Design of Steel Structures

E
Engr. Shahzad
Sh h d Saleem
S l
Lecturer
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila

1
 Design of Steel Structures

Chapter – 1

Fundamentals of Steel Design

2
Basic Design Equation
• In design, the applied forces and moments
due to external loads are equated to the
maximum resistive forces and moments with
a FOS which is always greater than or equal
to one.
• The conceptt may be
Th b summarized
i d by
b the
th
following design equation:

Load Effects X Factor of = Max. Internal Resistance

safet (F.O.S)
safety (F O S) offered
ff d by
b Material
M t i l off
the Structure 3
Basic Design Equation
• Load
L d effects
ff t are defined
d fi d as the th forces,
f
stresses and deformations produced in a
structural component by the applied loads.

• A simply supported beam of span L

subjected to a point load P can be analyzed
to get the maximum bending moment of
PL/4.
PL/4

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Basic Design Equation
• However, this bending moment will only be
produced if the material of the beam is strong
enough to develop the required strength.

• This means that the answer of analysis may

b true
be t f bigger
for bi steel
t l girder
i d but
b t may nott be
b
true for small wooden batten.

5
Factor of Safety
• Factor of safety is required to bring the
structure from the state of collapse to a
usable state. It additionally covers the
f ll i aspects:
following t

1 Uncertainties in applied forces or loads.

1. loads
2. The deflections should be small at service
load conditions.

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Factor of Safety
3. To cover uncertainties in material strength.
4 To
4. T cover, in
i part,
t poor workmanship.
k hi
5. To cover unexpected behavior in case the
theory is not fully developed.
6. To cover natural disasters.
7 The stresses produced during fabrication and
7.
erection.

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Factor of Safety
8. Presence of residual stresses and stress
concentrations.

In case of allowable stress design, the factor

of safety is applied in the form of safety factor
(Ω), while in case of LRFD, it is applied in the
f
form off overload
l d factors
f t and
d the
th resistance
i t
factor (Φ).

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 In name only

Nominal Strength

• Nominal strength (Rn) is defined as the

strength of a structure or component to resist
load effects determined by using formulas
given in the specifications.
g p

9
Types of Design

• Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

(LRFD),
Strength Design or Limit State Design

• Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

• Plastic Design

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1. Load & Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD)
• Major part of FOS is applied on load actions
called overload factor.

• Minor part of FOS is taken on RS of design

equation called resistance factor or capacity
reduction factor (ø).
(ø)

• Resistance factor (ø) is lesser than or equal

to 1.0 and is applied on material strength.

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1 Load & Resistance Factor Design
1.
(LRFD)
• The design equation is checked for each
g and serviceabilityy limit states one-
strength
by-one.

• Limit state is defined as the limiting stage in

the loading after which the structure
cannot fulfill its intended function due to
strength or serviceability considerations.

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1 Load & Resistance Factor Design
1.
(LRFD)
• Analysis of structures for loads is performed
g the structure to be within elastic
considering
range.

• However, inelastic behavior, ultimate failure

modes and redistribution of forces after
elastic range are considered in this method.

• This is more realistic design as compared

with
ith the
th old
ld Allowable
All bl Stress
St D i
Design.
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1 Load & Resistance Factor Design
1.
(LRFD)
• Nominal strength (Rn) is defined as the
strength
g of the structure or its component
p
determined by using formulas given in
specifications.
specifications

• Any particular load effect increased by the

l d factors
load f t i called
is ll d th
the Required
R i d Strength
St th
(Ru).

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1 Load & Resistance Factor Design
1.
(LRFD)
• The nominal strength reduced by the
resistance factor ((ΦRn) is called the Design
g
Strength.

• The design equation in case of LRFD

becomes:

Ru ≤ (ø)Rn

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Advantages of Using LRFD
• LRFD is another tool for steel design,
design which
provides a flexibility of options to the designer
in selecting the design methodology.
• Economical in case dead loads are larger,
larger
compared with live loads.
• Every type of load may be given a different
FOS depending upon its probability of
overload, number of severe occurrences and
changes
h i point
in i t off application.
li ti
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Advantages of Using LRFD
• Behavior
B h i att collapse
ll i l di
including d tilit
ductility,
warning before failure and strain hardening
etc.

This is not directly possible in ASD because

here the structure is considered at service
stage and not approaching close to collapse.

• More safe structures result due to better

awareness of behavior near collapse.
collapse
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Advantages of Using LRFD
• Plastic design concepts may conveniently be
employed in LRFD Method.

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Disadvantages of Using LRFD
• Elastic
El ti behavior
b h i considered
id d forf load
l d analysis
l i
and ultimate plastic behavior taken for
material strengths are not compatible,
however, percentage difference is less.

• Engineers
g experienced
p in ASD have to
become familiar with this technique.

• Old books and design aids become

ineffective.
ineffective
19
Disadvantages of Using LRFD
• Validity of previous designs is still to be
checked according to ASD.

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2. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
• F.O.S
F O S is taken on right side of the basic
design equation. This is denoted by Ω.

Material Resistive Forces

Loads Effects =
FOS

• Allowable strength (Rn/Ω) is defined as the

nominal
i l strength
t th divided
di id d by
b the
th safety
f t factor.
f t

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2. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
• Required
R i d ASD Strength
St th (Ra) is
i the
th load
l d
effect obtained from the service loads without
any additional factor.
• Th design
The d i equation
ti for
f ASD becomes:
b

Ra ≤ Rn/Ω

• This method is now gradually replaced by

LRFD for the structures, where behavior near
collapse is fully understood. 22
2. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
• It is
i still
till preferred
f d by
b some engineers
i f
for
important structures like atomic reactors and
pre-stressed concrete.
• It is
i included
i l d d in
i the
th specifications
ifi ti as an
alternate method of design.

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Advantages of ASD
• Elastic
El ti analysis
l i for
f loads
l d and
d elastic
l ti material
t i l
behavior compatible for the design.
• Senior engineers are used to this method.
• Old famous books are according to this
method.
• Was the only design method in past.
• Is included as alternate design method in
AISC-05
AISC 05 Specifications.
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Disadvantage of ASD
• Latest
L t t research
h and
d literature
lit t i very much
is h
limited.
• Same factor of safety is used for different
loads.
loads
• The failure mode is not directly
yppredicted.
• With some overloading, the material stresses
i
increases b t do
but d nott go to
t collapse.
ll (Th
(The
failure mode cannot be observed).
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Disadvantage of ASD
• The
Th ductility
d tilit and
d warning
i b f
before f il
failure
cannot be studied precisely.
• Results cannot be compared with
e perimental tests up
experimental p to collapse.
collapse

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3. Plastic Design
• It is
i somewhat
h t similar
i il tot the
th LRFD but
b t here
h
the analysis for loads is performed
considering the collapse mechanism of the
structure.
structure

• Full reserve strength due to indeterminacy of

the structure and inner elastic portion of the
structure is utilized.

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3. Plastic Design
• Inelastic
I l ti material
t i l behavior
b h i is i considered
id d ini
the analysis and design.

• Deflections and other serviceability

p
conditions become more important along
g with
the strength requirements.

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DESIGN STRENGTH
• In LRFD, design strength of all elements is
obtained as resistance factor multiplied
p with
maximum stress that can be developed
multiplied
lti li d with
ith sectional
ti l area or section
ti
modulus.
• The design strength is also called the load
capacity, or sometimes only capacity, of a
member.
e be
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DESIGN STRENGTH
• An
A example
l t
to explain
l i th
the diff
difference
between the member capacity and the
applied load is that of a bottle.
• This bottle
Thi b ttl may have
h a fixed
fi d liquid
li id retaining
t i i
capacity of suppose 1 litre.
• However, it may be empty at times meaning
that the amount of liquid retained in it is zero
litres but the capacity of the bottle still
remains the same.
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DESIGN STRENGTH
• Any amount of liquid may be poured in this
bottle that is not exceeding
g 1 litre.
• Similarly, load capacity of a member exists
with a fixed value.
• The applied load may have a different value
with only one condition that the applied load
must be lesser than or equal to the member
capacity for stability.
stability
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 CAPACITY ANALYSIS OF
STRUCTURES
• Knowing the material properties and
di
dimensions
i off the
h member,
b fi di
finding the
h
maximum loads that can be applied on the
member using the design equation is called
Capacity Analysis or Analysis of
St
Structures.
t

32
DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
• Knowing the expected loads and span
lengths of the members in the basic design
equation, finding the required material
properties and cross-sectional dimensions is
called Design of Structures.
• In steel structures, the design mainly consists
of a selection out of already available
sections in the market.

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DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
• Structural Design may be defined as “a
mixture of art and science, combining the
experience and intuitive feeling for the
behavior of the structure with a sound
knowledge of the principles of statics,
dynamics, mechanics off materials, and
structural analysis, to produce a safe
economical structure which will serve its
intended purpose.
purpose ”
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Objectives of Structural Designer
• Design is a process by which an optimum
solution is obtained satisfying certain criteria.
• Minimum cost
• Minimum weight
• Minimum construction time
• Minimum labour
• Maximum efficiency of operation

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Objectives of Structural Designer
• The structural designer must learn to arrange
and proportion the parts of his structures so
that they can be practically erected and will
have sufficient strength and reasonable
economy.

• These important items,

items called safety,
safety cost
and practicability are discussed next:

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Objectives of Structural Designer
1. The structure must safely support the loads
to which it is subjected.
subjected

The deflections and vibrations should not be

so excessive as to frighten the occupants.

2. The designer
g must keep
p the construction,
operation and maintenance costs at the
lowest levels without sacrificing the strength.
strength
37
Objectives of Structural Designer
3. Designers need to understand fabrication
methods and should try to fit their work to the
available fabrication facilities, available
materials and the general construction
practices.

Some designers
g lack in this veryy important
p
aspect and their designs cause problems
d i fabrication
during f b i ti and
d erection.
ti
38
Objectives of Structural Designer
• Designer should learn everything possible
about the detailing,
detailing the fabrication and the
field erection of steel besides the loads,
mechanics, and the expected material
strengths.

• The designer
g must have information
concerning the transportation of the
materials
t i l t
to site,
it l b
labor conditions,
diti
equipment for erection 39
Objectives of Structural Designer
problems at site, field tolerances and the
required
equ ed cclearances
ea a ces a
at the
e ssite.
e
• This knowledge helps to produce reasonable,
practical and economical designs.

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Procedure of the Structural Design
• The structural framework design is the
selection
se ect o oof tthe
eaarrangement
a ge e t a
and
dssizes
es o
of
structural elements so that service loads
may be
b safely
f l carried.
i d

• Structural designer has to complete the

following steps to get a successful design:

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Procedure of the Structural Design
• The general layout of the structures.
• Studies of the possible structural forms that
can be used.
• Consideration of loading conditions.
• Analysis of stresses and deflections,
deflections etc.
etc
• Design of parts.
• Design of assembly and connections.
• Preparation of design drawings.
42
• The above design procedure for a whole
structure requires iterations and the main
steps are listed below:
1 The
1. Th functions
f ti t be
to b performed
f d by
b the
th
structure and the criteria for optimum solution
of the resulting design must be established.
This is referred to as the planning stage.
2. The general layout of the structure is
d id d
decided.
43
3. Different arrangements of various elements
p 1 are
to serve the functions in step
considered.
The possible structural forms that can be
used are studied and an arrangement g
appearing to be best is selected for the first
trial
trial, called preliminary structural
configuration. Only in very rare cases, it has
to be revised later on.
on
44
4. Loading conditions are considered and the
loads to be carried byy the structure are
estimated.

5. Based on the decisions of the earlier steps,

trial selection of member sizes is carried
out depending on thumb rules or assumed
calculations
l l ti t satisfy
to ti f an objective
bj ti criterion,
it i
such as least weight and cost.

45
6. Structural analysis involving modeling the
loads and the structural framework to obtain
internal forces, stresses and deflections is
carried out.
7. All strength and serviceability requirements
along
l with
ith the
th predetermined
d t i d criteria
it i for
f
optimum are checked. If any check is not
satisfied, the member sizes are revised. This
stage is called evaluation of the trial member
sizes.
46
8. Repetition of any part of the above sequence
found necessaryy or desirable as a result of
evaluation is performed in this stage called
redesign.
redesign

9. The rivets, bolts and welds along with other

joining plates and elements are designed.
Th process is
The i termed
t d as the
th design
d i off
assembly and connections.

47
10.It is determined whether or not an optimum
design has been achieved,
achieved and the final
decision is made.

11.Drawings are prepared to show all design

details. An estimate for the required
quantities is also made. This stage of design
is called preparation of design documents.

48
Procedure of the Structural Design
• The important sub-steps in the design of
parts
pa s (s
(step
ep 7 abo
above)
e) a
are
e sshown
o in the
e form
o o of
a flow chart in Fig 1.1
• Objectives of the design must always be kept
in mind while using this flow chart.
chart
• The selection of trial section in step 2
depends on the main objectives, availability
of material,
material construction requirements and
compatibility with other members. 49
 Collect and list all the known data

Select trial section

b
based d on assumed d stresses/
t /
effectiveness of cross-sectional
alternatively, selection tables may be used

Apply all stability checks

Perform strength checks

Perform serviceabilityy checks

Accept section if all checks are

satisfied, other
other-wise
wise revise

Write Final Selection

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Limit State

• Limit state is defined as the stage in the

loading after which the structure cannot
fulfills its intended function due to strength
or serviceability
i bilit considerations.
id ti

• The term limit state is preferred compared

with failure because in most cases of limit
states, the actual failure or collapse does not
occur.
51
Limit State

• Limit states are generally divided into two

categories strength and serviceability.
categories, serviceability

• Strength
g or safety y limit states means
conditions of loading corresponding to
maximum ductile flexural strength (i.e.,(i e
plastic strength), ultimate ductile shear
strength, buckling, fatigue, fracture,
overturning
g and sliding,
g, etc.
52
Limit State

• Serviceability limit states are those

concerned with occupancy of the building,
building
such as the deflection, vibration, permanent
d f
deformation
ti and d cracking.
ki

53
Limit State

• The structure should not cross any strength

or serviceability limit for a perfect design.
design All
the applicable limits are to be checked by
using
i the
th available
il bl procedures.
d

54
End of File

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