillings in the spool in such way that an increase in
pressure p1 would reduce the slot (increase
resistance) for flow Q2,
• Accordingly, increase of the pressure p2 would
increase resistance for flow Q1. Therefore, pressure
p at the inlet of the valve is equal to the highest
outlet pressure plus pressure drop across the open
slot. This means that the pressure drop on the
metered side can be large, and this creates
excessive heat.

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 Cylinder Synchronization-Series
•
Arrangement
The two cylinders are effectively in series with fluid from the annulus
side of cylinder 1 going to the full bore side of cylinder 2. The
cylinders are chosen, however, so that full bore area of cylinder 2
equals the annulus area of cylinder 1. Upon cylinder extension, fluid
exits from cylinder 1 and causes cylinder 2 to extend. The two
cylinders move at equal speed because of the equal areas.
• Pressure P2 in cylinder 2 is F/a. Fluid on the full bore side of cylinder 1
has to lift the piston against force f plus the force from P2 acting on
the annulus side of the piston. Pressure P1 is (F+f)/A; higher than
would be required by two independent cylinders acting in parallel.
The rotational speed of motors with equal displacement can similarly
be synchronised by connecting them in series. Inlet pressure of the
first motor is again, however, higher than needed to drive the two
motors separately or in parallel.

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Cylinder Synchronization-Series
Arrangement

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 Regeneration
• A conventional cylinder can exert a larger force extending than
retracting because of the area difference between full bore and
annulus sides of the piston. The system in Figure employs a
cylinder with a full bore/annulus ratio of 2:1, and is known as a
differential
Upon cylinder.
cylinder extension, line pressure P is applied to
the right hand side of the piston giving a force of P x
A, while the left-hand side of the piston returns oil via
valve V 3 against line pressure P producing a counter
force P x A/2.
There is thus a net force of P x A/2 to the left. When
retraction is called for, a force of P x A/2 is applied to
the left-hand side and fluid from the right-hand side
returns to tank at minimal pressure. Extension and
retraction forces are thus equal, 33
at P x A/2