Introduction to LRFD for Foundation and Substructure

Design – Module 2
132010B August 2021

1
Welcome and Introduction

Welcome to NHI Course Number 132010B, Introduction to LRFD for

Foundation and Substructure Design, Module 2: Principles of Limit State
Design.

This presentation is available as an attachment from the paperclip icon in

the bottom right-hand part of the screen.

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Module and Lesson Learning Outcome:

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to recognize the Load and
Resistance Factor Design, or LRFD, basic equation, limit states, LRFD
design objectives, and foundation materials associated with LRFD. This will
be accomplished through the completion of the lessons, where you will be
able to:

• Define the components of the LRFD basic equation;

• Identify the limit states for LRFD;

• Identify basic LRFD formulae design objectives for the limit states;
and

• Recognize common substructure materials and basic mechanical

properties.

This module will take approximately 80 minutes to complete.

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Lessons in this Module

This module contains the following lessons:

1. LRFD Basic Equation Defined;

2. LRFD Limit States;

3. LRFD Formulae Design Objectives; and

4. Foundation Material Properties and Member Behavior.

During each lesson, knowledge checks are provided to test your

understanding of the material presented.

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Lesson 1: LRFD Basic Equation Defined

Let’s get started with the first lesson, where you will learn about the LRFD
basic equation. At the end of this lesson, you will be able to define the
components of the LRFD basic equation.

This lesson will take approximately 20 minutes to complete.

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LRFD Basic Equation

ɳ(ƩƴDLDL + ƩƴLLLL) ≤ϕRn

Remember from Module 1, you learned the basic equation for LRFD. A
load modifier is applied to the sum of the factored dead loads and the sum
of the factored live loads, which is required to be less than or equal to the
nominal resistance, or strength, reduced by a resistance factor. With this
equation, the following assumptions or observations are made.

• Uncertainty is accounted for in both load and resistance by load

modifier, load factors, and the resistance factor;

• On the load side, load factors are assigned directly to the loads and a
load modifier is applied equally to all loads. Load factors are
calibrated based on the intent of the load combination and the
probability of that combination occurring. The load modifier contains
three subcomponents, ductility, redundancy, and operational
importance, which are discussed later in this lesson;

• On the resistance side, LRFD utilizes nominal resistance that is

multiplied by a resistance factor to achieve a factored resistance. The

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 resistance factor is a statistically-based multiplier applied to nominal
resistance accounting primarily for the variability of material
properties, structural dimensions and workmanship, and uncertainty
in the prediction of resistance, but is also related to the statistics of
loads through the calibration process. The result is a factored
resistance that may equal or decrease the nominal resistance
depending on the design issues; and

• Safety is achieved by the factored and modified load combinations

not exceeding the resistance or strength determined by nominal
resistance multiplied by a resistance factor.

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Equation in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications:

Ʃ ɳiγiQi ≤ ΦRn = Rr

ɳ i = Load modifier (eta)

γi = Load factor (gamma)

Qi = Force effect

Φ = Resistance factor (phi)

Rn = Nominal resistance

Rr = Factored resistance

The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials or

AASHTO and its publication AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
uses a more general form of the LRFD basic equation. This equation states
that the sum of the load modifier multiplied by the load factor multiplied by
the force effect must be less than or equal to the resistance factor
multiplied by the nominal resistance which is equal to the factored
resistance.

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This is the same as the previous equation except that the load modifier is
shown within the summation. However, since the load modifier is a
constant that is applied equally to all loads in a load combination, it is often
shown outside the summation as in the previous screen.

The force effect results from the dead load and live load applied to the
structures plus any other loads considered. The factored resistance results
from the nominal resistance multiplied by the resistance factor.

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Components of the LRFD Basic Equation

Ʃ ɳiγiQi ≤ ΦRn = Rr

Now, let’s explore in greater detail components of the LRFD basic

equation. Each of these components plays an important role in designing a
safe substructure.

View each component to learn more.

• Load Modifier ɳ i

• Load Factor γi

• Force Effect Qi

• Nominal Resistance Rn

• Resistance Factor Φ

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Components of the LRFD Basic Equation – Load Modifier

Factored loads are adjusted by a load modifier. The load modifier accounts
for uncertainty by the combined effect of three sub-components. Ductility
referred to as ADA sub D, refers to the component property or connection
that allows inelastic response by developing visible defamation at the
strength and extreme limit state. Redundancy referred to as ADA sub R,
refers to classifying components or connections based upon the
contributions to bridge safety and is dependent on the limit state being
examined. And operational importance referred to as ADA sub uppercase I,
only applies to the strength and extreme event limit state. And refers to a
judgment call if the bridge is considered critical or essential, typical or less
important. Greater explanation of load modifier sub-components, ductility,
redundancy and operational importance, is provided in the AASHTO bridge
design specifications articles 1.3.3, 1.3.4 and 1.3.5. The determination of
accounting for these load modifiers should be reformed by one
knowledgeable of LRFD. When a maximum load factor has been applied to
the load, the load modifier is equal to the product of the load modifiers for
ductility, redundancy and operational importance, and will be greater than

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or equal to 0.95. When a minimum load factor has been applied to the load,
the load modifier is equal to one divided by the product of the load
modifiers for ductility, redundancy and operational importance, and will be
less than or equal to one.

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Components of the LRFD Basic Equation – Load Factor

A load factor is a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects or

loads when using LRFD. Load factors originated during the creation and
calibration of LRFD and were developed from measurements and
subsequent standard deviations. In the LFRD basic equation, this is
referred to as gamma sub I. Structure and foundation design by AASHTO
requires that each load for each limit state be modified by a prescribed load
factor. The selection of the load factor is a function of the type of load and
the limit state or load combinations being evaluated. The AASHTO LFRD
Bridge Design Specifications contains tables of load factors for each
combination of loads to be considered during design.

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AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 – Load Combinations and Load
Factors

Shown is Table 3.4.1-1 from the 2014 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications. This table shows the load factors used for different load
combinations at various limit states.

Note that in the combination table, load factors for permanent loads listed
in the first column are identified with the variable gamma sub p. This refers
to a second table in AASHTO that contains the maximum and minimum
load factors for the permanent loads based on the specific type of load.

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AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2 – Load Factors for Permanent Loads

Shown is Table 3.4.1-2 from the 2014 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications. This table shows the minimum and maximum load factors
for various permanent loads.

Maximum and minimum load factors shown do not indicate a range of

acceptable load factors. A maximum load factor is to be applied for cases
when the permanent load increases the force effect under consideration. A
minimum load factor is to be applied when the permanent load reduces the
force effect being considered.

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Components of the LRFD Basic Equation – Force Effect

Force effects or Q sub I are a deformation, stress, or stress resultant

caused by applied loads, imposed deformations, or volumetric changes. To
understand the resulting force effects, the variety of load and load
combinations considered by LFRD must be studied in detail. Force effects
are the nominal value without the load combination or load modifier. In
general, for design, the maximum and minimum force effects are
examined.

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Components of the LRFD Basic Equation – Nominal
Resistance

Nominal resistance is defined as a quantifiable value that defines the point

beyond which the particular limit state under investigation for a particular
component will be exceeded. Resistance can be defined in terms of
strength, stress, deflection, temperature, crack width and in many other
ways. The key is that it is a quantifiable value, a number. It represents a
value established by a specific analysis and or testing method. It is not the
maximum resistance, it is not the average resistance and it is not the
guaranteed minimum resistance. The method used may over predict or
under predict the actual resistance of the component. However, any
discrepancy is accounted for by the assigned resistance factor.

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Components of the LRFD Basic Equation – Resistance
Factor

The resistance factor is a number, usually less than or equal to one, that
accounts for uncertainty and any bias in the method used to establish the
nominal resistance. If the uncertainty is high, the resistance factor will be
small. If the uncertainty is low, the resistance factor will be larger. If the
method used to predict the resistance normally over-predicts the
resistance, the associated resistance factor will be smaller than for a
method that normally under-predicts the resistance. The resistance factor
can be greater than one, which would indicate a method is being used that
grossly under-predicts the actual resistance. The nominal resistance times
the resistance factor is called the factored resistance, R sub R, and forms
the right-hand side of the LRFD basic equation.

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LRFD Basic Equation Representation

This graph shows a representation of the LRFD basic equation.

In the graph, load Q and resistance R are represented as bell-shaped

probability distributions since there is uncertainty involved in the estimation
of both quantities. Note that the actual distribution will depend on the Q or
R being investigated, which may affect the shape of the Q and R probability
distribution. The unfactored load, Q sub i, and the nominal resistance, R
sub n, may not necessarily represent average values. Rather, they
represent a single value that is established by a defined procedure. The
differential value between nominal load and nominal resistance will
ultimately be a function, f, of the applied load factors, gamma, and
resistance factors, phi. For a given design, the probability of failure is
defined by the shaded area under the intersection of the load and
resistance curves. A smaller shaded area is an indication of a stronger but
less economical design. The objective is to ensure that the area of overlap
is acceptably small. In the LRFD specification, load factors and resistance
factors were developed in a way that forces the relationship between load

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effect and resistance to be such that an area of overlap is less than or
equal to the value that AASHTO accepts. Note that the load modifier eta
sub i is not shown on the graph.

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LRFD Basic Equation Representation (con.)

In this graph, if the design optimizes the load and resistance sides of the
equation, the load factor gamma times the unfactored load Q sub i, will
exactly equal the resistance factor phi times the nominal resistance R sub
n, as shown in the graph.

In this case, the area under the intersection of the load curve and the
resistance curve represents the area where the load is greater than the
supplied resistance, or a failed condition.

Under this situation, the design is less conservative and probably more
economical since the curves have moved closer together and the
probability of failure has increased because the shaded area has
increased.

The LRFD design method is based on establishing load and resistance

factors that result in a uniform probability of failure, as defined by the area
under the intersection of the load curve and the resistance curve, for all
components of a bridge.

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Load modifiers have not been shown in either graph but are applied to the
entire load side of the equation, which further allows for accounting of
uncertainty to the entire structure rather than individual components or
loads.

The point is that the LRFD equation brings together considerations for
loads, load uncertainties, and an acceptable margin of safety to the load
side of the equation. This is balanced against component strengths and
associated uncertainties of the resistance side of the equation to optimize
the design.

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Lesson Review

Let's take a moment to review the concepts you learned during this lesson.

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LRFD accounts for uncertainty by:

LRFD accounts for uncertainty by:

a) Multiplying the nominal resistance by a load factor

b) Multiplying loads by a load factor and multiplying nominal resistance

by a resistance factor

c) Applying only live loads to structures

d) Multiplying factored loads by a resistance factor

The correct answer is b) LRFD accounts for uncertainty by multiplying

loads by a load factor and multiplying nominal resistance by a resistance
factor.

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The load modifier accounts for uncertainty by attempting to
recognize the influence of which of the following?

The load modifier accounts for uncertainty by attempting to recognize the

influence of which of the following?

a) Operational importance

b) Compressive strength

c) Redundancy

d) Ductility

The correct answers are: a) Operational importance; c) Redundancy; and

d) Ductility.

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Lesson Summary

Now, let’s review the learning outcome for this lesson.

You learned to identify and define the components of the LRFD basic
equation. These are the load modifier, load factor, force effect, resistance
factor, nominal resistance, and factored resistance.

This concludes Lesson 1: LRFD Basic Equation Defined.

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Lesson Conclusion

If you would like to further review the material covered in this lesson,
please return to the beginning of this lesson.

If you are confident that you understand the learning outcome, please
continue on to the next lesson.

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Lesson 2: LRFD Limit States

Let’s get started with the second lesson, where you will learn about the
LRFD limit states. At the end of this lesson, you will be able to identify the
limit states associated with LRFD.

This lesson will take approximately 20 minutes to complete.

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Definitions

This lesson begins with the definition for limit state, and a review of the
definitions for resistance and the golden rule of engineering.

View each definition to learn more.

• Limit State

• Resistance

• Golden Rule of Engineering

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Definitions – Limit State

The definition of a limit state is a condition beyond which a structural

component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was designed.
Basically, limit state defines when a component fails to fulfill its desired
function.

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Definitions – Resistance

Remember in lesson one, you learned about resistance. Resistance is a

quantifiable value that defines the point beyond which the particular limit
state under investigation for a particular component will be exceeded.

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Definitions – Golden Rule of Engineering

In module one, you learned about the golden rule of engineering. In this
rule, the load must be less than the resistance. By using load factors and
resistance factors in LRFD, the factored loads can equal the factored
resistance and still produce a safe design. When the factored load exceeds
the factored resistance, the result is a limit state being exceeded. The
factored load should be less than or equal to the factored resistance for a
safe design. The key to evaluating the golden rule of engineering is the
inequality because the inequality represents uncertainty. How much less
than the supply should the demand be?

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Limit States Used in LRFD

Now that you understand what a limit state is, let’s look at the four limit
states used in LRFD.

LRFD recognizes the following four limit states.

• Strength limit state;

• Extreme event limit state;

• Service limit state; and

• Fatigue limit state.

View each limit state to learn more.

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Strength Limit State

Strength limit state is a design boundary condition considered to ensure

that strength and stability are provided to resist specified load
combinations, and avoid the total or partial collapse of the structure.

Examples of strength limit states in structural engineering include two-way

shear failure in a pile cap and axial compression failure in a pier stem.
Examples of strength limit states in geotechnical engineering include
bearing failure and sliding failure.

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Extreme Event Limit State

The extreme event limit state considers a loading combination that

represents an excessive or improbable design boundary condition with
return periods in excess of the design life of the bridge when evaluating a
structural component. Such conditions may include ship impacts, vehicle
impacts, ice flow damage, scour, and seismic events. Because the
probability of these events occurring during the life of the structure is
relatively small, a smaller safety margin is appropriate when evaluating this
limit state.

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Extreme Event Limit State Damage

In this photo illustrating an extreme event limit state, the damage to a bent
from lateral movement caused by an earthquake is shown.

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Strength Limit State Video

In this video, the strength limit state is exceeded when the load from the
truck traveling across the bridge causes the superstructure components to
fail. This video was created using the West Point Bridge Designer software.

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Strength Limit State Leo Frigo Bridge

Another example is seen with this photo which shows the failure of an H-
pile caused by axial compression and corrosion of the pile. The applied
load exceeds the strength of the H-pile in the strength limit state.

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Service Limit State

The service limit state represents a design boundary condition for the
performance of a structure under its intended service level loads and
accounts for some acceptable measure of structure movement throughout
its performance life.

Examples for substructure design include vertical settlement of a

foundation or lateral displacement of a retaining wall. Another example of a
service limit state condition is the rotation of a rocker bearing on an
abutment caused by instability of the earth slope which supports the
abutment.

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Service Limit State Leo Frigo Bridge

The Leo Frigo Bridge is a recent example of a structure’s service limit state
being exceeded. In 2013, one of the bridge pier footings settled 2 feet,
causing a 400-foot section of the bridge to sag. The failure of the strength
limit state of the foundation, caused the failure of the service limit state of
the superstructure. Even though the structure has not collapsed, it has
definitely moved beyond the designer’s expectations of tolerable
movement.

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Service Limit State Rocker Bearing

Here you can see that the service limit state is exceeded by the
displacement of the abutment, which causes the bearing to reach its
service limit state too. Notice that the structure has horizontal movement to
the right.

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Fatigue Limit State

The fatigue limit state represents design boundary conditions for structural
steel components and are defined by loads resulting from a single design
truck. Similar to the strength limit state, this condition is considered in order
to avoid the partial or complete failure of a steel member due to fracture
caused by fatigue. Fatigue fracture is associated with cyclic loading over
time and can result in a reduction of the member strength and ultimately
failure.

This limit state is primarily for superstructure design and is not normally
investigated with respect to substructure designs.

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Fatigue Limit State Cross Girder

The fatigue limit state design boundary condition has been exceeded
resulting in the cracked cross girder. Fracture fatigue is associated with
cyclic loading over time and can result in the reduction of the member or in
this case, cross girder, strength, resulting in the failure or crack.

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Which characteristic matches the Fatigue limit state?

Which characteristic matches the Fatigue limit state?

a) Cycles of load

b) Improbable load

c) Tolerable movement

d) Ensures stability and strength

The correct answer is: d) Ensures stability and strength.

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Which characteristic matches the Strength limit state?

Which characteristic matches the Strength limit state?

a) Cycles of load

b) Improbable load

c) Tolerable movement

d) Ensures stability and strength

The correct answer is: a) Cycles of load.

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Which characteristic matches the Service limit state?

Which characteristic matches the Service limit state?

a) Cycles of load

b) Improbable load

c) Tolerable movement

d) Ensures stability and strength

The correct answer is: b) Improbable load.

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Which characteristic matches the Extreme event limit state?

Which characteristic matches the Extreme event limit state?

a) Cycles of load

b) Improbable load

c) Tolerable movement

d) Ensures stability and strength

The correct answer is: c) Tolerable movement.

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Three Limit States Used in Bridge Substructure Design

Only three of the four limit states are used in bridge substructure design.
They are:

• Strength limit state;

• Extreme event limit state; and

• Service limit state.

The fatigue limit state is generally not used in bridge substructure design
because fatigue generally is only critical for steel elements and because
the mass of the substructures and soil below grade tends to dampen the
effect of repeated short-term loads that produce fatigue failures.
Substructures above grade are generally reinforced concrete, but in some
cases steel bents are used which would be subject to fatigue design.

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Lesson Review

Let's take a moment to review the concepts you learned during this lesson.

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Which limit state is represented that has been caused by
foundation settlement as shown in the photograph?

Which limit state is represented that has been caused by foundation

settlement as shown in the photograph? Photo of sagging section of a
bridge.

a) Strength

b) Service

c) Extreme event

d) Fatigue (not applicable to substructure design)

The correct answer is b) Service.

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Determine which limit state the photograph represents.

Determine which limit state the photograph represents. Photo of a section

of bridge collapsed after being hit by a barge.

a) Strength

b) Service

c) Extreme event

d) Fatigue (not applicable to substructure design)

The correct answer is c) Extreme event.

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Lesson Summary

Now, let’s review the learning outcome for this lesson.

You should now be able to identify the limit states associated with LRFD.

You learned that a limit state is a condition beyond which a structural

component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was designed.
When a structural component fails, it has reached its limit state.

Secondly you should be able to identify each of the four limit states.
Strength limit state is the design boundary condition to avoid the total or
partial collapse of the structure. The extreme event limit state considers
load combinations that represent an unlikely condition. Service limit state is
a design boundary condition for a structure under its intended use and
accounts for acceptable movement of the structure. Fatigue limit state is a
design boundary condition for structural steel components.

The three limit states used in substructure design are strength limit state,
service limit state, and extreme event limit state.

This concludes Lesson 2: LRFD Limit States.

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Lesson Conclusion

If you would like to further review the material covered in this lesson,
please return to the beginning of this lesson.

If you are confident that you understand the learning outcome, please
continue on to the next lesson.

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Lesson 3: LRFD Formulae Design Objectives

Now that you have learned about the LRFD basic equation and limit states,
let’s move on to the third lesson, where you will learn about LRFD formulae
design objectives. At the end of this lesson, you will be able to identify
basic LRFD formulae design objectives for the limit states. This lesson will
take approximately 15 minutes to complete.

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Design Objectives

Let’s begin Lesson 3 by presenting the three design objectives for the
LRFD formulae. These include strength, serviceability, and feasibility.

These design objectives are given in general terms using words, but can
also be expressed in terms of basic formulae using variables and
mathematical functions as presented in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications. Leading research and design engineers developed these
formulae to satisfy each of the design objectives. These are assembled and
presented in design specifications. For highway transportation foundation
and structures, the current primary design specification is AASHTO.

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Design Objectives – Strength

The strength objective states that the structure must have sufficient load-
carrying capacity and provide safe operation for everyone who will use it.

Simply put, public safety is ensured by preventing structural failures. The

design loads acting on a substructure component must not exceed the
strength or resistance provided by the component.

This is accomplished with the development of formulae by introducing

factors that increase or decrease the value of the strength terms within a
given formula. Restating the strength objective, factored loads must not
exceed factored resistance. The LRFD formula is intended solely to provide
sufficient resistance or strength to prevent failure.

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Design Objectives – Serviceability

The serviceability means the structure must have limited motions,

displacements, and vibrations so that it can be comfortably used by the
intended user for the life of the structure.

While the strength design objective is intended to prevent structure failures,

the serviceability criteria established in AASHTO has been developed to
ensure long-term performance and user comfort of structures and their
components. Serviceability can be summarized by asking the question,
“How will the structure perform under normal, everyday conditions?”
Examples of these criteria include limiting displacements to levels deemed
acceptable by the traveling public and ensuring that cracking of prestressed
and reinforced concrete is limited in an effort to minimize spalling of the
concrete and corrosion of the steel reinforcing.

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Design Objectives – Feasibility

The feasibility of the structure is that it must be realistic both in terms of

economy and constructability. In transportation design, feasibility is limited
primarily by economics. A design that accommodates all loads at all times
regardless of the frequency of their presence is by far the most expensive.

The constructability of the design must be feasible and include safety and
serviceability. Durability and consideration for future improvements such as
widening are also considered.

For example, a design that accommodates all loads at all times regardless
of the frequency is by far the most expensive. However, for the LRFD
design method, factors are used to account for occasional loads and
infrequent load combinations, which in turn results in a more economical
design. In addition to cost, issues such as inspection, maintenance, and
potential future uses of structures should be considered in assessing
feasibility.

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Lesson Review

Let's take a moment to review the concepts you learned during this lesson.

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What does the LRFD feasibility objective refer to?

What does the LRFD feasibility objective refer to?

a) Realistic design to accommodate extreme loads

b) Realistic, economical, and constructible design

c) Accounts for a high factor of safety

d) Long-term maintenance and rehabilitation is not recognized

The correct answer is b) Realistic, economical, and constructible design.

60
The serviceability design objective of the LRFD formulae
does not include limiting displacements to acceptable levels.

The serviceability design objective of the LRFD formulae does not include
limiting displacements to acceptable levels.

a) True

b) False

The correct answer is b) False. The serviceability design objective of the

LRFD formulae does include limiting displacements to acceptable levels.
The serviceability design objective of the LRFD formulae is to provide user
comfort and ensure long-term bridge performance.

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What are the three design objectives of LRFD formulae?

What are the three design objectives of LRFD formulae?

a) Feasibility

b) Service

c) Resistance

d) Strength

e) Serviceability

The correct answers are a) Feasibility; d) Strength; and e) Serviceability.

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Lesson Summary

Now, let’s review the learning outcome for this lesson.

You learned to identify the basic LRFD formulae design objectives for the
limit states. These are strength, serviceability, and feasibility.

This concludes Lesson 3: LRFD Formulae Design Objectives.

63
Lesson Conclusion

If you would like to further review the material covered in this lesson,
please return to the beginning of this lesson.

If you are confident that you understand the learning outcome, please
continue on to the next lesson.

64
Lesson 4: Foundation Material Properties and Member
Behavior

Let’s get started with the final lesson in this module, where you will learn
about foundation material properties and member behavior. At the end of
this lesson, you will be able to recognize common substructure materials
and basic mechanical properties.

The focus of this lesson is on the static properties of common substructure

materials so that you will become familiar with the common substructure
materials. Dynamic properties are not covered in this lesson and are
beyond the scope of this course.

This lesson will take approximately 25 minutes to complete.

65
Bridge Materials

Let’s begin this lesson with a discussion of bridge materials. While many
different materials can be used to construct a bridge, the most common
materials used for substructure design and construction are concrete and
steel.

Each of these materials has its own unique physical properties, or

properties related to the intrinsic nature of the material, as well as its own
unique mechanical properties, or properties describing the structural
behavior of the material.

A basic knowledge of these physical and mechanical properties is needed

to select the best application of each material for a bridge substructure and
to understand the basic design formulae.

66
Concrete

Concrete is commonly used in the construction of abutments, wingwalls,

retaining walls, drilled shafts, and piers. The properties of concrete and
their affects in construction are covered on the following screens.

67
Concrete Material Properties

The concrete material properties covered in this lesson are:

• Isotropy;

• Unit Weight;

• Compressive strength;

• Tensile strength; and

• Coefficient of thermal expansion.

Strength, elasticity, and the coefficient of thermal expansion are covered in

more detail in AASHTO 5.4 Material Properties.

This lesson is focused primarily on normal-weight concrete used for

substructures.

View each concrete material property to learn more.

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Isotrophy

Isotropy is a material property in which plain, unreinforced concrete has the

same mechanical properties regardless of the direction in which it is
loaded.

69
Unit Weight

The unit weight of concrete has a typical value of 145 pcf for normal-weight
concrete and can range from 110 pcf to 150 pcf. This range varies
depending on the specific gravity and proportion of fine and course grain
aggregate.

70
Compressive Strength

Depending on the concrete mix, plain, unreinforced concrete has a

compressive strength ranging from about 2.4 ksi to more than 6.0 ksi. The
minimum compressive strength for reinforced concrete and prestressed
concrete application is 2.4 ksi and 4.0 ksi respectively.

AASHTO recommends that the compressive strength be less than or equal

to 10 ksi for normal weight concrete only when allowed by specific articles,
or when tests are made to correlate concrete strength to other properties.

Refer to AASHTO Article 5.4.2.1 for more information.

71
Tensile Strength

Reinforcing steel is added to concrete to create reinforced concrete. The

result is a reinforced concrete that has greater tensile strength than
unreinforced concrete. Tensile strength is calculated at 0.23 times the
square root of the specified compressive strength of concrete, which is in
units of ksi. Refer to AASHTO Article 5.4.2.7 for more information.

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Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Concrete thermal contraction and expansion depends on the degree of

saturation and the types and proportions of aggregates in the concrete mix.
The typical coefficient of thermal expansion is represented by alpha. For
concrete it is 6 times 10 to the negative 6 per degree Fahrenheit. Refer to
AASHTO Article 5.4.2.2 for more information.

73
Why is steel used as reinforcement in concrete?

Why is steel used as reinforcement in concrete?

a) To increase flexibility

b) To increase thermal expansion

c) To increase tensile strength

d) To eliminate shrinkage

The correct answer is c) To increase tensile strength.

74
Concrete Mechanical Properties

The concrete mechanical properties covered in this lesson are:

• Modulus of elasticity;

• Poisson’s ratio;

• Modulus of rupture;

• Creep; and

• Shrinkage.

View each concrete mechanical property to learn more.

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Modulus of Elasticity (Ec)

Concrete has limited ability to deform under load and then return to its
original orientation when load is removed. This is measured as stress
versus strain.

The modulus of elasticity, referred to as E sub c, is equal to 33,000 times

the unit weight of concrete raised to the 1.5 power multiplied by the square
root of the compressive strength of the concrete. Refer to AASHTO Article
5.4.2.4 for more information.

The specified compressive strength of concrete is referred to as f prime sub

c, and the unit weight of concrete is referred to as w sub c. The unit weight
of concrete ranges from 110 pcf to 155 pcf.

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Poisson’s Ratio (ν)

Poisson’s ratio referred to as nu, is the ratio of the lateral and axial strains
of an axially and/or flexurally loaded structure element. Flexurally loaded
refers to a loading perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the structural
element. The typical value for concrete is 0.2. Refer to AASHTO Article
5.4.2.5 for more information.

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Creep

Creep is the continuing, long-term, irreversible deformation under the

application of a sustained load ranging from 100% to 200% of its initial
elastic deformation, depending on time. Also, 100% creep represents no
creep, because deflection after time is the same as initial elastic
deformation. Refer to AASHTO Article 5.4.2.3.2 for more information.

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Modulus of Rupture (fr)

The modulus of rupture for concrete is the tensile strength of concrete in

flexure.

The modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete is 0.24 times the square
root of its specified compressive strength. Refer to AASHTO Article 5.4.2.6
for more information.

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Shrinkage

Concrete typically contains more water than needed in order to achieve the
desired workability. The extra water works its way to the surface of the
cured concrete over time and is evaporated. This causes the concrete to
shrink.

There are two basic types of shrinkage, plastic and drying. Plastic
shrinkage occurs during the first several hours after the concrete has been
placed. It occurs when moisture evaporates from the concrete surface
faster than moisture is restored near the concrete surface by bleed water.
Drying shrinkage occurs after the concrete reaches its final set and a good
portion of the chemical hydration has taken place. The amount of concrete
shrinkage that takes place can vary greatly depending on conditions.

Refer to AASHTO Article 5.4.2.3.3 for more information.

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The concrete modulus of rupture is the tensile strength of
concrete in flexure.

The concrete modulus of rupture is the tensile strength of concrete in

flexure.

a) True

b) False

The correct answer is a) True. The concrete modulus of rupture is the

tensile strength of concrete in flexure.

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Steel

Now that you have learned about concrete, let’s review another common
substructure material, steel. Steel is commonly used in the construction of
bridge substructures in several ways. It is used as pile sections for deep
foundations and free-standing soldier pile walls, as reinforcement for tensile
strength in concrete members, as metallic strips and bar mats for retaining
walls, and as cables and bars for the tie-back component of ground-
anchored walls as shown in the photo.

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Steel Material and Mechanical Properties

The steel material and mechanical properties covered in this lesson are:

• Yield strength and tensile strength;

• Modulus of elasticity;

• Thermal coefficient of expansion; and

• Unit Weight.

View each steel material and mechanical property to learn more.

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Steel Material and Mechanical Properties – Yield Strength
and Tensile Strength

Steel is strong in tension and compression, and its strength varies

depending on the type of steel considered. Typically, for H piles, the
strength of steel is equal to 50 ksi. For pipe piles, the strength of steel
ranges from 30 ksi to 45 ksi. For micropile casing or tubing, the strength of
steel ranges from 35 ksi to 80 ksi. And for reinforcement steel, the strength
of steel is typically equal to 60 ksi. Refer to AASHTO Articles 5.4.3 and
6.4.1 for more information.

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Steel Material and Mechanical Properties – Modulus of
Elasticity

When compared to concrete, steel has a greater ability to deform under a

load and return to its original orientation when the load is removed. The
modulus of elasticity value for steel is high at 29,000 KSI. Refer to
AASHTO article 6.4.1 for more information.

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Steel Material and Mechanical Properties – Thermal
Coefficient of Expansion

The typical thermal coefficient of expansion referred to as alpha, is 6.5

times 10 to the negative six per degree Fahrenheit. Refer to AASHTO
article 6.4.1 for more information. The thermal coefficient of expansion of
steel is similar to concrete and is why reinforced concrete works so well. If
there was a big difference, the reinforced concrete would tear apart when
subjected to temperature change.

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Steel Material and Mechanical Properties – Unit Weight

Steel has a unit weight of 490 pcf. The unit weight of steel is independent
of the other properties if just one value is given.

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Effect of Basic Material Properties on LRFD Formulae

It is important to understand the basic material properties of a material

when designing a bridge substructure. Concrete and steel behave very
differently and have their own advantages and disadvantages.

Whether using concrete or steel, the applied loads acting on a substructure

component must not exceed the strength or resistance provided by the
component.

View each material type to learn more.

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Concrete Advantages

Let’s begin by looking at the advantages of using concrete as construction

material.

• Concrete is abundant and readily available making it an economical

material to use;

• Plain unreinforced concrete has the same mechanical properties

regardless of the direction in which it is loaded;

• The compressive strength of concrete is sufficient for many

applications;

• Concrete has a long life-span and low maintenance requirements;

• Concrete is resistant to decay, high temperature, wind, water,

rodents, and insects; and

• Concrete can be molded or cast into almost any shape which may
help reduce construction costs.

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Concrete Disadvantages

Now you will learn about the disadvantages of using concrete as a

construction material.

• Concrete has a low tensile strength when compared to steel;

• Concrete possesses a low strength to weight ratio;

• Concrete has low ductility which makes it susceptible to cracking; and

• The tensile strength of unreinforced concrete is typically 10% of the

unreinforced concrete compressive strength.

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Steel Advantages

There are many advantages to using steel as a construction material. Steel

has tremendous compressive strength when compared to concrete that can
range between 6 to 20 times the compressive strength of concrete.

Two common methods for improving the tensile resistance of concrete are
to provide reinforcing steel or prestressing steel before the concrete sets.
The steel used by these methods is placed before the concrete sets. With
reinforcing steel, deformed steel bars are placed in the tensile regions of
the concrete to carry the majority of the tensile stresses. This method
increases the ability of the concrete member to resist tension. With
prestressing steel, high-strength, pre-tensioned steel tendons are placed in
the tensile regions of the concrete inducing a permanent compressive
stress that serves to offset some or all of the effects of the tensile stress
developed in service. This method decreases the tensile effect of the
applied load that the member must resist. While reinforcing steel is used
more frequently than prestressing steel, both methods have valuable
applications in the design of bridge substructures.

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Also, the tremendous compressive strength of steel makes steel an ideal
material for piles.

LRFD formulas exist for design with steel.

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Steel Disadvantages

There are some disadvantages to using steel.

• The cost. Steel is generally more expensive than concrete; and

• Steel may require more maintenance than concrete. Exposure to air

and water makes steel susceptible to corrosion.

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Lesson Review

Let's take a moment to review the concepts you learned during this lesson.

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What are the typical unit weights of concrete and steel?

What are the typical unit weights of concrete and steel?

a) Concrete = 490 pcf

b) Concrete = 145 pcf

c) Steel = 490 pcf

d) Steel = 145 pcf

e) None of the above

The correct answers are b) Concrete = 145 pcf; and c) Steel = 490 pcf.

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To prevent structural failure and ensure public safety:

To prevent structural failure and ensure public safety:

a) The applied loads acting on a substructure component must not

exceed the strength or resistance provided by the component

b) Resistance factors must be greater than or equal to 1.0

c) The difference for material properties needs to be accounted for by

elasticity of the material

d) Only steel and concrete should be used

The correct answer is a) The applied loads acting on a substructure

component must not exceed the strength or resistance provided by the
component.

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Lesson Summary

Now, let’s review the learning outcome for this lesson.

You should now be able to describe common substructure materials and

basic mechanical properties.

You learned about the material and mechanical properties of steel and
concrete. You also learned that the tensile strength of unreinforced
concrete is only about 10% of its compressive strength and that adding
reinforcing steel or prestressing steel to it greatly increases its tensile
strength. This is because steel has much greater tensile and compressive
strength than concrete.

This concludes Lesson 4: Foundation Material Properties and Member

Behavior.

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Lesson Conclusion

If you would like to further review the material covered in this lesson,
please return to the beginning of this lesson.

If you are confident that you understand the learning outcome, please
continue on to the Module Summary.

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Conclusion

This module described the LRFD basic equation, limit states, LRFD design
objectives, and foundation materials associated with LRFD.

You should now be able to:

• Define the components of the LRFD basic equation;

• Identify the limit states for LRFD;

• Identify basic LRFD formulae design objectives for the limit states;
and

• Recognize common substructure materials and basic mechanical

properties.

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