57328-0136147054 App

Appendix A
A.1: |3 − 17| = | − 14| = −(−14) = 14.
A.2: |−3| + |17| = −(−3) + 17 = 3 + 17 = 20.

1 1 1 1
A.3: −0.25 − = − = − − = .
4 2 2 2
A.4: |5| − |−7| = 5 − 7 = −2.
A.5: |(−5)(4 − 9)| = |(−5)(−5)| = |25| = 25.
|−6| 6
A.6: = = 1.
|4| + |−2| 4+2
A.7: | (−3)3 | = |−27| = 27.

√ √ √

A.8: 3 − 3 = 3 − 3 because 3 > 3 .
A.9: According to Mathematica,
π ≈ 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510582097494, whereas
22
≈ 3.14285714285714285714285714285714285714285714285714285714286.
7
Therefore
22
π− < 0, and thus π − 22 = 22 − π.
7 7 7
For a more elegant proof of the inequality, see Miscellaneous Problems 110 and 111 of Chapter 7.
A.10: −|7 − 4| = −(7 − 4) = −3.
A.11: If x < 3 then x − 3 < 0, so in this case |x − 3| = −(x − 3) = 3 − x.
A.12: Given |x − 7| < 1, it follows from the fourth property of absolute value in (3) that −1 < x − 7 < 1,
and thus 6 < x < 8. Therefore
|x − 5| + |x − 10| = (x − 5) + (10 − x) = 5.
A.13: 2x − 7 < −3: 2x < 4; x < 2. Solution set: (−∞, 2).

A.14: 1 − 4x > 2: 4x < 1 − 2; x < − 14 . Solution set: −∞, − 14 .
A.15: 3x − 4 17: 3x 21; x 7. Solution set: [7, +∞).
1920
A.16: 2x + 5 9: 2x 4; x 2. Solution set: (−∞, 2 ].
5
A.17: 2 − 3x < 7: −3x < 5; 3x > −5; x > − 35 . Solution set: − 3 , +∞ .
A.18: 6 − 5x > −9: −5x > −15; 5x < 15; x < 3. Solution set: (−∞, 3).
A.19: −3 < 2x + 5 < 7: −8 < 2x < 2; −4 < x < 1. Solution set: (−4, 1).
A.20: 4 3x − 5 10: 9 3x 15; 3 x 5. Solution set: [ 3, 5 ].
3 11
3 11

A.21: −6 5 − 2x < 2: −11 −2x < −3; 3 < 2x 11; 2 <x 2 . Solution set: 2, 2 .
6
A.22: 3 < 1 − 5x < 7: 2 < −5x < 6; −6 < 5x < −2; − 56 < x < − 25 . Solution set: − 5 , − 25 .
A.23: If |3 − 2x| < 5, then by the fourth property of absolute value in (3) we have −5 < 3 − 2x < 5.
Thus −8 < −2x < 2, and hence −2 < 2x < 8. Therefore −1 < x < 4. So the solution set of the original
inequality is (−1, 4).
A.24: If |5x + 3| 4, then by an extension of the fourth property of absolute value in (3) we have
−4 5x + 3 4. Thus −7 5x 1, and so − 75 x 15 . Thus the solution set of the original inequality is

the interval − 75 , 15 .
A.25: We will find the complement of the solution set—those real numbers not in the solution set—by
solving instead the inequality |1 − 3x| 2. By an extension of the fourth property of absolute value in (3),
we then have −2 1 − 3x 2. It follows that −3 −3x 1, and hence −1 3x 3. So the complement

of the solution set of the original equality is the closed interval − 13 , 1 . Therefore the solution set of the
inequality |1 − 3x| > 2 is (−∞, 13 ) ∪ (1, +∞).
1
A.26: Given: 1 < |7x − 1| < 3. Case 1: 7x − 1 0. This is equivalent to the assertion that x 7;
moreover, the given inequality takes the form 1 < 7x − 1 < 3; that is, 2 < 7x < 4, so that 27 < x < 47 . Hence

the solutions we obtain in Case 1 are the real numbers in the interval 27 , 47 . Case 2: 7x − 1 < 0. This is
equivalent to the assertion that x < 17 ; moreover, the given inequality takes the form 1 < 1 − 7x < 3. Hence
0 < −7x < 2, so that −2 < 7x < 0, and therefore − 72 < x < 0. So the solutions we obtain in Case 2 are the

real numbers in the interval − 27 , 0 . These two cases are exclusive and exhaustive, and so the solution set

of the original inequality is − 27 , 0 ∪ 27 , 47 .
A.27: Given: 2 |4−5x| 4. Case 1: 4−5x 0. This is equivalent to the assertion that x 45 ; moreover,
in this case the original inequality takes the form 2 4 − 5x 4. Thus −2 −5x 0, so that 0 5x 2.

So the solutions we obtain in Case 1 are the real numbers in both of the intervals 0, 25 and −∞, 45 . So

Case 1 contributes the interval 0, 25 to the solution set. Case 2: 4 − 5x < 0. This is equivalent to the
1921
assertion that x > 45 . Also, the original inequality takes the form 2 5x − 4 4; that is, 6 5x 8, so
6
that x 85 . All these numbers satisfy the other condition that x > 45 , and hence Case 2 contributes the
5

interval 65 , 85 to the solution set. Therefore the solution set of the original inequality is 0, 25 ∪ 65 , 85 .
A.28: The given inequality

1
>3 implies that 2x + 1 > 0,
2x + 1
so we may multiply both sides by the denominator without reversing the inequality:
1
1 > 6x + 3; 6x < −2; x<− .
3
But 2x + 1 > 0, so we see also that

1
x>− .
2

Therefore the solution set of the given inequality is the interval − 21 , − 13 .
A.29: The given inequality

2
−5
7 − 3x
implies that the denominator in the fraction is negative, so when we multiply both sides by that denominator
we must reverse the inequality:
37
2 15x − 35; 15x 37; x ≈ 2.466666666667.
15
In addition, we have the condition
7
7 − 3x < 0; 3x > 7; x> ≈ 2.333333333333.
3
7 37

So the original inequality has solution set 3 , 15 .
A.30: The denominator in the given inequality
2
<1
|3x − 4|
is never negative, so when we multiply both sides of the inequality by |3x − 4|, the direction of the inequality
will remain unchanged. Thus
2 < |3x − 4|.
We find the complement of the solution set by solving instead |3x − 4| 2. By an extension of the fourth
property of absolute value in (3), we have
2
−2 3x − 4 2; 2 3x 6; x 2.
3
1922

Therefore the solution set of the original inequality is −∞, 23 ∪ (2, +∞).
1
A.31: If x = 5 then |1 − 5x| > 0, so that
1 1
>0>− ,
|1 − 5x| 3
and if x = 15 then the left-hand side of the given inequality is undefined. Consequently the solution set we

seek is −∞, 15 ∪ 15 , +∞ .
A.32: Given x2 − x − 6 > 0, first factor: (x − 3)(x + 2) > 0. Hence we consider two cases. Case 1: x − 3 > 0
and x + 2 > 0. This is equivalent to the assertion that x > 3 and x > −2, and thus Case 1 contributes the
interval (3, +∞) to the solution set. Case 2: x − 3 < 0 and x + 2 < 0. This is equivalent to the assertion
that x < 3 and x < −2, and so Case 2 contributes the interval (−∞, −2) to the solution set. The cases are
exclusive and exhaustive, and so the solution set of the given quadratic inequality is (−∞, −2) ∪ (3, +∞).
A.33: Given x2 − 2x − 8 > 0, first factor: (x + 2)(x − 4) > 0. Case 1: x > −2 and x > 4, so that x > 4.
Case 2: x < −2 and x < 4, so that x < −2. The cases are exclusive and exhaustive, so the solution set is
(−∞, −2) ∪ (4, +∞).
A.34: Given x2 − 3x + 2 < 0, first factor: (x − 1)(x − 2) < 0. Case 1: x > 1 and x < 2, so that 1 < x < 2.
Case 2: x < 1 and x > 2, so this case contributes no additional solutions. Solution set: (1, 2)
A.35: Given: 4x2 − 8x + 3 0, first factor: (2x − 1)(2x − 3) 0. Case 1: 2x − 1 0 and 2x − 3 0.

1
Then x 2 and x 32 , so that x 32 . Case 2: 2x − 1 0 and 2x − 3 0. Then x 1
2 and x 32 , so that

x 12 . Solution set: −∞, 12 ∪ 32 , +∞ .
A.36: Given: 2x 15 − x2 . Rewrite, then factor: x2 + 2x − 15 0; (x + 5)(x − 3) 0. Case 1: x −5

and x 3, so that x 3. Case 2: x −5 and x 3, so that x −5. Solution set: (−∞, −5 ] ∪ [ 3, +∞).
A.37: Because 100 V 200 and pV = 800, we have
100p 800 200p; p8 and 4 p; 4 p 8.
A.38: If 70 F 90, then
9 9 190 290
70 32 + C 90; 38 C 58; 190 9C 290; C .
5 5 9 9
If you will settle for approximations, 21.111111111111 C 32.222222222223.
A.39: If 25 < R < 50, then
25I < IR < 50I; 25I < 100 < 50I; I < 4 and 2 < I; 2 < I < 4.
1923
A.40: If 3 < L < 4, then
6 L 2
< < ;
64 32 16

1√ L 1√
6 < < 2;
8 32 4

1 √ L 1 √
π 6 < T = 2π < π 2.
4 32 2
If approximations are more useful, 1.923824745241 < T < 2.221441469081 (round down on the left, round
up on the right).
A.41: Suppose that a and b are real numbers such that 0 < a and 0 < b. By the second property in (1),
0 + b < a + b; that is, b < a + b. But 0 < b, so by the first property in (1), 0 < a + b. Therefore the sum of
two positive numbers is positive.
A.42: Suppose that a and b are real numbers such that 0 < a and 0 < b. By the third property in (1),
0 · b < a · b; that is, 0 < ab. Therefore the product of two positive numbers is positive.
A.43: If a and b are both negative, then a < 0, so a · b > 0 · b by the fourth property in (1). Thus ab is
positive. If a is positive and b is negative, then b < 0, so a · b < a · 0 = 0 by the third property in (3). Thus
ab < 0, and hence ab is negative.
A.44: If a < b and a and b are both negative, then a < b < 0. By Problem 43, ab is positive, so
1 1
is positive (else ab · = 1 < 0).
ab ab
Therefore
1 b 1 1
·a < · b; that is, < .
ab ab b a
The proof is similar if a and b are both positive.
A.45: If a, b, and c are real numbers, then
|a + b + c| = |(a + b) + c| |a + b| + |c| |a| + |b| + |c|.
That is, |a + b + c| |a| + |b| + |c|.
A.46: Suppose that a and b are arbitrary real numbers. Then
|a| − |b| = |(a − b) + b| − |b| |a − b| + |b| − |b| = |a − b|.
1924
That is, |a| − |b| |a − b|.
A.47: Suppose first that |a| < b. Then there are two cases. Case 1: a 0. Then a < b and b > 0, so
−b < 0 < a < b, and therefore −b < a < b. Case 2: a < 0. Then −a < b, so b > 0. Thus −b < a < 0 < b,
so that −b < a < b. Therefore if |a| < b, then −b < a < b.
Next suppose that −b < a < b. Again there are two cases. Case 1: a 0. Then a = |a|, and thus |a| < b.
Case 2: a < 0. Then |a| = −a. But from the hypothesis −b < a < b, it follows that
(−1) · (−b) > (−1) · a > (−1) · b, so that − b < −a < b.
Hence −b < |a| < b, and consequently |a| < b.
Therefore |a| < b if and only if −b < a < b.
Appendix B
B.1: Both the segments AB and BC have the same slope 1. So the three given points do lie on a single
straight line.
B.2: Both the segments AB and BC have the same slope − 21 . Therefore the three given points lie on a
single straight line.
B.3: The segment AB has slope −2 but the segment BC has slope − 43 . Thus the three given points do
not lie on a single straight line.
B.4: The segment AB has slope 1 but the segment BC has slope 87 . So the three given points do not lie
on a single straight line.
B.5: Both AB and CD have slope − 12 ; both BC and DA have slope 2. This parallelogram is a rectangle!
B.6: Both AB and CD have slope − 31 ; both BC and DA have slope 23 . This quadrilateral is a parallelo-
gram.
B.7: AB has slope 2 and AC has slope − 21 . Hence triangle ABC has a right angle at the vertex A.
B.8: AB has slope −1 and BC has slope 1. Hence triangle ABC has a right angle at the vertex B.
B.9: The given equation can be put in the form y = 23 x, so the line has slope 2
3 and y-intercept 0.
B.10: The given equation takes the form y = −x + 1, so the line has slope −1 and y-intercept 1.
1925
B.11: The given equation takes the form y = 2x + 3, so the line has slope 2 and y-intercept 3.
B.12: The given equation can be rewritten in the form y = − 34 x + 32 , and consequently the line has slope
− 34 and y-intercept 32 .
B.13: The given equation can be put in the form y = − 52 x+ 35 , and consequently the line with this equation
has slope − 25 and y-intercept 35 .
B.14: x = 7.
B.15: y = −5.
B.16: The points (2, 0) and (0, −3) are on L, so L has slope 32 . It has y-intercept −3, so the slope-intercept
equation of L is
3
y= x − 3.
2
If you don’t care for fractions, you can write the equation of L in the form 3x − 2y = 6.
B.17: The slope of L is 2, so a point-slope equation of L is y − 3 = 2(x − 5); its slope-intercept equation
is y = 2x − 7.
B.18: A point-slope equation of L is y + 4 = 12 (x + 1); its slope-intercept equation is y = 12 x − 72 ; another

equation of L is x − 2y = 7.
B.19: The slope of L is tan 135◦ = −1, so a point-slope equation of L is y − 2 = −(x − 4); another equation
of L is x + y = 6.
B.20: The slope-intercept equation of L is y = 6x + 7.
B.21: The equation 2x + y = 10 can be written in the form y = −2x + 10, so the line with this equation
has slope −2. So a parallel line passing through (1, 5) has point-slope equation y − 5 = −2(x − 1); the
slope-intercept equation of this line is y = −2x + 7.
B.22: The line with equation x + 2y = 17 has slope-intercept equation y = − 12 x + 17

2 , and thus its slope is
− 12 . Every perpendicular line has slope 2, so a point-slope equation of L is y −4 = 2(x+2); its slope-intercept
equation is y = 2x + 8.
B.23: The given line segment has slope 2 and midpoint (1, 6). Hence L has slope − 21 and thus point-slope
equation y − 6 = − 12 (x − 1). Another equation of L is x + 2y = 13.
B.24: The line L1 with equation y = x + 1 has slope 1, so the line L2 through (2, 1) and perpendicular to
L1 has slope −1. Because L2 passes through the point (2, 1), it has point-slope equation y − 1 = −(x − 2);
1926
that is, y = 3 − x. So L1 and L2 meet where 3 − x = x + 1; that is, where x = 1 (and y = 2). Therefore the
√
perpendicular distance from (2, 1) to L1 is the distance between (2, 1) and (1, 2), which is 2 .
B.25: The parallel lines have slope 5, so the line y = − 51 x + 1 is perpendicular to both of them. It meets
20 17
the line y = 5x + 1 at the point (0, 1) and the line y = 5x + 9 at the point − 13 , 13 . The answer is the
distance between the last two points, which is

2 2
20 4 4 √
+ = 26 ≈ 1.56892908110547225539.
13 13 13
B.26: A rough sketch shows that the fourth vertex D must lie in the first quadrant and that D is the
intersection of the lines L1 and L2 , where L1 passes through C and is parallel to AB whereas L2 passes
through A and is parallel to BC. The point-slope equations of L1 and L2 are
1
y − 1 = −6(x − 3) and y−6= (x + 1),
3
respectively. Their simultaneous solution yields D = (2, 7). If the word “consecutive” is omitted from the
statement of Problem 26, then there are two other possibilities for D; they are (−4, 5) and (4, −5).
B.27: With A(−1, 6), B(0, 0), C(3, 1), and D(2, 7) forming the consecutive vertices of the parallelogram,

its diagonals are AC and BD. The midpoint of AC is 1, 72 and the midpoint of BD is the same. Therefore
the diagonals of the parallelogram bisect each other.
B.28: The side AB of the quadrilateral has slope − 43 and so does the opposite side CD. The side BC of
4
the quadrilateral has slope 3 and so does the opposite side AD. Hence ABCD is a parallelogram—in fact,
it is a rectangle. The lengths of the sides AB and BC are

42 + 32 = 5 and 32 + 42 = 5,
1
respectively, so ABCD is a rhombus (in fact, it’s a square). The diagonal AC of the rhombus has slope 7
and the other diagonal BD of the rhombus has slope −7. Therefore AC and BD are perpendicular to each
other.
5
B.29: The midpoint of AB is P 2, 3 and the midpoint of BC is Q(5, 4). The slope of P Q is 25 , the same
as the slope of AC, and hence P Q is parallel to AC.
B.30: The midpoint of BC is Q(5, 4), so the line containing A(2, 1) and Q has equation y = x − 1.
The other two medians lie on the lines y = 3 and y = −2x + 11 (obtained in much the same way). The
simultaneous solution (4, 3) of the last two equations also satisfies the first equation, and therefore the
medians of the triangle do meet in a single point.
1927
B.31: The slope of P1 M is
y1 − y y1 − 12 (y1 + y2 ) 2y1 − y1 − y2 y1 − y2
= 1 = = ,
x1 − x x1 − 2 (x1 + x2 ) 2x1 − x1 − x2 x1 − x2
and the slope of M P2 is the same.
x0
B.32: The slope of the tangent line is − , so it has equation
y0
x0
y − y0 = − (x − x0 ); y0 y − (y0 )2 = −x0 x + (x0 )2 ; x0 x + y0 y = (x0 )2 + (y0 )2 = r2 .
y0
B.33: Because F and K satisfy a linear equation, K = mF + b for some constants m and b. From the
data given in the statement of the problem, we find that
273.16 = 32m + b and
373.16 = 212m + b.
5
Subtraction of the first equation from the second yields 180m = 100, so that m = . Then the first
9
equation here yields
160 6829 160 57461

273.16 = + b, so that b= − = ≈ 255.382222222222.
9 25 9 225
1
Therefore K = (125F + 57461) provided that F > −459.688.
225
B.34: Because of the linear relationship between L and C, there exist constants m and b such that
L = mC + b. The data given in the statement of the problem then yield
124.942 = 20m + b and 125.134 = 110m + b. (1)
Subtraction of the first of these equations from the second yields 90m = 0.192, so that
192 4
m= = ≈ 0.002133333333.
90000 1875
Then substitution of this value of m in the first equation in (1) yields
80 62471 16 187349
124.942 = + b, so that b= − = ≈ 124.899333333333.
1875 500 375 1500
Thus L ≈ (0.00213333)C + 124.89933333.
B.35: If s denotes weekly sales in gallons and p the selling price per gallon, then s = mp + b for some
constants m and b. From the data given in the statement of the problem, we have
980 = (1.69)m + b and 1220 = (1.49)m + b. (1)
1928
Subtract the second of these equations from the first to find that
(0.20)m = −240, so that m = −1200.
Then substitution of this value of m in the first equation in (1) yields
980 = −2028 + b, and thus b = 3008.
Therefore s = s(p) = −1200p + 3008. At $1.56 per gallon one would expect to sell s(1.56) = 1136 gallons
per week.
B.36: We begin with the equations given in the problem,
17x − 10y = 57 and 25x − 15y = 17. (1)
Multiply the first of these equations by 3 and the second by 2 to obtai
51x − 30y = 171,
50x − 30y = 34.
Subtract the second equation from the first to obtain x = 137. Substitute this value of x in the first equation
in (1) to obtain 2329 − 10y = 57, so that y = 227.2. Hence the two lines are not parallel; they cross at the
point (137, 227.2).
B.37: Given the simultaneous equations
2x + 3y = 5,
2x + 5y = 12,
the Mathematica command
Solve[ { 2∗x + 3∗y == 5, 2∗x + 5∗y == 12 }, { x, y } ]
11 7
yields the exact solution x = − , y= .
4 2
41 19
B.38: x = , y=− .
34 34
37 1
B.39: x = , y=− .
6 2
25 3
B.40: x = , y= .
4 2
1929
22 1
B.41: x = , y=− .
5 5
12 41
B.42: x = − , y= .
5 5
7 33
B.43: x = − , y= .
4 8
1 11
B.44: x = , y= .
6 6
119 19
B.45: x = , y=− .
12 4
59 12
B.46: x = , y=− .
11 11
B.47: If (x1 , y1 ) is a point of the plane not on the line L, then the line segment with endpoints (x0 , y0 )
and (x1 , y1 ) cannot have slope m. Therefore the equation y1 − y0 = m(x1 − x0 ) cannot hold.
Appendix C
π 2
C.1: 40 · = π (rad).
180 9
π 3
C.2: −270 · =− π (rad).
180 2
π 7
C.3: 315 · = π (rad).
180 4
π 7
C.4: 210 · = π (rad).
180 6
π 5
C.5: −150 · =− π (rad).
180 6
π 180
C.6: · = 18◦ .
10 π
2π 180
C.7: · = 72◦ .
5 π
180
C.8: 3π · = 540◦ .
π
15π 180
C.9: · = 675◦.
4 π
23π 180
C.10: · = 69◦ .
60 π
1930
π
C.11: If x = − , then the values of the six trigonometric functions are given in the following table.
3
sin x cos x tan x sec x csc x cot x

√ √ √
3 1 √ 2 3 3
− − 3 2 − −
2 2 3 3
3π
C.12: If x = , then the values of the six trigonometric functions are given in the following table.
4

√ √
2 2 √ √
− −1 − 2 2 −1
2 2
7π
6

√ √ √
1 3 3 2 3 √
− − − −2 3
2 2 3 3
5π
3

√ √ √
3 1 √ 2 3 3
− − 3 2 − −
2 2 3 3
C.15: Solutions: x = nπ where n is an integer.
π
C.16: Solutions: x = 2nπ + where n is an integer.
2
π
C.17: Solutions: x = 2nπ − where n is an integer.
2
π
C.18: Solutions: x = nπ + where n is an integer.
2
C.19: Solutions: x = 2nπ where n is an integer.
C.20: Solutions: x = 2nπ + π where n is an integer.
C.21: Solutions: x = nπ where n is an integer.
π
C.22: Solutions: x = nπ + where n is an integer.
4
π
C.23: Solutions: x = nπ − where n is an integer.
4
1931
C.24: Draw a right triangle with acute angle x and label the side opposite x as −3, the side adjacent x as
−4, and the hypotenuse as 5. Then the values of the six trigonometric functions at x can be read from this
triangle. The results appear in the next table.

3 4 3 5 5 4
− − − −
5 5 4 4 3 3
C.25: Draw a right triangle with acute angle x and label the side opposite x as −3, the side adjacent x as
4, and the hypotenuse as 5. Then the values of the six trigonometric functions at x can be read from this
triangle. The results appear in the next table.

3 4 3 5 5 4
− − − −
5 5 4 4 3 3
C.26: Begin with the identity cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1:
cos2 θ sin2 θ 1
+ = ;
cos2 θ cos2 θ cos2 θ
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ.
C.27: Begin with the identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1:
sin2 θ cos2 θ 1
2 + 2 = ;
sin θ sin θ sin2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ.
C.28: First,
sin(x + y) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
tan(x + y) = = .
cos(x + y) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
Then divide each term in the numerator and the denominator by cos x cos y:
tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) = .
1 − tan x tan y
For these computations to be valid, we need to know that neither cos x = 0 nor cos y = 0, so that neither
x nor y may be an odd integral multiple of π/2. We also require that tan x tan y = 1 and, of course, that
x + y is also not an odd integral multiple of π/2.
C.29: The sine addition formula yields

π √
5π π π π π π 1 3 1
sin = sin + = sin · cos + cos · sin =1· + 0· = .
6 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2
1932
C.30: The cosine addition formula yields
√ √
7π π π π 3 1 3
cos = cos π + = (cos π) · cos − (sin π) · sin =− +0· =− .
6 6 6 6 2 2 2

√
11π π π π 3 1 1
sin = sin 2π − = (sin 2π) · cos − (cos 2π) · sin =0· −1· =− .
6 6 6 6 2 2 2
C.32: By the cosine addition formula,
19π π π π
cos = cos 3π + = (cos 3π) · cos − (sin 3π) · sin
6 6 6 6
√ √
π π 3 1 3
= (cos π) · cos − (sin π) · sin =− +0· =− .
6 6 2 2 2
C.33: By the sine addition formula,

π π √ √
2π π π π π 3 1 3
sin = sin + = sin · cos + cos · sin =1· +0· = .
3 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 2 2

√
4π π π π 1 3 1
cos = cos π + = (cos π) · cos − (sin π) · sin =− −0· =− .
3 3 3 3 2 2 2

√ √
5π π π π 1 3 3
sin = sin 2π − = (sin 2π) · cos − (cos 2π) · sin =0· −1· =− .
3 3 3 3 2 2 2

10π 10π 6π 4π
cos = cos − = cos .
3 3 3 3
Now apply the result in Problem 34.
C.37: Part (a):

π π π
cos − θ = cos · cos θ + sin · sin θ = 0 · cos θ + 1 · sin θ = sin θ.
2 2 2
Part (b):
π π π
sin − θ = sin · cos θ − cos · sin θ = 1 · cos θ − 0 · sin θ = cos θ.
2 2 2
1933
Part (c): We use the results in parts (a) and (b).
π

π cos−θ sin θ
cot −θ = π2 = = tan θ.
2 sin −θ cos θ
2
sin(π ± θ) = sin π cos θ ± cos π sin θ = 0 · cos θ ± (−1) · sin θ = ∓ sin θ.
cos(π ± θ) = cos π cos θ ∓ sin π sin θ = (−1) · cos θ ∓ 0 · sin θ = − cos θ.
C.40: We will use the results in Problems 38 and 39.
sin(π ± θ) ∓ sin θ
tan(π ± θ) = = = ± tan θ.
cos(π ± θ) − cos θ
C.41: Because AC and BD have the same length, we use the distance formula and obtain the equation
(cos φ − cos θ)2 + (sin φ + sin θ)2 = [1 − cos(θ + φ)]2 + [0 − sin(θ + φ)]2 ;
cos2 φ − 2 cos φ cos θ + cos2 θ + sin2 φ + 2 sin φ sin θ + sin2 θ
= 1 − 2 cos(θ + φ) + cos2 (θ + φ) + sin2 (θ + φ);
2 − 2 cos φ cos θ + 2 sin φ sin θ = 2 − 2 cos(θ + φ);
cos(θ + φ) = cos φ cos θ − sin φ sin θ.
C.42: Part (a): Suppose that P is the point with coordinates (cos θ, sin θ) and that Q is the point with

coordinates cos(θ + 12 π), sin(θ + 12 π) . By the congruent triangles in the figure, Q also has coordinates
(− sin θ, cos θ). Therefore
π π
sin θ + = cos θ and cos θ + = − sin θ.
2 2
Part (b): Using both formulas derived in part (a), we find that
π π π
sin(θ + φ) = − cos θ + φ + = − (cos θ) · cos φ + + (sin θ) · sin φ +
2 2 2
= sin φ cos θ + cos φ sin θ = sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ.
1934
C.43: Let u = sin x. Then
√
2 2 2 3
3u − 1 + u = 2; 4u = 3; sin x = u = ± .
2
π 2π
Thus the solutions in [0, π ] are x = and x = .
3 3

√
2 2 2 2 1 2
u =1−u ; 2u = 1; u = ; sin x = u = ± .
2 2
π 3π
4 4
2(1 − u2 ) + 3u2 = 3; u2 = 1; sin x = u = ±1.
π
The only solution in [0, π ] is x = .
2
C.46: Let u = cos x. Then
1
2(1 − u2 ) + u = 2; 2u2 − u = 0; u(2u − 1) = 0; cos x = u = or cos x = u = 0.
2
π π
3 2
C.47: If 8 sin2 x cos2 x = 1, then:

√
2 1
2 2
sin x cos x = ; sin x cos x = ± ;
8 4
√ √
2 2
2 sin x cos x = ± ; sin 2x = ± ;
2 2
π 3π 5π 7π π 3π 5π 7π
2x = , , , ; x= , , , .
4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8
C.48: Let u = cos θ. Then
1
2u2 − 1 − 3u = −2; 2u2 − 3u + 1 = 0; (2u − 1)(u − 1) = 0; u= or u = 1.
2
π
Therefore the solutions in [0, π ] are θ = and θ = 0.
3
1935
Appendix D
D.1: Given " > 0, let δ = ". Suppose that 0 < |x − a| < δ. Then |x − a| < ". Therefore
lim x = a.
x→a
D.2: Given " > 0, let δ = "/3. Suppose that 0 < |x − 2| < δ. Then |3x − 6| < 3δ = ". Therefore
lim 3x = 6.
x→2
D.3: Given " > 0, let δ = ". Suppose that 0 < |x − 2| < δ. Then |(x + 3) − 5| < δ = ". Therefore
lim (x + 3) = 5.
x→2
D.4: Given " > 0, let δ = "/2. Suppose that 0 < |x − (−3)| < δ. Then |2x + 6| < 2δ, and thus
|(2x + 1) − (−5)| < ". Therefore, by definition,
lim (2x + 1) = −5.

x→−3
D.5: Given " > 0, let δ be the minimum of 1 and "/3. Suppose that 0 < |x − 1| < δ. Then |x − 1| < 1;
consequently,
−1 < x − 1 < 1;
1 < x + 1 < 3;
|x + 1| < 3.
Moreover, if |x − 1| < δ then |x − 1| < "/3. Hence
"
|x2 − 1| = |x + 1| · |x − 1| < 3 · = ".
3
Therefore, by definition, lim x2 = 1.

x→1
D.6: Case 1: a > 0. Given " > 0, let δ be the minimum of 3a and "/(5a). If 0 < |x − a| < δ, then
|x − a| < 3a;
−3a < x − a < 3a;
−a < x + a < 5a;
|x + a| < 5a.
1936
Moreover, if |x − a| < δ, then |x − a| < "/(5a). Hence
"
|x2 − a2 | = |x + a| · |x − a| < 5a · = ".
5a
Therefore, by definition, lim x2 = a2 if a > 0.

x→a
Case 2: a < 0. The argument is similar to the argument in Case 1.
Case 3: a = 0. Given " > 0, choose δ to be the minimum of 1 and ". If 0 < |x − 0| < δ, then
|x2 − 02 | = x2 < |x| (because |x| < 1). Hence
|x2 − 02 | < |x − 0| < δ ".
Therefore, by definition, lim x2 = a2 if a = 0.

x→a
D.7: Given " > 0, let δ be the minimum of 1 and "/6. Suppose that 0 < |x − (−1)| < δ. Then |x + 1| < δ,
and so
|x + 1| < 1; −1 < x + 1 < 1; −3 < x − 1 < −1 < 3; |x − 1| < 3.
Hence
"
|(2x2 − 1) − 1| = 2|x − 1| · |x + 1| < 2 · 3 · = ".
6
Therefore, by definition, lim (2x2 − 1) = 1.

x→−1
1 1 3
D.8: Case 1: a > 0. Given " > 0, choose δ to be the minimum of 2a and 10 a ". Suppose that
0 < |x − a| < δ. Then
a a a a 3a
|x − a| < ; − <x−a< ; <x< .
2 2 2 2 2
Hence x > 0 and ax > 0. Moreover,
3a 5a 5a
<x+a< , so that |x + a| < .
2 2 2
1 3
Finally, recall that |x − a| < δ 10 a ". Therefore
5a a3 "
|x − a| · |x + a| < · ;
2 10
a4
|x2 − a2 | < ".
4
We showed earlier that x > 12 a. Hence x2 > 14 a2 . So a2 x2 > 14 a4 . Therefore
|x2 − a2 | 4 a4
< · " = ";
a2 x2 a4 4
1937
that is,
1 1
− < ".
x2 a2
1 1
Therefore lim 2
= 2 provided that a > 0.
x→a x a
Case 2: a < 0. The proof in this case is very similar; the major change is to let δ be the minimum of − 12 a
1 3
and − 10 a ".
D.9: Case 1: a > 0. Let " > 0 be given. Choose

a (a2 + 1)(a2 + 4)
δ = min , " .
2 10a
Suppose that 0 < |x − a| < δ. Then
a a a a 3a
|x − a| < ; − <x−a< ; <x< .
2 2 2 2 2
Therefore x > 0 and x + a > 0. In addition,
3a 5a 5a
<x+a< ; |x + a| < .
2 2 2
Also
a2 9a2 a2 a2 + 4 (a2 + 1)(a2 + 4)

< x2 < ; x2 > ; x2 + 1 > ; (x2 + 1)(a2 + 1) > .
4 4 4 4 4
Consequently,

1 1 |x2 − a2 | |x − a| · |x + a| 5a 4

x2 + 1 a2 + 1 = |(x2 + 1)(a2 + 1)| = (x2 + 1)(a2 + 1) < 2 · (a2 + 1)(a2 + 4) · δ
−
10a 10a (a2 + 1)(a2 + 4)

= · δ · · " = ".
(a2 + 1)(a2 + 4) (a2 + 1)(a2 + 4) 10a
1 1
Therefore lim = 2 if a > 0.
x→a x2 +1 a +1
Case 2: a < 0. The proof is similar to the one given in Case 1.
Case 3: a = 0. In this case we are to show that
1
lim = 1. (1)
x→0 x2 +1
√
Given " < 0, let δ = " . Suppose that 0 < |x − 0| < δ. Then x2 < ". Therefore

1 x2 x2
− 1 = 2
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 = x2 + 1 < x < ".
1938
This establishes Eq. (1).
D.10: The desired inequality

1
√ − √1 < "
x a
√ √ √
follows from | a − x | < " ax , and we keep x from becoming negative or zero (or too close to zero) by
1 3 1
requiring that 2a <x< 2 a.
We ensure this by requiring that δ < 2 a, as in the solutions to Problems 8
√ √ √
and 9. We can obtain the inequality | a − x | < " ax from
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
a + x · a − x < " ax a + x ;
that is,
√ √ √
|x − a| < " ax a + x .
We can accomplish this if we can establish that
√ √ √
δ < " ax a + x ,
and this can be assured by choosing δ < 34 a3/2 ". Therefore choose

a 3a3/2 "
δ = min , .
2 5
D.11: Given " > 0, note that "/2 is also positive. Choose δ1 so that
"
|f (x) − L| < if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 ;
2
choose δ2 so that
"
|f (x) − M | < if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 .
2
Then for such x we have

" "
|L − f (x)| + |f (x) − M | < + = ",
2 2
so by the triangle inequality

|L − M | = |L − f (x) + f (x) − M | < ".
Thus L and M differ by an amount smaller than any positive real number. Therefore L = M .
D.12: There is no problem if C = 0. (Given " > 0, choose δ = 1.) Suppose that C = 0. Given " > 0, there
exists δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then
"
|f (x) − L| < .
|C |
1939
It follows that
|Cf (x) − CL| = |C | · |f (x) − L| < ".
Therefore lim C · f (x) = C · L.

x→a
D.13: We treat only the case L > 0; the case L < 0 is quite similar. Let " > 0 be given. Choose δ > 0 so
small that
L L2 "
|f (x) − L| < and |f (x) − L| <
2 2
if 0 < |x − a| < δ. Then
L L L 3L
− < f (x) − L < , so that < f (x) < ;
2 2 2 2
moreover, f (x) > 0. Also
L2 1 2
< L · f (x), and hence < 2.
2 |L · f (x)| L
Therefore, if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then

1 1 |f (x) − L| 2 L2 "
−
f (x) L = |L · f (x)| < L2 · 2 = ".
1 1
Consequently lim = .
x→a f (x) L
D.14: We treat only the case a > 0; the case a < 0 is similar and the case a = 0 is trivial. Let " > 0 be
given and suppose that n is an integer and n 2 (the case n = 1 is Problem 1). Let

a 2n−1 "
δ = min , .
2 n · 3n−1 an−1
a a a a 3a
|x − a| < ; − <x−a< ; <x< .
2 2 2 2 2
Therefore x > 0; moreover,
an−1 n−3 2 3n−1 an−1

n· < xn−1
+ xn−2
a + x a + · · · + a n−1
< n · .
2n−1 2n−1
Hence if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then
3n−1 an−1 2n−1 "

|xn − an | = |x − a| · |xn−1 + xn−2 a + xn−3 a2 + · · · + an−1 | < n · · = ".
2 n−1 n · 3n−1 an−1
Therefore lim xn = an .
x→a
1940
D.15: Suppose that a > 0 and let " > 0 be given. Let
a √
δ = min , " 2a .
2
a a 3a
|x − a| < , so that <x< ;
2 2 2
moreover, x > 0. Hence

a √ 3a
< x < ;
2 2

a √ √ √ 3a √
+ a < x + a < + a;
2 2
1 1 1
√ √ < < √ .
x + a a √ 2a
+ a
2
So if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then

√
√ √ |x − a| |x − a| " 2a
| x − a| = √ √ < √ √ = ".
| x + a| 2a 2a
√ √
Therefore lim x = a if a > 0.
x→a
1
D.16: Suppose that f (x) → f (a) > 0 as x → a. Let " = 2 f (a). Then " > 0. Choose δ > 0 sufficiently
small that if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then
1
|f (x) − f (a)| < " = f (a).
2
Then
1 1
− f (a) < f (x) − f (a) < f (a),
2 2
and it follows immediately that

1
0 < f (a) < f (x)
2
if x is in the interval (a − δ, a + δ).
Appendix G
G.1: The limit is 1

1
1 3 1
x2 dx = x = .
0 3 0 3
1941
3 3
2
G.2: The limit is 8x dx = 4x = 36 − 4 = 32.
−1 −1
2
2
1 2 3/2 8
G.3: The limit is x 4 − x dx = − (4 − x )
2 = .
0 3 0 3
3
3
x
G.4: The limit is √ dx = 16 + x2 = 5 − 4 = 1.
0 16 + x2 0
π/2 π/2
1 1
G.5: The limit is sin x cos x dx = sin2 x = .
0 2 0 2
π
π
G.6: The limit is sin2 x + cos2 x dx = 1 dx = π.
0 0
G.7: The limit is

2
2 2
2 3 1/2 2 2 52
4 7
x + x dx = x (1 + x ) dx = (1 + x3 )3/2 = (27 − 1) = ≈ 5.7777777777777778.
0 0 9 0 9 9
G.8: Take
2
g(x) = 2πf (x) and h(x) = 1 + f (x)
in Theorem 1. Then

n
2 b 2
2πf (x
i ) 1 + f (xi ) ∆x → A = 2πf (x) 1 + f (x) dx
i=1 a
by Theorem 1.
2
G.9: Take G(y) = 2πy and H(y) = 1 + g (y) in Theorem 1. Then

n
2 d 2
2πyi 1 + g (yi ) ∆y → A = 2πy 1 + g (y) dy
i=1 c
by Theorem 1.
1942

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Appendix A

A.1: |3 − 17| = | − 14| = −(−14) = 14.

A.2: |−3| + |17| = −(−3) + 17 = 3 + 17 = 20.

A.4: |5| − |−7| = 5 − 7 = −2.

A.5: |(−5)(4 − 9)| = |(−5)(−5)| = |25| = 25.

A.7: | (−3)3 | = |−27| = 27.

A.9: According to Mathematica,

A.10: −|7 − 4| = −(7 − 4) = −3.

A.11: If x < 3 then x − 3 < 0, so in this case |x − 3| = −(x − 3) = 3 − x.

A.13: 2x − 7 < −3: 2x < 4; x < 2. Solution set: (−∞, 2).

A.15: 3x − 4 17: 3x 21; x 7. Solution set: [7, +∞).

A.20: 4 3x − 5 10: 9 3x 15; 3 x 5. Solution set: [ 3, 5 ].

A.28: The given inequality

But 2x + 1 > 0, so we see also that

A.29: The given inequality

In addition, we have the condition

A.30: The denominator in the given inequality

A.35: Given: 4x2 − 8x + 3 0, ﬁrst factor: (2x − 1)(2x − 3) 0. Case 1: 2x − 1 0 and 2x − 3 0.

A.36: Given: 2x 15 − x2 . Rewrite, then factor: x2 + 2x − 15 0; (x + 5)(x − 3) 0. Case 1: x −5

A.37: Because 100 V 200 and pV = 800, we have

100p 800 200p; p8 and 4 p; 4 p 8.

A.38: If 70 F 90, then

If you will settle for approximations, 21.111111111111 C 32.222222222223.

A.39: If 25 < R < 50, then

The proof is similar if a and b are both positive.

A.45: If a, b, and c are real numbers, then

|a + b + c| = |(a + b) + c| |a + b| + |c| |a| + |b| + |c|.

That is, |a + b + c| |a| + |b| + |c|.

A.46: Suppose that a and b are arbitrary real numbers. Then

|a| − |b| = |(a − b) + b| − |b| |a − b| + |b| − |b| = |a − b|.

(−1) · (−b) > (−1) · a > (−1) · b, so that − b < −a < b.

Hence −b < |a| < b, and consequently |a| < b.

Therefore |a| < b if and only if −b < a < b.

B.18: A point-slope equation of L is y + 4 = 12 (x + 1); its slope-intercept equation is y = 12 x − 72 ; another

B.20: The slope-intercept equation of L is y = 6x + 7.

B.22: The line with equation x + 2y = 17 has slope-intercept equation y = − 12 x + 17

and the slope of M P2 is the same.

273.16 = 32m + b and

160 6829 160 57461

124.942 = 20m + b and 125.134 = 110m + b. (1)

Then substitution of this value of m in the ﬁrst equation in (1) yields

Thus L ≈ (0.00213333)C + 124.89933333.

980 = (1.69)m + b and 1220 = (1.49)m + b. (1)

(0.20)m = −240, so that m = −1200.

Then substitution of this value of m in the ﬁrst equation in (1) yields

980 = −2028 + b, and thus b = 3008.

B.36: We begin with the equations given in the problem,

17x − 10y = 57 and 25x − 15y = 17. (1)

Multiply the ﬁrst of these equations by 3 and the second by 2 to obtai

51x − 30y = 171,

50x − 30y = 34.

B.37: Given the simultaneous equations

the Mathematica command

Solve[ { 2∗x + 3∗y == 5, 2∗x + 5∗y == 12 }, { x, y } ]

sin x cos x tan x sec x csc x cot x

sin x cos x tan x sec x csc x cot x

sin x cos x tan x sec x csc x cot x

sin x cos x tan x sec x csc x cot x

C.15: Solutions: x = nπ where n is an integer.

C.19: Solutions: x = 2nπ where n is an integer.

C.20: Solutions: x = 2nπ + π where n is an integer.

C.21: Solutions: x = nπ where n is an integer.

sin x cos x tan x sec x csc x cot x

G.1: The limit is 1