Unit II: Research Problem Formulation and Methods

Q.1. What do you mean by Literature Review? What is the Purpose of doing Literature
Review? State various sources of Literature Review. Explain with Suitable example.

Answer:

 The literature review is an integral part of the research process and makes a valuable
contribution to almost every operational step. It has value even before the first step; that
is, when you are merely thinking about a research question that you may want to find
answers to through your research journey. In the initial stages of research it helps you to
establish the theoretical roots of your study clarify your ideas and develop your research
methodology.
 Later in the process, the literature review serves to enhanceand consolidate your own
knowledge base and helps you to integrate your findings with the existingbody of
knowledge.
 During the write-up ofyour report it helps you to integrate your findings with existing
knowledge – that is, to either support orcontradict earlier research.
 In summary, a literature review has the following functions:
1. It provides a theoretical background to your study.
2. It helps you establish the links between what you are proposing to examine and
what has already been studied.
3. It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to the existing body of
knowledge inyour profession.
4. It helps you to integrate your research findings into the existing body of
knowledge.

Purpose of Literature Review are as follows:

1. Bringing clarity and focus to your research problem: The literature review involves a
paradox. On the one hand, you cannot effectively undertake a literaturesearch without
some idea of the problem you wish to investigate. On the other hand, the literaturereview
can play an extremely important role in shaping your research problem because the
process ofreviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better and thus
helps you toconceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely and makes it more
relevant and pertinent toyour field of enquiry. When reviewing the literature you learn
what aspects of your subject area havebeen examined by others, what they have found
out about these aspects, what gaps they have identifiedand what suggestions they have
made for further research. All these will help you gain a greater insightinto your own
research questions and provide you with clarity and focus which are central to a
 relevantand valid study. In addition, it will help you to focus your study on areas where
there are gaps in theexisting body of knowledge, thereby enhancing its relevance.

2. Improving your research methodology:

Going through the literature acquaints you with the methodologies that have been used by
others to findanswers to research questions similar to the one you are investigating. A
literature review tells you ifothers have used procedures and methods similar to the ones
that you are proposing, which proceduresand methods have worked well for them and
what problems they have faced with them. By becomingaware of any problems and
pitfalls, you will be better positioned to select a methodology that is capableof providing
valid answers to your research question. This will increase your confidence in
themethodology you plan to use and will equip you to defend its use.

3. Broadening your knowledge base in your research area:

The most important function of the literature review is to ensure you read widely around
the subjectarea in which you intend to conduct your research study. It is important that
you know what otherresearchers have found in regard to the same or similar questions,
what theories have been put forwardand what gaps exist in the relevant body of
knowledge. When you undertake a research project for ahigher degree (e.g. an MA or a
PhD) you are expected to be an expert in your area of research. Athorough literature
review helps you to fulfil this expectation. Another important reason for doing aliterature
review is that it helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit into the
existingbody of knowledge (Martin 1985: 30).

4. Enabling you to contextualise your findings:

Obtaining answers to your research questions is comparatively easy: the difficult part is
examining howyour findings fit into the existing body of knowledge. How do answers to
your research questionscompare with what others have found? What contribution have
you been able to make to the existingbody of knowledge? How are your findings
different from those of others? Undertaking a literaturereview will enable you to compare
your findings with those of others and answer these questions. It isimportant to place
your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry.

 Sources of Literature Review:

Sources of Literature are summarized in the following figure:
 Figure: Sources of Literature

o Computer-assisted literature search has revolutionized the review of literature.

o These searches, however, for a variety of reasons may not provide the desired
references.
o Electronic literature search through web may be very useful, but sometimes it can be
time consuming & unpredictable because there are many website &web pages that
can lead to information overload & confusion.
o General literature search can be conducted through search engines like Yahoo
(www.yahoosearch.com), Google
o (www.google.com), MSN search, Lycos, WebCrawler, Alta Vista, or Excite.
Q2. Which systems of referencing are generally followed in the literature? Explain &
compare.

Answer: The research paper, dissertation or thesis should follow an academic style of writing
and in academic style of writing you have to provide an accurate citation. There are several
styles of citation and referencing and you can follow one. It depends on your university,
college or academic institute that which style you follow in the research. Not all citation
and referencing styles can be adopted in every research, some styles of referencing are used in
sciences while other are more acceptable in social sciences and some are used in arts and
humanities. References and citation is used in the research writings to avoid literary plagiarism
or theft. In every research the researcher uses foreign sources as an evidence or just to give
information. These sources must be acknowledged by providing references. The researcher uses
a referencing system that is allowed to be used by the organization or university from which he is
publishing his research. The second thing to be considered in deciding about the referencing
system is the academic discipline. There are basically four styles of citation or referencing from
which one can choose:

1. The short-title system

2. The author-date system or Harvard system

3. The reference by number system

4. The author-number system or Vancouver system

1. The short-title system of citation

It is necessary that the researcher mentions the source from which he has taken the notes in his
research. In short-title system the researcher mentions the reference after each chapter and it
means that the researcher gives the full reference the first time the reference is cited in his
research. This style is most commonly used in books. The order of citation is as follows:
Author’s first name Author’s surname Title of the book, journal or website Edition Volume
Publication Publishing company’s name Publishing year Volume number Page number(s)

Example

An example of this style of referencing can be as follows: J, Williams, The Principles of

Psychology, new edition, 1 vol. (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2007), p. 32,

2. The author-date system of citation

The author-date system is another very popular style of referencing. This style of referencing is
more suitable for researches that uses secondary sources as data, therefore, it is used in literature,
linguistics and other social science subjects. The researcher can use the term et al, if there are
more than two authors and writing the names of each author creates mess and difficulty. The
references are written at the end of the manuscript in alphabetical order. In this style of
referencing there is no need to provide footnotes or endnotes. The reference should include the
following information: Author’s surname Author’s first name Publication date Title of the article
(if journal) Book or journal title (it could be in inverted commas) Publication place Name of
publisher

Example

An example of this style of referencing can be as follows: W. John, 2007. The Principles of
Psychology, New York: Cosimo Classics

3. The reference by number system

The reference by number system is also a very convenient way to write references. It is actually
more convenient for the readers to locate the reference for the text. In this style of referencing the
author or the researcher allocates a number to each reference and inserts that number in the text
where ever the text is present. The numbers are allocated in a sequence in the text. The
references are available at the end of the manuscript, at the end of each chapter or in the form of
footnotes. The number is added in the text in the form of superscript so that it is visible.

Example

Harry is suffering from a psychological disease that makes him feel dizzy and less energetic(1)
but regardless of the fact that he has no energy he is aggressive and he wants to take revenge
from the society. The only way to cure the disease is to treat the cause but his parents are
reluctant to take any responsibility as they are the real cause of his disease(2). 1. Kennedy, F. J.
(1999). The Psychology of Mind. James publications. New York. p 34 Similarly other references
can be added.

4. The author-number system of citation

The author-number system is also known as the Vancouver system of referencing. This style of
referencing is more popular in natural sciences and in medicine.

Example

In the author-number system the researcher can site the references in following manner.
Thomas H. The Uses of Antibiotics. 2nd Ed. New York: Hyper Publications; 2008. p 23-25

Q.3. How can you maintain Data using Endnode?

Answer:
An "endnote" is a reference, explanation, or comment placed at the end of an article, research
paper, chapter, or book. Like footnotes (which are used in this article), endnotes serve two main
purposes in a research paper:
1. They acknowledge the source of a quotation, paraphrase, or summary; and
2. They provide explanatory comments that would interrupt the flow of the main text
Endnote Conventions:
"An author or title mentioned in the text need not be repeated in the footnote citation, though it is
often helpful to do so. In an endnote, however, the author (or at least the author's last name) and
title should be repeated, since at least some readers may have forgotten whether the note number
was 93 or 94 by the time they find it at the back of a work.
Such frustration can be prevented by the devices illustrated in the examples below."
34. This and the preceding four quotations are all from Hamlet, act 1, sc. 4.
87. Barbara Wallraff, Word Court (New York: Harcourt, 2000), 34. Further citations to this work
are given in the text.
(The Chicago Manual of Style, University of Chicago Press, 2003.)
Endnote Numbering:
"Endnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a chapter or article, with each new chapter or
section starting over with endnote 1. The notes section at the back is then broken down by
chapter or section, with the corresponding endnote numbers listed underneath. Place endnote
numbers within the text in superscript type (small typeset above the line). In the notes section,
use the same number to identify the endnote with the number in the text."
(Robbins, Lara M. Grammar, and Style at Your Fingertips, Alpha, 2007.)

The first time you have a citation to a particular source, the note at the end of the paper
must include the following information in the following order:

Author’s first name then last name, Title of Book (City of publication: Publishing company’s
name, Date of Publication), Page Number of quoted, paraphrased, or summarized material.

Example:

You have written this sentence: According to Eastman, “The family was the central core of the
Chinese social system”1At the end of the paper (in the space set aside for this note by your word-
processing software), you would put the following information in the following order:
1Lloyed E. Eastman, Family, Field, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China’s Social
and Economic History, 1550-1949 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 53.

Q.4 What do you mean by research problem? What are the criteria of selection of research
problem?
Answer:
• A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern,
a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that
exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that point to a need for
meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.
• A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad
proposition, or present a value question.
• The research problemserves as the foundation of a research study: if it is well formulated,
you can expect a good study tofollow
• A research problem may take a number of forms, from the very simple to the very
complex. The wayyou formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows: the
type of study design that can beused; the type of sampling strategy that can be employed;
the research instrument that can be used ordeveloped; and the type of analysis that can be
undertaken.
• Criteria for selection of Research Problem are as follows:
When selecting a research problem/topic there are a number of considerations to keep in
mind whichwill help to ensure that your study will be manageable and that you remain
motivated. These considerations are:
1. Interest – Interest should be the most important consideration in selecting a research
problem. Aresearch endeavour is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and
possibly unforeseenproblems. If you select a topic which does not greatly interest you, it
could become extremelydifficult to sustain the required motivation and put in enough
time and energy to complete it.
2. Magnitude – You should have sufficient knowledge about the research process to be
able tovisualise the work involved in completing the proposed study. Narrow the topic
down to somethingmanageable, specific and clear. It is extremely important to select a
topic that you can managewithin the time and with the resources at your disposal. Even if
you are undertaking a descriptivestudy, you need to consider its magnitude carefully.
3. Measurement of concepts – If you are using a concept in your study (in quantitative
studies),make sure you are clear about its indicators and their measurement. For example,
if you plan tomeasure the effectiveness of a health promotion programme, you must be
clear as to whatdetermines effectiveness and how it will be measured. Do not use
concepts in your researchproblem that you are not sure how to measure. This does not
mean you cannot develop ameasurement procedure as the study progresses. While most
 of the developmental work will bedone during your study, it is imperative that you are
reasonably clear about the measurement ofthese concepts at this stage.
4. Level of expertise – Make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the task you
areproposing. Allow for the fact that you will learn during the study and may receive help
from yourresearch supervisor and others, but remember that you need to do most of the
work yourself.
5. Relevance – Select a topic that is of relevance to you as a professional. Ensure that your
studyadds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps or is useful in policy
formulation.This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data – If your topic entails collection of information from secondary
sources(office records, client records, census or other already-published reports, etc.)
make sure that thisdata is available and in the format you want before finalising your
topic.
7. Ethical issues – Another important consideration in formulating a research problem is
the ethicalissues involved. In the course of conducting a research study, the study
population may beadversely affected by some of the questions (directly or indirectly);
deprived of an intervention;expected to share sensitive and private information; or
expected to be simply experimental ‘guineapigs’. How ethical issues can affect the study
population and how ethical problems can beovercome should be thoroughly examined at
the problem-formulation stage.
Q5. What do you mean by “Research Design”? Compare the research designs for various
research tasks-like exploratory, descriptive and causal studies.

ANSWER:

 Important step after defining the research problem is preparing the design of the research
project, known as the ‘research design’.
 It to decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means etc. with
regard to an enquiry or a research study.
 A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.
 Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
 Thus, research design provides an outline of what the researcher is going to do in terms
of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and the final data analysis.
 Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which include:

1. The nature of the study

2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared

 Overall research design may be divided into the following:

a. The sampling design
-- deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the selected
study.
b. The observational design
-- relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made.
c. The statistical design
-- concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed, and how
the information and data gathered are to be analyzed.
d. The operational design
 --deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling,
statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

 Important features of Research Design:

i. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required for the
research problem;
ii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis which
would be adopted; and
iii. It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in
conducting the study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any
research.

Exploratory Research Design:

 Known as formulative research design.
 Objective of using this research design is to formulate a research problem for an in-
depth or more precise investigation,
 or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational aspect.
 Purpose of studies is discovery of ideas and insights.
 Study should be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different
dimensions of the problem under study.
 Initial research problem would be transformed into a more precise one in the exploratory
study, which in turn may necessitate changes in the research procedure for collecting
relevant data.
 Three methods considered for such studies are
(a) a survey of related literature;
(b) experience survey;
(c) analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances.

Descriptive Research Design

 Concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or a group.
 Narration of facts and characteristics related to an individual, group or situation, are
instances of descriptive research studies.
 Most of the social research design falls under this category.
 Procedure to be used and the research design need to planned carefully.
 Appropriate provision for protection against bias and maximizing reliability must be
done.
 The research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also
focus attention on the following:
a) Formulation of the objectives of the study,
b) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
c) Sample selection,
d) Data collection,
e) Processing and analysis of the collected data, and
f) Reporting the findings.
Causal Research (Explanatory Research)

 Quantitative in nature as well as preplanned and structured in design.

 Considered to be conclusive research.
 Causal research differs in its attempt to explain the cause and effect relationship between
variables.
 This is opposed to the observational style of descriptive research, because it attempts to
decipher whether a relationship is causal through experimentation.
 Research will have two objectives:
1) To understand which variables are the cause and which variables are the effect, and
2) to determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect
to be predicted.

 For example
Cereal brand owner wants to learn if they will receive more sales with their new cereal
box design. Instead of conducting descriptive research by asking people whether they
would be more likely to buy their cereal in its new box, they would set up an experiment
in two separate stores. One will sell the cereal in only its original box and the other with
the new box. Taking care to avoid any outside sources of bias, they would then measure
the difference between sales based on the cereal packaging. Did the new packaging have
any effect on the cereal sales? What was that effect?

Exploratory research Descriptive research

Causal research

Also known as Explanatory Research formulative research design

Amount of uncertainty
characterizing decision Clearly defined Highly ambiguous Partially defined
situation

Key research statement Research hypotheses Research question Research question

When conducted? Later stages of decision making Early stage of decision making Later stages of decision making

Usual research approach Highly structured Unstructured Structured

‘Will consumers buy more products in a ‘Our sales are declining for no apparent ‘What kind of people patronize our stores
blue package?’ reason’ compared to our primary competitor?’
Examples ‘Which of two advertising campaigns will ‘What kinds of new products are fast-food ‘What product features are the most
be more effective?’ consumers interested in?’ important to our customers?’
Q6. What is Exploratory research? What are the various methods for exploratory
research?

ANSWER:

 The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design.

 The main objective of using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for
an in-depth or more precise investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from
an operational aspect.
 The major purpose of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights.
 Therefore, such a research design suitable for such a study should be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different dimensions of the problem under study.
 The in-built flexibility in research design is required as the initial research problem would
be transformed into a more precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may
necessitate changes in the research procedure for collecting relevant data.
 Usually, the following three methods are considered in the context of a research design
for such studies. They are
(a) A survey of related literature:
 This will be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the
research problem or developing hypothesis.
 Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research.
 It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis.
 Likewise researcher should review and build upon the work already done by
others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to
review the available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.
 Bibliographical survey of studies may be made by the researcher for precisely
formulating the problem.
 He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in
different research contexts to the area in which he is himself working.
 Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for
hypothesis formulation and as such may be looked into by the researcher.
(b) Experience survey:
 Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied.
 The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships between
variables and new ideas relating to the research problem.
  People competent in area and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected
as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience.
 Respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator.
 Prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants.
 Interview must be flexible, respondents should be allowed to raise issues and
questions which the investigator has not previously considered.
 Experience collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours.
 So send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in
advance. Experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more
concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis.
 Practical possibilities for doing different types of research may be explored.
(c) Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances:
 Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method for suggesting
hypotheses for research.
 It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a
guide. Intensive study of selected instances of the related phenomenon is carried
out.
 For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined
 Unstructured interviewing may take place
 Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the
researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are
the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking
insights.
Q7. What do you mean by Experimental research? Explain the common informal
experimental design.

ANSWER:

Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-

testing research’.

For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a
group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence
and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores. This
is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein the independent
variable, intelligence, is not manipulated.

But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are
to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to
Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25 to Group B, the special studies programme. At the
end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the
training programme on the student’s performance-level. This is an example of experimental
hypothesis-testing research because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of training
programme, is manipulated.

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the
researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.

Required procedures should reduce bias and increase reliability

Also permit drawing inferences about causality.

As experiments meet this requirement, talk of research design in such studies, mean the design of
experiments.

As experimental designs originated in agricultural operations, though in a technical sense, several

terms of agriculture (such as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) are used in experimental designs.

Important Experimental Designs :

Important experiment designs are as follows:

(a) Informal experimental designs:
(i) Before-and-after without control design.
(ii) After-only with control design.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.
(b) Formal experimental designs:
(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
 (ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
(iv) Factorial designs

Common informal experimental design

1. Before-and-after without control design:
 In such a design a single test group or area is selected
 Dependent variable is measured before the introduction of the treatment.
 Treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured again after
the treatment has been introduced.
 Effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after the
treatment minus the level of the phenomenon before the treatment.
 The design can be represented thus:

 The main difficulty of such a design is that with the passage of time considerable
extraneous variations may be there in its treatment effect.

2. After-only with control design:

 Two groups or areas (test area and control area) are selected
 Treatment is introduced into the test area only.
 Dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the same time.
 Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in
the control area from its value in the test area.
 This can be exhibited in the following form:

 The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical with
respect to their behaviour towards the phenomenon considered.
 If this assumption is not true, there is the possibility of extraneous variation
entering into the treatment effect.
 Data can be collected in such a design without the introduction of problems with
the passage of time.
 In this respect the design is superior to before-and-after without control design.

3. Before-and-after with control design:

  Two areas are selected
 Dependent variable is measured in both the areas for an identical time-period
before the treatment.
 Treatment is then introduced into the test area only
 Dependent variable is measured in both for an identical time-period after the
introduction of the treatment.
 Treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent
variable in the control area from the change in the dependent variable in test area.
 This design can be shown in this way

 This design is superior to the above two designs for the simple reason that it avoids
extraneous variation resulting both from the passage of time and from non-
comparability of the test and control areas.
 But at times, due to lack of historical data, time or a comparable control area, prefer
to select one of the first two informal designs stated above.
Q.8. What is formulation of a research problem? Discuss considerations in selecting
research problem.

Answer

The formulation of a research problem is the first and most important step of the research
process. It is like the identification of a destination before undertaking a journey. In the absence
of a destination, it is impossible to identify the shortest – or indeed any – route. Similarly, in the
absence of a clear research problem, a clear and economical plan is impossible. To use another
analogy, a research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and design of the
building are dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation is well designed and strong you
can expect the building to be also. The research problem serves as the foundation of a research
study: if it is well formulated, you can expect a good study to follow.
According to Kerlinger: If one wants to solve a problem, one must generally know what
the problem is. It can be said that a large part of the problem lies in knowing what one is trying
to do.
A research problem may take a number of forms, from the very simple to the very
complex. The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows: the type
of study design that can be used; the type of sampling strategy that can be employed; the
research instrument that can be used or developed; and the type of analysis that can be
undertaken. Suppose your broad area of interest is depression. Further suppose you want to
conduct a research study regarding services available to patients with depression living in a
community. If your focus is to find out the types of service available to patients with depression,
the study will dominantly be descriptive and qualitative in nature. These types of studies fall in
the category of qualitative research and are carried out using qualitative research methodologies.
On the other hand, if you want to find out the extent of use of these services, that is the number
of people using them, it will dominantly use quantitative methodologies even though it is
descriptive in nature describing the number of people using a service. If your focus is to
determine the extent of use in relation to the personal attributes of the patients, the study will be
classified as correlational (and quantitative). The methodology used will be different than the one
used in the case of a descriptive study. Similarly, if your aim is to find out the effectiveness of
these services, the study will again be classified as correlational and the study design used,
methods of collecting data and its analysis will be a part of the quantitative methodology. Hence,
it is important for you to understand that the way you formulate a research problem determines
all the subsequent steps that you have to follow during your research journey.
The formulation of a problem is like the ‘input’ to a study, and the ‘output’ – the quality
of the contents of the research report and the validity of the associations or causation established
– is entirely dependent upon it. Hence the famous saying about computers, ‘garbage in, garbage
out’, is equally applicable to a research problem. Most research in the humanities revolves
around four Ps: people; problems; programmes and phenomena ,in practice, most research
studies are based upon at least a combination of two Ps. You may select a group of individuals (a
group of individuals – or a community as such – ‘people’), to examine the existence of certain
issues or problems relating to their lives, to ascertain their attitude towards an issue
(‘problem’),to establish the existence of a regularity (‘phenomenon’) or to evaluate the
effectiveness of an intervention (‘programme’).

Considerations in selecting a research problem

When selecting a research problem/topic there are a number of considerations to keep in

mind which will help to ensure that your study will be manageable and that you remain
motivated. These considerations are:

Interest – Interest should be the most important consideration in selecting a research problem. A
research endeavour is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and possibly unforeseen
problems. If you select a topic which does not greatly interest you, it could become extremely
difficult to sustain the required motivation and put in enough time and energy to complete it.

Magnitude – You should have sufficient knowledge about the research process to be able to
visualize the work involved in completing the proposed study. Narrow the topic down to
something manageable, specific and clear. It is extremely important to select a topic that you can
manage within the time and with the resources at your disposal. Even if you are undertaking a
descriptive study, you need to consider its magnitude carefully.

Measurement of concepts – If you are using a concept in your study (in quantitative studies),
make sure you are clear about its indicators and their measurement. For example, if you plan to
measure the effectiveness of a health promotion programme, you must be clear as to what
determines effectiveness and how it will be measured. Do not use concepts in your research
problem that you are not sure how to measure. This does not mean you cannot develop a
measurement procedure as the study progresses. While most of the developmental work will be
done during your study, it is imperative that you are reasonably clear about the measurement of
these concepts at this stage.

Level of expertise – Make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the task you are
proposing. Allow for the fact that you will learn during the study and may receive help from your
research supervisor and others, but remember that you need to do most of the work yourself.

Relevance – Select a topic that is of relevance to you as a professional. Ensure that your study
adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps or is useful in policy formulation.
This will help you to sustain interest in the study.

Availability of data – If your topic entails collection of information from secondary sources
(office records, client records, census or other already-published reports, etc.) make sure that this
data is available and in the format you want before finalizing your topic.
Ethical issues – Another important consideration in formulating a research problem is the ethical
issues involved. In the course of conducting a research study, the study population may be
adversely affected by some of the questions (directly or indirectly); deprived of an intervention;
expected to share sensitive and private information; or expected to be simply experimental
‘guinea pigs’. How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems can
be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem-formulation stage.
Q.11. Explain with an example independent, interventing, extraneous and dependent
variables?

Answer

An image, perception or concept that is capable of measurement – hence capable of

taking on different values – is called a variable. In other words, a concept that can be measured is
called a variable.
According to Kerlinger, ‘A variable is a property that takes on different values. Putting it
redundantly, a variable is something that varies … A variable is a symbol to which numerals or
values are attached’. Black and Champion define a variable as ‘rational units of analysis that can
assume any one of a number of designated sets of values’.
A variable can be classified in a number of ways. The classification of variables in three different
ways are:
 the causal relationship;
 the study design;
 the unit of measurement.


Figure: Types of variable in causal relationship

From the viewpoint of causal relationship

In studies that attempt to investigate a causal relationship or association, four sets of variables
may operate
1. change variables, which are responsible for bringing about change in a phenomenon, situation
or circumstance;
2. outcome variables, which are the effects, impacts or consequences of a change variable;
3. variables which affect or influence the link between cause-and-effect variables;
4. connecting or linking variables, which in certain situations are necessary to complete the
relationship between cause-and-effect variables.
 In research terminology, change variables are called independent variables,
outcome/effect variables are called dependent variables, the unmeasured variables affecting the
cause-and-effect relationship are called extraneous variables and the variables that link a cause-
and-effect relationship are called intervening variables. Hence:
1. Independent variable – the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about change(s) in
a phenomenon or situation.
2. Dependent variable – the outcome or change(s) brought about by introduction of an
independent variable.
3. Extraneous variable – several other factors operating in a real-life situation may affect
changes in the dependent variable. These factors, not measured in the study, may increase or
decrease the magnitude or strength of the relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
4. Intervening variable – sometimes called the confounding variable, it links the independent
and dependent variables. In certain situations the relationship between an independent and a
dependent variable cannot be established without the intervention of another variable. The cause,
or independent, variable will have the assumed effect only in the presence of an intervening
variable.
Let us take an example. Suppose you want to study the relationship between fertility and
mortality. Your aim is to explore what happens to fertility when mortality declines. The history
of demographic transition has shown that a reduction in the fertility level follows a decline in the
mortality level, though the time taken to attain the same level of reduction in fertility varied
markedly from country to country. As such, there is no direct relationship between fertility and
mortality. With the reduction in mortality, fertility will decline only if people attempt to limit
their family size. History has shown that for a multiplicity of reasons (the discussion of which is
beyond the scope of this book) people have used one method or another to control their fertility,
resulting in lower fertility levels. It is thus the intervention of contraceptive methods that
completes the relationship: the greater the use of contraceptives, the greater the decline in the
fertility level and the sooner the adoption of contraceptive methods by people, the sooner the
decline. The extent of the use of contraceptives is also affected by a number of other factors, for
example attitudes towards contraception, level of education, socioeconomic status and age,
religion, and provision and quality of health services. These are classified as extraneous
variables. In the above example, decline in mortality is assumed to be the cause of a reduction in
fertility, hence the mortality level is the independent variable and fertility is the dependent
variable. But this relationship will be completed only if another variable intervenes – that is, the
use of contraceptives. A reduction in mortality (especially child mortality) increases family size,
and an increase in family size creates a number of social, economic and psychological pressures
on families, which in turn create attitudes favorable to a smaller family size. This change in
attitudes is eventually operationalised in behavior through the adoption of contraceptives. If
people do not adopt methods of contraception, a change in mortality levels will not be reflected
in fertility levels. The population explosion in developing countries is primarily due to lack of
acceptance of contraceptives. The extent of the use of contraceptives determines the level of the
decline in fertility. The extent of contraceptive adoption by a population is dependent upon a
number of factors. As mentioned earlier, in this causal model, the fertility level is the dependent
variable, the extent of contraceptive use is the intervening variable, the mortality level is the
independent variable, and the unmeasured variables such as attitudes, education, age, religion,
the quality of services, and so on, are all extraneous variables. Without the intervening variable
the relationship between the independent and dependent variables will not be complete.

Figure: Independent, dependent, extraneous and intervening variables

Q12. What are measurement scales? Discuss various types of measurement scales.

Answer:

Measurement is central to any inquiry. The greater the refinement in the unit of measurement of
a variable, the greater the confidence, other things being equal, one can place in the findings.
One of the main differences between the physical and the social sciences is the units of
measurement used and the degree of importance attached to them. In the physical sciences
measurements have to be absolutely accurate and precise, whereas in the social sciences they
may vary from the very subjective to the very quantifiable. Within the social sciences the
emphasis on precision in measurement varies markedly from one discipline to another. An
anthropologist normally uses very ‘subjective' units of measurement, whereas an economist or an
epidemiologist emphasizes 'objective' measurement.
From what has been stated above, we can write that scales of measurement can be considered in
terms of their mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of measurement
scales are: (a) nominal scale; (b) ordinal scale; (c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.

(a) Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in
order to label them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players
in order to identify them. Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered
scale for their order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for the
particular class of events and as such have no quantitative value. Nominal scales provide
convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events. One cannot do much with the
numbers involved. For example, one cannot usefully average the numbers on the back of a group
of football players and come up with a meaningful value. Neither can one usefully compare the
numbers assigned to one group with the numbers assigned to another. The counting of members
in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when a nominal scale is employed.
Accordingly, we are restricted to use mode as the measure of central tendency. There is no
generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales.
Chi-square test is the most common test of statistical significance that can be utilized, and
for the measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient can be worked out. Nominal scale is
the least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no
arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes differences between things by assigning
them to categories. Nominal data are, thus, counted data. The scale wastes any information that
we may have about varying degrees of attitude, skills, understandings, etc. In spite of all this,
nominal scales are still very useful and are widely used in surveys and other ex-post-facto
research when data are being classified by major sub-groups of the population.

(b) Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal
scale. The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the
scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in
research relating to qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in his graduation class involves the
use of an ordinal scale. One has to be very careful in making statement about scores based on
ordinal scales. For instance, if Ram’s position in his class is 10 and Mohan’s position is 40, it
cannot be said that Ram’s position is four times as good as that of Mohan. The statement would
make no sense at all.
Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest. Ordinal measures have no
absolute values, and the real differences between adjacent ranks may not be equal. All that can
be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but more precise
comparisons cannot be made.
Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ (an equality
statement is also acceptable) without our being able to state how much greater or less. The real
difference between ranks 1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between ranks 5 and 6.
Since the numbers of this scale have only a rank meaning, the appropriate measure of central
tendency is the median. A percentile or quartile measure is used for measuring dispersion.
Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods. Measures of statistical significance are
restricted to the non-parametric methods.

(c) Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule
that has been established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal only in so far
as one accepts the assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval scales can have an arbitrary
zero, but it is not possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute zero or the
unique origin. The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not
have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic. The Fahrenheit
scale is an example of an interval scale and shows similarities in what one can and cannot do
with it. One can say that an increase in temperature from 30° to 40° involves the same increase in
temperature as an increase from 60° to 70°, but one cannot say that the temperature of 60° is
twice as warm as the temperature of 30° because both numbers are dependent on the fact that the
zero on the scale is set arbitrarily at the temperature of the freezing point of water. The ratio of
the two temperatures, 30° and 60°, means nothing because zero is an arbitrary point.
Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales for interval scale also
incorporates the concept of equality of interval. As such more powerful statistical measures can
be used with interval scales. Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency, while standard
deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion. Product moment correlation techniques
are appropriate and the generally used tests for statistical significance are the ‘t’ test and ‘F’ test.

(d) Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term ‘absolute
zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of an absolute zero of
length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time. For example, the zero point on
a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence of length or height. But an absolute zero of
temperature is theoretically unobtainable and it remains a concept existing only in the scientist’s
mind. The number of minor traffic-rule violations and the number of incorrect letters in a page of
type script represent scores on ratio scales. Both these scales have absolute zeros and as such all
minor traffic violations and all typing errors can be assumed to be equal in significance. With
ratio scales involved one can make statements like “Jyoti’s” typing performance was twice as
good as that of “Reetu.” The ratio involved does have significance and facilitates a kind of
comparison which is not possible in case of an interval scale.

Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions such as
weight, height, distance, etc. are examples. Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with
ratio scales and all manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can also be carried out
with ratio scale values. Multiplication and division can be used with this scale but not with other
scales mentioned above. Geometric and harmonic means can be used as measures of central
tendency and coefficients of variation may also be calculated.

Thus, proceeding from the nominal scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio scale (the most
precise), relevant information is obtained increasingly. If the nature of the variables permits, the
researcher should use the scale that provides the most precise description. Researchers in
physical sciences have the advantage to describe variables in ratio scale form but the behavioural
sciences are generally limited to describe variables in interval scale form, a less precise type of
measurement.
Q.14. Enlist various research designs used in hypothesis-testing research
studies. Explain any one in detail.
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”.
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a
research study constitute a research design. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.” In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data.

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as:
(1) research design in case of exploratory research studies;
(2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies,
(3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.

Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those
where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies
require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing
inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of
research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments.
Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of such
designs was made by him when he was working at Rothamsted Experimental Station (Centre for
Agricultural Research in England). As such the study of experimental designs has its origin in
agricultural research. Professor Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into
different blocks and then by conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever
information is collected and inferences drawn from them, happens to be more reliable. This fact
inspired him to develop certain experimental designs for testing hypotheses concerning scientific
investigations. Today, the experimental designs are being used in researches relating to
phenomena of several disciplines. Since experimental designs originated in the context of
agricultural operations, we still use, though in a technical sense, several terms of agriculture(such
as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) in experimental designs.
Q.15. Discuss various steps in formulating a research problem.
Answer:

The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process:
(1) formulating the research problem; (2) extensive literature survey;(3) developing the
hypothesis; (4) preparing the research design; (5) determining sample design;(6) collecting the
data; (7) execution of the project; (8) analysis of data; (9) hypothesis testing;(10) generalisations
and interpretation, and (11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results,i.e., formal
write-up of conclusions reached.

Formulating the research problem:

There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those
which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out
the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide thegeneral area of interest or aspect of a
subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially theproblem may be stated in a broad
general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problembe resolved. Then, the
feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a workingformulation of the
problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific researchproblem, thus,
constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved informulating
the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing thesame into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or
with those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek
the help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in
mind. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to
narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in
governmental organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies
with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what
considerations are involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual
literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies
made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the
knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will
enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context. After this the
researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as
specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of
greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must be
defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care
must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning
the problem. Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that the statement of the objective is of
basic importance because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of
the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be
used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there are certain pertinent terms, the
same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the problem. In fact,
formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of formulations
are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one phrased in more
analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.