LRFD for Highway Bridge Superstructures Chapter 1

Reference Manual Introduction to LRFD

means no longer satisfying the provisions for which it was designed. This is unique
for each limit state and is described further in the following sections.

Not all limit states need to be checked for all structures, and the design engineer
should determine the applicable limit states for a specific bridge. When all
applicable limit states and combinations are satisfied, a structure is deemed
acceptable under the LRFD design philosophy.

Each limit state contains several load combinations, numbered with Roman
numerals. These combinations reflect different load types and different load factors,
based on the intended loading condition and the probability of simultaneous
occurrence of loadings.

For reference, the load factors table presented in AASHTO LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 is
presented in Section 3.9.1.1. In addition, for strength and extreme event limit states,
permanent loads are factored individually as presented in AASHTO LRFD Table
3.4.1-2, which is also presented in Section 3.9.1.1.

1.3.1 General AASHTO LRFD Design Equation

In Section 1.2.2.4, a limited description of the LRFD design equation is presented for
the purpose of comparison with ASD and LFD. Only dead load and live load were
included in the example equation presented in Section 1.2.2.4.

However, this section describes the general AASHTO LRFD design equation, as
presented in AASHTO LRFD and as applicable for all limit states and all load
combinations. The general AASHTO LRFD design equation is expressed as follows:

∑ η γ Q ≤ φR
i i i n = Rr Equation 1.3.1-1
AASHTO LRFD Equation 1.3.2.1-1

where:
ηi = load modifier, relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational
importance
γi = load factor; a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
Qi = force effect
φ = resistance factor; a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal
resistance
Rn = nominal resistance
Rr = factored resistance

Load factors are statistically-based multipliers applied to the force effects, and they
are usually greater than 1.0. Load factors account primarily for the variability of

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