Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 6 (2022) 100273

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Case Report

Pyrolytic fuel extraction from tire and tube: Analysis of parameters on

product yield
Md Hasan Ali a, *, Md Nawsher Ali Moral b
a
Department of Energy Science and Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, 9203, Bangladesh
b
Faculty of Science and Technology, North Western University, Khulna, 9100, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The increasing disposal of waste tires and tubes represent a major environmental problem since they are non-
Bicycle/rickshaw waste tire biodegradable and require bulk storage space for open dumping. However, significant heating value, low ash
Bicycle/rickshaw waste tube content makes them a valuable source of energy. Pyrolysis is an environmentally friendly thermochemical
Pyrolysis
process which produce useful products (oil, char, and gas) from solid wastes. The main purpose of this paper is to
Fixed bed heating reactor
produce pyrolysis oil from waste tire and tube of bicycle/rickshaw by using lab scale fixed-bed internally heating
Product yields
Pyrolysis liquid properties reactor. Experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of reaction temperature (300–600 ◦ C), feed size
(0.5–2.0 cm3) and pyrolysis reaction time on the pyrolysis product yields. Moreover, the physiochemical
properties of obtained oil also been discussed. The maximum liquid yield from the waste tire was 45.29 wt% at
temperature of 450 ◦ C with optimum sample size 1.5 cm3 and reaction time of 39 minute, while for tube py­
rolysis, the maximum yields of liquid was 43.89 wt% at temperature of 550 ◦ C with sample size of 2.0 cm3 and
reaction time of 38 minute. The pyrolysis of waste tube, which is new in this study, the maximum liquid pro­
duced (43.89 wt%) is comparable with the maximum liquid yield (45.29 wt%) from tire pyrolysis. GCV obtained
for tire and tube pyrolysis oil are 39.78 MJ/kg and 39.17 MJ/kg, respectively. Physiochemical properties of
derived oil are comparable with that of commercial diesel fuel, and this obtained oil can be used as an alternative
fuel in engine after proper treatment.

1. Introduction billion waste tires are in stockpile and landfills [12].

Due to the continuous growth of world population, fast industriali­
zation, and to build a better quality of life for a nation’s people, the
global energy demand sharply increasing every day [1–3]. Even though
the demand of renewable energy sources is increasing gradually around
the world [4] due to the rapid depletion of fossil fuels [5,6], currently,
the world’s primary energy sources are fossil fuels including coal, oil,
natural gas, and peat [7]. The heavy reliance on fossil fuels, especially
burning fossil fuels emits greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO2 and
nitric oxide, has raised growing concerns about the environmental
consequences [8]. CO2 is the main GHGs which is demonstrated for
increasing global warming, led to potential changes in global climate
and serious environmental issue [9]. Global CO2 emissions have been
predicted to rise by 28% by 2030 [9] and by 36% by 2040 [10].
Moreover, the increase of world population and rapid industrialization
have led to increase the use of road vehicles [11]. Worldwide annual tire
production for vehicles is 1.5 billion and at present approximately 4
Due to the growing trend of waste tire from road vehicles, the
disposal of stockpile of waste tires are increasing rapidly, which in­
creases the CO2 emissions [12,13]. The waste tires are
non-biodegradable and pose a threat to the environmental degradation
[1,11] and harmful for human health if not handled properly [14]. One
common way of disposal of waste tire is open dumping in landfill, which
is expensive, degrade the environment, increase the global worming
[15,16], it needs a considerable amount of space and stockpiles of waste
tire is a potential danger because of the possibility of accidental fires
with high emissions of hazardous gases which are severe for environ­
ment and human health [17,18]. Moreover, different techniques are
used for tire and tube recycling such as retreading, reclaiming, incin­
eration, grinding, etc. which have significant drawbacks and limitations
[19]. A possible sustainable and pollution-free solution to overcome
waste tire problem is pyrolysis of waste tires to produced useful products
of oil, char, and gas [12].
Pyrolysis is an interesting and challenging technology of recycling

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hasan@ese.kuet.ac.bd (M.H. Ali), drnali07@yahoo.com (M.N.A. Moral).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2022.100273
Received 7 September 2022; Received in revised form 11 November 2022; Accepted 13 November 2022
Available online 19 November 2022
2666-0164/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M.H. Ali and M.N.A. Moral Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 6 (2022) 100273

the organic solid waste with huge potential to produce of valuable vapor-solid interactions (secondary reactions) [34]. In the secondary
petrochemical products, is eco-friendly [20], will reduce GHG emission reactions at low heating rate, the temperature is not sufficiently high to
[21]. The process involves a thermo-chemical decomposition of organic cause complete decomposition of the lignin components of tire and
solid waste material heating at a temperature between 300–900 ◦ C in an liquid (lignin) compounds deposit on the surface of the char [35].
oxygen free atmosphere and resulting major products are oil, solid char Therefore, the solid residue (char yield) be higher due to conversion of
and gases [22,23]. However, optimum temperatures have been found liquid compounds into char [35–37].
between 400–600 ◦ C [24,25]. The tire pyrolysis oil obtained from waste The most common pyrolysis reactors are fixed-bed, rotary kiln,
tire minimize the waste tire disposal, reduce the dependency on fossil fluidized-bed [11,36], vacuum pyrolysis units, spouted-bed reactors and
fuel [26] and can be used in diesel engine as an alternative renewable microwave [38,39]. To select optimal method and reactors for the py­
and environmentally friendly fuel [15,27]. rolysis of waste tires, Lewandowski et al. [40] reviewed the performance
To investigate the pyrolytic products yields, many researchers of different types of pyrolysis reactors and mentioned that fixed bed
widely discussed the pyrolysis of waste tires on the basis of the influence pyrolysis reactor system is very simple in terms of constructions and
of reactor temperature, material size, residence time and heating rate in operating principles. As fixed bed pyrolysis reactor is easy to construct,
the reactor. Lopez et al. [28] discussed the influence of temperature on hence can be frequently used for pyrolysis in a batch process, with low
product distribution of tire between 425–575 ◦ C range and concluded heating rates, long solid and vapor residence times, with high carbon
that 475 ◦ C is an appropriate temperature for the pyrolysis of waste tires conservation, low gas velocity and low ash carry over [36–38]. There­
with a liquid oil yield of 58.2 wt%. Islam et al. [29] experimentally fore, a fixed-bed in laboratory scale has been considered for the pyrolysis
investigated the recovery of liquid fuel from tire wastes in a fixed-bed of waste tires and tubes in our present study.
internally heated fire-tube heating pyrolysis reactor under N2 atmo­ From the above literature and authors best of knowledge, most of
sphere. They investigated the effects of operating temperature, feed size pyrolysis research works have been conducted to focus on the effect of
and vapor residence time on the yields and compositions of product reactor temperature on the product yields, reactor types, feed size and
liquids. They obtained highest liquid yield of 51 wt% at a pyrolysis product compositions from waste tires of automotive vehicles and
temperature of 475 ◦ C for feed size of 4 cm3 and vapor residence time of trucks. However, there are very limited studied to investigate the py­
5 sec. Aydin and Ilkilic [30] investigated tire pyrolysis in a fixed bed rolysis of bicycle/rickshaw waste tire. Furthermore, there is no/or
reactor with N2 as inert gas between temperature range of 400–700 ◦ C. limited studies on bicycle/rickshaw waste tube pyrolysis for production
The pyrolysis oil production was 31 wt% and 40 wt% at 400 ◦ C and of pyrolysis oil, gas, and char. Therefore, in the present study there is an
500 ◦ C, respectively. Further increases of temperature, the production attempt taken for pyrolysis of bicycle/rickshaw waste tires and tubes to
rate decreased slightly. Kar [31] investigated the effect of temperature observe the optimum product yield conditions regarding to reactor
ranging from 375 to 500 ◦ C on oil yield in a laboratory scale fixed bed temperature, feed material size and pyrolysis reaction time in a labo­
pyrolysis reactor. He obtained highest 60 wt% oil output at a tempera­ ratory scale fixed-bed internally heating pyrolysis reactor. Furthermore,
ture of 425 ◦ C and the oil output reduced to 54.12 wt% at higher tem­ detailed physiochemical properties of the pyrolysis liquids obtained
peratures of 500 ◦ C. The gas yield increased from 2.99 to 20.22 wt% from tire and tube were investigated.
while the solid char yield decreased from 50.67 to 26.40 wt%, with
pyrolysis temperature increasing from 375 to 500 ◦ C. Ramirez-Canon 2. Experimental set-up and procedure
et al. [25], experimentally studied the pyrolysis of waste automotive
tire rubber in a stainless-steel batch reactor with an internal diameter of 2.1. Experimental set-up
3 cm and length of 23 cm. The reaction was carried out at four different
temperatures ranging from 450 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C with particle size of 1.0–1.4 The schematic of batch type fixed-bed pyrolysis reactor for the pre­
mm and reaction time of 90 min. They concluded that, temperatures in sent study is shown in Fig. 1. It was made of mild steel sheet having a
the range of 450–500 ◦ C favored the yield of solid char and high tem­ length of 57 cm, the outer and inner diameter of the unit are 16.7 and
peratures favored the yield of liquid and gas fractions. The highest yield 16.0 cm, respectively. Bottom end of the unit was sealed, and the upper
liquid fraction was 37 wt% obtained at 550 ◦ C. Islam and Nahian [32]
reported pyrolysis liquid production from scrap tires of rickshaws, bi­
cycles, and trucks in a batch type fixed bed fire tube heating pyrolysis
system. They mentioned that the maximum liquid and char yield was 52
wt%, and 35 wt%, respectively for both bicycle and rickshaw tires, and
maximum liquid and char yield was 60 wt% and 23 wt%, respectively
from truck tires. The calorific of liquid from bicycle/rickshaw and truck
tires was found of 41 and 40.7 MJ/kg, respectively. Pyrolysis study of
bicycle/rickshaw waste tire conducted by Islam et al. [17] in a fixed-bed
reactor with sample size of 2, 4, 6, 9 cm3 between reaction temperature
from 375 to 575 ◦ C. They observed that, liquid yield increases with the
increase of pyrolysis reaction temperature, and the maximum liquid
yield was 46 ± 1 wt% at 475 ◦ C, and then decreases to 38 ± 1.8 wt%.
The gas yield increases up to 19 ± 2 wt% over the whole temperature
range, while char yield decreases with the decrease of temperature up to
43 ± 1.5 wt% at 475 ◦ C and then remains almost constant. Akkouche
et al. [33] studied the waste truck tire pyrolysis of feedstock size 1 mm in
a fixed bed batch reactor under different heating rates (5, 10, 15 and
25 ◦ C.min− 1). They concluded that, increasing heating rate from 5 to
25 ◦ C min− 1, the gas yield increases from 7.24 to 18.04 wt% at the
expense of oil yield. Heating rate has a significant effect on the pyrolytic
vapors, has no influence on the quality and yield of char (38 wt%). High
heating rates provide shorter time for the depolymerization which is
favorable to primary volatiles and therefore lower final char yields [29].
Also, the high char yield at low heating rate has been explained by the Fig. 1. Schematic of experimental apparatus used for pyrolysis set-up.

2
M.H. Ali and M.N.A. Moral
end was connected to the feeding system. The reactor was heated
internally by using eight equally spaced stainless steel electric heating
coil of a total capacity 2.0 kW. were fixed inside the reactor. Constant
temperature inside the reactor was maintained by using automatic
temperature controller. A distributor plate was fitted to support the
feedstock material which is at 30 mm upper from the bottom of the
reactor. The distributor plate having 84 holes was made by stainless
steel rod of 3 mm diameter each. To make inert atmosphere inside the
reactor, N2 gas was supplied at 4 cm below the distributor plate. The
reactor was thermally insulated with asbestos and glass wool. The gas
fraction produced during pyrolysis passed through two water cooled
condensers and condensed pyrolytic liquid is collected in glass bottle.
Fig. 2 shows the photograph of the pyrolysis system.
2.2. Feedstock material
The raw materials used as feedstock for the pyrolysis were the bi­
cycle/rickshaw waste tire and tube. The different tires and tubes have
been collected from the nearby bicycle repairing shops, Khulna city,
Bangladesh. The collected waste tires and tubes were washed by
detergent to remove the mud, sand, and other contaminations. After that
to prepare the feedstock samples, the whole tires and tubes were
chopped into four different sizes as shown in Table 1. The steel thread
was removed from the tire samples. The prepared sample pieces of tire
and tube were dried to remove the moisture.
2.3. Experimental procedure
The pyrolysis products (oil, char and gas) yield from waste tire and
tube varied with temperature due to the decomposition rate of the
different compounds. Even though, the temperature is the predominant
Fig. 2. Fixed-bed fire-tube heating pyrolysis system used in the study.
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Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 6 (2022) 100273
Table 1
Details of pyrolysis feedstock sample sizes for of both tire and tube.
Sample Sample Size (length × wide × thick) (cm Volume of each sample
No. × cm × cm) (cm3)
1 1× 2 × 0.25 0.5
2 2× 2 × 0.25 1.0
3 3× 2 × 0.25 1.5
4 4× 2 × 0.25 2.0
factor for pyrolysis products yield, other influential factors are feedstock
sample size, pyrolysis reaction time/residence time, heating rate, carrier
gas flow rate and presence of catalyst [37]. Pyrolysis of tire with a
temperature range between 400–600 ◦ C have been preferred for the
optimum product yields [25]. Laresgoiti et al. [41] observed that the
pyrolysis liquid yield increases in the ranges of temperature 300–500 ◦ C.
Ayding and Ilkiliç [30] and Berrueco et al. [42] observed the increases of
liquid yield in the temperature range of 400–500 ◦ C. Islam et al. [29]
conducted tire pyrolysis in a fixed-bed reactor at temperatures of 375,
425, 475, 525 or 575 ◦ C to optimize the product yields and obtained
maximum liquid yield at 475 ◦ C. Ramirez-Canon et al. [25] carried out
tire pyrolysis reactions at four different temperatures ranging from 450
to 600 ◦ C with 50 ◦ C temperature intervals and obtained maximum
liquid yield at 500 ◦ C. All authors observed increasing trend of pyrolysis
liquid yield with the increases of temperature range between
300–500 ◦ C. Therefore, in present study, the experiments were per­
formed by varying the temperature within the range of 300–600 ◦ C at
every 50 ◦ C interval for all feed size of tire and tube listed in Table 1.
The experiments were conducted separately for all of tire and tube
feedstock samples. For each run of tire pyrolysis, 1.7 kg of sample was
taken into the reactor in each run. On the other hand, in each run of tube
pyrolysis, 1.8 kg of tube sample was taken in the reactor. Feeding of the
raw materials were maintained by the action of gravity. To create inert
atmosphere inside the reactor, N2 gas was purged through the reactor for
2 minutes, which removes the air inside the reactor. Then the reactor
heater was switched on, and the temperature of the reactor was allowed
to rise a desired value. Each experiment for tire and tube was conducted
at temperatures of 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550 and 600 ◦ C. The tem­
perature inside the reactor was controlled by the digital temperature
controller. Thermocouple sensors were placed inside the reactor to
measure the internal temperature and recorded by the digital temper­
ature recorder. Pyrolysis vapor produced during the experiment was
passed through two sets of condensers where the condensable organic
vapors converted into liquid (pyrolysis liquid/oil) and then collected in
the glass bottles. The uncondensed gases were flared to the atmosphere.
At the beginning of pyrolysis reaction at set temperature, the color of
flared gases was visible reddish/bright brown for both tire and tube.
When the decomposition was completed, colorless gas came out from
the reactor. The colorless flaring of gases indicated the significance of
the completion of the thermal decomposition of the sample inside the
reactor. After completion of pyrolysis of the feed material in the reactor,
the vapor exit port of reactor was closed, the reactor heater was switched
off and N2 gas supply was also stopped. After cooling down the pyrolysis
reactor, the solid product called char was pushed out from the reactor
chamber. The liquid and char were weighed, and gas weight was
determined by subtracting the sum of the liquid and char weight from
the total weight of feedstock. After that, the system had been made ready
for the next run just repositioning the valves.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effect of temperature on product yields
The product obtained from pyrolysis of tire and tube are liquid, char
and gas; among them liquid is the main products. The effect of tem­
perature on the pyrolytic products obtained from waste tire and tube are
M.H. Ali and M.N.A. Moral
shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. For all the sample sizes of tire and
tube pyrolysis, it is seen from Figs. 3 and 4 that, with the increase of
temperature, the liquid production rate increased to a maximum value
and then decreased. The maximum liquid yield from tire pyrolysis was
45.29 wt% at temperature of 450 ◦ C with sample size of 1.5 cm3 (Fig. 3
(c)) and then decreased to 38.82 wt% at a temperature of 600 ◦ C. On the
other hand, for tube pyrolysis, the maximum liquid yield was 43.89 wt%
at temperature of 550 ◦ C with sample size of 2.0 cm3 (Fig. 4(d)) and then
decreases to 42.72 wt% at temperature of 600 ◦ C. This maximum liquid
yield 43.89 wt% from tube pyrolysis is very close to the maximum 45.29
wt% liquid yield from tire pyrolysis. The maximum liquid yields ob­
tained at 450 ◦ C and 550 ◦ C for tire and tube, respectively is probably
due to better cracking at these temperatures; and rubber of the tire and
tube is not totally decomposed (pyrolysis is not completed) at lower
temperature. Therefore, at lower temperature, the tire and tube were
partially decomposed leads to lower amount of liquid and volatiles with
maximum retention of feed material in solid form as char. The gas yield
of tire and tube pyrolysis increase over the whole range of operation
temperature and obtained a maximum value of 21.18 wt% for tire and
18.33 wt% for tube at 600 ◦ C. The solid char yield for tire and tube
decreases sharply up to 44.12 wt% at temperature 450 ◦ C for tire and
40.0 wt% at 550 ◦ C for tube, and then remains almost constant. The char
yield decreases with an increasing reaction temperature resulting from
primary and secondary decomposition and attributes to liquid and gas
formation at higher temperatures [6]. The decomposition tire pyrolysis
is completed if there is no decrease of solid yield with the increases of
temperature [11,17,34]. As the solid yield remains almost constant in
the temperature range of 450–600 ◦ C for tire and 550–600 ◦ C, the tire
and tube decomposition may be completed. The increasing yield of the
gas and decreasing yield of the liquid above the temperature of 450 ◦ C
and 550 ◦ C for tire and tube, respectively were probably due to the
decomposition of the oil vapors into a permanent gas [11,17,34,37,43].
Fig. 3. Effect of temperature on product yields for tire pyrolysis of feed size: (a) 0.5 cm3; (b) 1.0 cm3; (c) 1.5 cm3; (d) 2.0 cm3.
4
Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 6 (2022) 100273
Therefore, char yield remained almost constant these temperatures.
Furthermore, it may be due to the secondary repolymerization or
carbonization reaction where liquid hydrocarbon converted into char
[11,17,29,43].
From the review study of Machin et al. [44], maximum pyrolysis
liquid can be obtained if primary pyrolysis reactions (250–520 ◦ C)
where vapors are quickly condensed prevail over secondary cracking
reactions (600–800 ◦ C) and maximum liquid yield obtained at temper­
ature between approximately 500–600 ◦ C. At lower temperatures, heat
is not enough to thermal decomposition of tire rubber, therefore lower
liquid yield and higher char yield [11]. Based on the other review works
on pyrolysis of waste tires [37,40,43] and experimental works [11,45],
the thermal decomposition of waste tires occurs at temperatures close to
500 ◦ C, and hence a maximum pyrolysis yield can be expected. Sanchís
et al. [45] reported that, the tire pyrolysis liquid yields are 41 wt% and
31 wt% at temperature 500 ◦ C and 600 ◦ C, respectively. During pyrol­
ysis of bicycle/rickshaw waste tire for a sample size 4.0 cm3, Islam et al.
[17] observed that, liquid yield increases with the increase of pyrolysis
reaction temperature from 375 to 575 ◦ C, the maximum liquid yield was
46 ± 1 wt% at 475 ◦ C, and then decreases to 38 ± 1.8 wt%. The gas yield
increases up to 19 ± 2 wt% over the whole temperature range, while
char yield decreases with the decrease of temperature up to 43 ± 1.5 wt
% at 475 ◦ C and then remains almost constant. Another study of Islam
et al. [34] using motorcycle waste tire shows similar trend liquid, gas
and char yield with the increases of pyrolysis temperature from 375 to
575 ◦ C and obtained maximum liquid yields 49 ± 1.3 wt% at 475 ◦ C, the
gas yields increase up to 18 ± 1.5 wt% over the whole temperature
range, while char yields decrease to 41 ± 1.5 wt% at 475 ◦ C and then
remains almost constant. Mia et al. [46] conducted pyrolysis of auto­
motive tires in batch type fixed bed fire tube heating pyrolysis system
and obtained about 9.25 wt% gas, 43 wt% liquid, and 47 wt% solid at
around 450 ◦ C temperature. From the literatures and our present study,
M.H. Ali and M.N.A. Moral Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 6 (2022) 100273

Fig. 4. Effect of temperature on product yields for tube pyrolysis of feed size: (a) 0.5 cm3; (b) 1.0 cm3; (c) 1.5 cm3; (d) 2.0 cm3.

it can be concluded that, the trend of product yield in present study is

similar to other research works [17,34,45] and maximum liquid yield
45.29 wt% from tire and 43.89 wt% from tube at temperature of 450 ◦ C
and 550 ◦ C, respectively are comparable to previous research works [17,
34,46]. Although slightly variation of product yields in the present study
from other research works may be due compositional difference of feed
materials, variations in the reactor design and operating conditions.
Furthermore, for tube pyrolysis, optimum liquid yield 43.89 wt% at
temperature 550 ◦ C which is slightly lower than that of tire pyrolysis
liquid yield 45.29 wt% at 450 ◦ C temperature.

3.2. Effect of feed size on product yields

The effect of feed size on product yield (weight fractions of liquid oil,
solid char and gas) under optimum reactor temperatures 450 ◦ C and
550 ◦ C for tire and tube, respectively are presented in Figs. 5 and 6.
Fig. 5 shows that liquid yield from tire pyrolysis increases first from
42.35 wt% to a maximum value of 45.29 wt% when sample size in­
creases from 0.5 to 1.5 cm3 and then decreases to 44.12 wt% for larger
sample size of 2.0 cm3. The gas yield slightly increases from 11.18 to
13.35 wt% and char yield decreases from 46.47 to 43.0 wt% through all
the sample sizes from 0.5 to 2.0 cm3. From Fig. 6, it is seen that the liquid
Fig. 5. Effect of feed size on product yields at optimum temperature of 450 ◦ C
yield from tube pyrolysis, the liquid and gas yield increased from 39.44
for tire pyrolysis.
to 43.89 wt% and 15.56 to 16.11 wt%, respectively, while the char yield
decreased from 45.0 to 40.0 wt% through all the sample sizes from 0.5 to
2.0 cm3. pyrolysis time compared to the smaller sample pieces. Consequently, the
Smaller sample size provides larger surface area for heat exchange heating rate in larger sample is low and thus the rubber core of the larger
causes easier and faster heat transfer over the entire volume of the pieces becomes carbonized and/or cannot be decomposed completely
samples which led to quick decomposition of the rubber samples [17, resulting increase in char yields and decrease in liquid and gas yields
35]. Since the thermal conductivity of tire and tube are low (0.1 W/m2 [11,17]. Subsequently, from the several previous studies, it is noticeable
◦
C along the grain, 0.05 W/m2 ◦ C cross-grain) [17], slower the heat that with the increase feed sample size, the solid yield (char) also in­
transfer through the whole sample of larger size [11,17,47]. Therefore, creases due to rate of thermal decomposition may decrease with
heat can flow only to a certain depth of larger sample at the available increasing feed sample size, which is the consequence of decreasing the

5
M.H. Ali and M.N.A. Moral
Fig. 6. Effect of feed size on product yields at optimum temperature of 550 ◦ C
for tube pyrolysis.
liquid and gas yields [11,17,34]. But the product yield results of present
study argue with the results of previous works [11,17,34].
On the other hand, Čepić et al. [35] pyrolyzed passenger vehicle
waste tire of three sample sizes 3, 7, 11 mm diameter and 6 mm length of
each, under a temperature range of 400–750 ◦ C in a fixed-bed batch
reactor. They observed that the liquid yields of 26.6, 36.4 and 36.1 wt%;
gas yields of 33.5, 22.7 and 22.6 wt% for the sample sizes of 3, 7, 11 mm,
respectively, while the solid yields increase slightly from 39.9 to 41.3 wt
% for sample size of 3–11 mm. The increasing trend of liquid yield with
the increase of sample size in present study aligned with the previous
study of Čepić et al. [35]. Moreover, the increase of gas yield with the
increases of sample size may consequence of insufficient condensation of
the vapors in present study. For the larger sample sizes to produce higher
liquid yield, the increment of reaction time in the fixed bed reactor was
suggested [11,37,47]. Another study [25] regarding to sample size
concluded that, sample size of feed materials below certain value has no
influence on the reaction rates depending on material types, reaction
temperature. The present study conducted by providing reaction time
till there is no decrease of solid yield with the increases of reaction time.
Therefore, it may be concluded that the optimum feed size is 1.5 cm3 for
tire and 2.0 cm3 for tube where decomposition of tire and tube were
completed by providing sufficient reaction time.
3.3. Effect of pyrolysis reaction time and temperature on product yield
Reaction time is considered significant parameter for pyrolysis, has a
similar effect as reaction temperature [6]. The effect of pyrolysis reac­
tion time on the product yield is shown in Fig. 7 for tire and in Fig. 8 for
tube pyrolysis. It can be observed that, reaction time increases with the
decreases of reaction temperature for both tire and tube. At higher
temperature, the thermal decomposition occurs quickly [6,40,43],
therefore requires lower reaction time and vice versa. It is observed that
at low temperature, more reaction time was required to complete the
conversion of feed material to pyrolysis product due to incomplete
deploymerisation of the samples that leads to production of more char
and less amount of liquid. At higher temperature, less reaction time was
enough to complete the conversion, which leads to more oil and less
char. At low temperature with longer reaction time contributes to sec­
ondary reaction of primary products, which leads to less liquid and more
char products [11]. In present study, the liquid yield increases from
38.82 wt% to 45.29 wt% when reaction time increases from 28 to 39
6
Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 6 (2022) 100273
Fig. 7. Effect of reaction time and temperature on product yield for tire py­
rolysis (feed size 1.5 cm3).
Fig. 8. Effect of reaction time and temperature on product yield for tube py­
rolysis (feed size 2.0 cm3).
minute for tire pyrolysis and then decreases the liquid yield. Gas yield
decreases over the whole range of increasing reaction time, while sloid
yield remains almost constant till 39 minute of reaction time and then
increases. For tube pyrolysis, liquid yield increases from 42.78 wt% to
43.89 wt% when reaction time increases from 35 to 38 minute and then
decreases. Gas yield decreases and solid yield increases over the whole
range of increasing reaction time. Lower reaction time with maximum
liquid yield mainly due to the higher reaction temperature. It can be
concluded that, for maximum liquid yield, optimum reaction times are
39 and 38 minutes for tire and tube pyrolysis, respectively at optimum
reaction temperature.
3.4. Analysis of pyrolysis product
Before analyzing the liquid product, heavy condensate and impu­
rities were removed by gravity action. After that, pyrolysis liquid ob­
tained under the different experimental conditions were well mixed and
homogenized. Physiochemical properties such as specific gravity, den­
sity, kinematic viscosity, flash point, fire point, pour point, boiling point,
and gross calorific value (GCV) of the tire and tube pyrolysis liquids
were determined. The liquid obtained after thermal pyrolysis of bicycle/
rickshaw waste tire and tube appears dark brown in color with strong
acidic smell seem like petroleum oil. The fuel properties of oil derived
from tire and tube were analyzed and compared with that of commercial
automotive diesel have been summarized in Table 2.
Table 2 shows that the density of pyrolytic liquids from bicycle/
rickshaw tire and tube are higher than that of the commercial diesel
(820–860 kg/m3). This is attributed to the presence of heavier
M.H. Ali and M.N.A. Moral
Table 2
Physiochemical properties of pyrolytic oil derived from tire and tube at optimum
temperature (450◦ C for tire and 550◦ C for tube).
Properties Oil extracted Oil extracted Commercial
from tire from tube diesel
Density (Kg/m3) 917.9 918.4 820 to 860
Kinematic Viscosity in 5.31 2.94 2 to 4.5
@100 ◦ CeSt
Flash Point ◦ C 39 42 ≥55
Fire Point ◦ C 40 60 65
Pour Point ◦ C − 3 − 6 − 40 to − 1
Boiling Point ◦ C 362 360 N/A
Gross Calorific Value 39.78 39.17 44 to 46
(MJ/Kg)
compounds in both pyrolysis oils [34]. Furthermore, fuel with high
density affects the engine performance and emissions of gases such as
CO as well as CO2 [12]. The viscosity of liquid from the waste tire
(5.31@100◦ ; CeSt) was slightly higher than that of the diesel
(2–4@100◦ CeSt) but the viscosity of liquid from the tube (2.94@100◦ ;
CeSt) was between the ranges of the diesel (2–4@100◦ CeSt). Lower
viscosity fuel obtained from tube pyrolysis in the present study is a
favorable in the handling and transporting [29,48], it influences fuel
atomization, improves engine performance [12,27]. The flash and fire
point obtained from the pyrolytic oils derived from tire and tube were
less than that of diesel. The low flash and fire points of the liquids
derived from tire and tube may be due to the product obtained is un­
refined with a mixture of components which can be removed by distil­
lation [17]. Flash point and fire point are directly signifying whether the
fuel is safely transportable; it is not related to engine performance [49].
The pour point of the tire and tube pyrolysis liquids is comparatively
lower than diesel fuel, but the laboratory experience of the present study
shows that it is not problematic even at 7 ◦ C [17]. Gross calorific values
of both the pyrolytic oils (39.78 MJ/kg for tire and 39.17 MJ/kg for
tube) were less than that of diesel and gasoline. Sanchís et al. [45]
mentioned that GCV results oil obtained from waste tires are ranges
from 35.6 to 42.6 MJ/kg, in some cases comparable to different crude
oils (42–46 MJ/kg). Moreover, other researchers obtained GCV of 40.80
MJ/kg from bicycle/rickshaw tires [17], ≈42.0 MJ/kg from motorcy­
cle/automotive/truck tires [3,32,34,35]. The GCV of oil from tire and
tube pyrolysis in present study slightly lower but results suggest com­
parable with other these research works. Furthermore, for pyrolysis
conversion, the moisture content should be kept close to 10%, if possible
and consequently the lower moisture content leads to higher the calo­
rific value of liquid yield [50]. May be the higher moisture content in
feedstock sample is a reason of lower the GCV in present study.
The important properties of pyrolysis oil are ignition quality, vis­
cosity, GCV, density, moisture content, flash point, sediment, and
sulphur contents should be comparable to with diesel fuel for burning in
engine [12]. From literatures, even though the sulphur content of py­
rolysis oil is higher than diesel fuel, the sulphur content in the fuel tends
to increase the lubricity of the fuel, pyrolysis oil can be used to increase
the engine life as it shows better tribological performance compared to
diesel fuel [27]. However, pyrolysis oil has some issues that may impact
combustion, engine efficiency, and emission [12]. Therefore, to utilized
as a fuel, the crude pyrolysis oils are required to preliminary treatments
such as decanting, centrifugation, filtration, desulphurization, and
hydrotreating. The treated pyrolysis oil could be used directly or
blended with diesel fuel could be a potential alternative renewable fuel.
Since the properties of pyrolysis oil is similar to diesel, the pyrolysis oil
derived from tire and tube may be considered as a valuable alternative
fuel for diesel engine, can reduce the emission of gases [21]. Moreover,
the oil may be directly used as fuel for industrial furnaces, power plants,
and boilers [27].
The solid char fractions obtained at optimum reactor conditions were
easily disintegrable into black powder and steel cords. The GCV of char
7
Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 6 (2022) 100273
fraction in present study were 22–25 MJ/kg. This char is comparable
with that of the good quality coal and supported by the previous studies
where char having a GCV 23.28–27.80 MJ/kg [17], and about 29 MJ/kg
[30]. Therefore, char can be used potentially as a solid.
4. Conclusion
Open dumping of waste tire and tube in landfill represent serious
environmental problem. On the other hand, the heating value of waste
tire and tube have made them a potential source of energy if they are
being treated in a proper way. As the direct combustion of waste tire and
tube are not environmentally friendly, sustainable and risk-free solu­
tions to reduce the pollution is converting them into valuable products
(char, oil, and gas) as alternative renewable energy sources by pyrolysis
process. Therefore, pyrolysis experiments of bicycle/rickshaw waste tire
and tube were conducted in a lab scale fixed-bed internally heating
reactor to obtain oil, char and gas. The experimental results highlighted
the product yields based on different operational parameters including
temperature (300–600 ◦ C), feed size (0.5–2.0 cm3) and pyrolysis reac­
tion time. Moreover, the physiochemical properties of obtained liquid
also been discussed.
The liquid yield increases with the pyrolysis temperature and the
maximum liquid yields from the waste tire was 45.29 wt% at a tem­
perature of 450 ◦ C with optimum sample size 1.5 cm3, while for tube
pyrolysis, the maximum yield of liquid was 43.89 wt% at a temperature
of 550 ◦ C with sample size of 2.0 cm3. The pyrolysis of waste tube, which
is new in this study, the maximum liquid produced (43.89 wt%) is
comparable with the maximum liquid yield (45.29 wt%) from tire py­
rolysis. The gas yield of tire and tube pyrolysis increase over the whole
range of operation temperature. Higher amount of char yields was
observed at lower temperature due to the partial decomposition for both
tire and tube attributed to lower amount of liquid and gas yield. By
providing sufficient reaction time for complete decomposition of tire
and tube, there was no significant effect of sample size on gas yield,
while liquid and solid yields slightly increased and decreased, respec­
tively with the increases of sample size. Moreover, at optimum tem­
perature, lower reaction time (39 minute for tire and 38 minute for tube)
is favorable for maximum liquid yield. Physiochemical properties of
pyrolytic oil derived from both waste tire and tube are comparable with
that of commercial diesel fuel. Especially, the obtained GCV of oil from
tire and tube pyrolysis are 39.78 MJ/kg and 39.17 MJ/kg, respectively
slightly lower but results suggested comparable with other research
works.
Finally, although there are many studies have been conducted for
waste tire pyrolysis, the results obtained from tube pyrolysis which is
new in this study can be considered a useful indicator for future study of
pyrolysis of waste tube from light and heavy vehicles to produce valu­
able alternative liquid fuel for engine. Since the pyrolysis oil contains
many impurities, it is difficult to use directly in engine. Therefore,
further treatment is suggested to improve its quality for using in engine.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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