INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

NAME: JADIE’-LEE MOODLY

COURSE CODE: COM3705
STUDENT NO.: 66292727
ASSIGNMENT NO.: 01
UNIQUE NO.: 732320
DATE: 25/03/2022

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DECLARATION

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PG

THE MEDIA COVERAGE OF THE UKRAINIAN AND RUSSIAN CONFLICT 2022 4

INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………… 4

Literature Review 4

Methodology ……………………………………………………………………………. 6

Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………... 7

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………… 8

SOURCES CONSULTED………………………………………………………….. 9

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 THE MEDIA COVERAGE OF THE UKRAINIAN AND RUSSIAN CONFLICT 2022

In the past Russia’s President, Vladimir Putin, has said unequivocally that Ukraine has no
historical claim to independence; further stating that modern Ukraine was wholly constructed
by Russia (Chotiner 2022). In 2014, Euromaidan protesters in Kyiv, Ukraine's capital, forced
out a pro-Russian president who refused to sign a European Union association agreement.
As a result, Russia retaliated by usurping the Ukrainian peninsula of Crimea, despite the two
countries agreeing to a ceasefire in 2015, they have not been able to maintain a truce
(Mackintosh & Picheta 2022). The November 2018 capture of three Ukrainian ships and
twenty-three sailors in the Kerch Strait, which connects the Sea of Azov to the Black Sea,
was the first open military conflict between Ukraine and Russia since the acquisition of
Crimea in 2014 (Macfarquhar 2018). On February 24, 2022, there was a surge in Russian
military presence in eastern Ukraine, in which Russia launched a full-scale military invasion
into Ukraine. The following essay examines media coverage of the Ukraine-Russia conflict,
beginning with a literature review, followed by a methodology, and finally a data analysis.

Firstly, the literature review touches base on the five actors in the war and their activity,
followed by a discussion on the role of international communication in war and armed
conflicts. In addition, the inequalities of international information flow patterns are described,
as well as what causes these inequalities. It also explores how innovative media technologies
have changed the way wars are fought and the way in which the global public are informed
about the war and how they form opinions on it. Moreover, it examines the CNN effect and
whether it is still relevant or effective in the social media era. Furthermore, it discusses
disinformation and its role in contemporary wars, in addition to how this kind of fake news
and dis-information emerged during the Russia and Ukraine conflict thus far. Second, in
terms of methodology, it discusses the methodology used in the content analysis and briefly
describes content analysis as a methodology. Additionally, it discusses 10 articles from two
online newspapers namely the Mail & Guardian and Daily Maverick. As well as, identifying
the articles selected headlines and dates of publication. Lastly, the data analysis identifies
patterns of coverage in each newspaper and it identifies five themes that will guide the
analyses. Next, it touches base on what the grand narrative of the media in South Africa was
and whether it was unanimous across the two newspapers. It also judges the article’s tone
and whether most of the articles are objective fact reporting or opinion commentary and what
the implication of this is.

There are many actors in this war both intergovernmental organisations (IGO) and non-
governmental organisations (NGO), five of which are NATO, The European Union (EU),
United Nations (UN), CARE and World Bank. In the wake of Russia's recent attack on Ukraine
in February 2022, NATO is assisting Ukraine in coordinating its requests for help and
supporting allies in delivering humanitarian and non-lethal relief. In addition, Ukraine is
receiving guns, ammunition, medical supplies, and other critical military equipment from
NATO member countries. They are also assisting Ukraine financially with millions of euros.
Many allies such as Poland are also providing humanitarian help to people and welcoming
Ukrainian refugees through their borders (NATO 2022).

In terms of the EU, their activity in the war consists of providing humanitarian aid in the form
of €500 million from the EU budget that will be used to address the war's catastrophic
humanitarian impacts, both within Ukraine and outside. Additionally, they have been
protecting individuals that fleeing the war by activating the Temporary Protection Directive.
They have also been supporting border management, releasing guidelines to assist Member
States' border guards in efficiently handling arrivals at Ukraine's borders while ensuring a
high degree of security (Commission of Europe 2022). Furthermore, the EU has also enacted
the broadest unprecedented array of sanctions against Russia's financial sector, high-tech
industry, and corrupt elite since February 24, 2022, in a series of rulings. Some of the
sanctions are financial such as the freezing of assets and the prohibition of transactions with
three Russian banks, and the exclusion of key banks from the SWIFT system and sanctions

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on Russia's energy industry that will make upgrading its oil refineries more difficult and
expensive (Commission of Europe 2022). In response to Russia's military invasion in Ukraine,
the UN and humanitarian partners are increasing the supply of life-saving aid to individuals
affected by the war. UN employees are also working on both sides of the contact line to give
humanitarian support to persons in need. On March 1, 2022, the United Nations issued two
coordinated humanitarian appeals, one addressing the needs within Ukraine and the other
trying to assist individuals crossing the country's borders, in response to the growing
humanitarian demands (United Nations 2022).

CARE has been raising money for its Ukraine Crisis Fund, which will provide immediate aid
including food, water, hygiene kits, support services and direct cash assistance. The
humanitarian organisation aims to raise $20 million and help at least 4 million Ukrainians,
prioritising women, families and the elderly (Dean & Franklin 2022).

The World Bank Group has already raised more than $925 million for Ukraine, including $350
million in fast-disbursing budget support to help the government provide key services to
Ukrainians. This funding is part of a $3 billion package of assistance for Ukraine that will be
delivered in the following months. With contributions of $145 million so far, the World Bank
established a multi-donor trust fund (MDTF), which is one of the most quick, targeted, and
safe channels for directing grant money from donors to Ukraine (World Bank Group 2022).

When considering the role of international communication in war and armed-conflicts, the
media have always played an important role during times of war and international conflicts
according to Nygren et al (2016:2). As a consequence of developments in media technology
and global audiences, the media's role in armed conflicts and war has risen in prominence.
The world is witnessing changes in media technology as a result of the expansion of social
media networks, citizen journalists, and user-generated content (Nygren et al 2016:2). For
instance, Russia’s ongoing invasion of Ukraine has shed new light on the role of social media
in armed conflicts in the digital age. According to Henkhaus (2022), one of the most significant
developments evident during the crisis in Ukraine is the loss of traditional barriers
to international communication. While today's communication tools are relatively new, the
importance of information during times of armed conflict is far from new. Information warfare
has existed for as long as battles have been. War propaganda strategies developed during
the First World War, for example, are still in use today. These tactics are designed to build
morale, unite troops, demonstrate strength, and demoralize the opponent. Ordinary citizens
on the ground in Ukraine have used social media to accomplish precisely that, publishing
photographs, videos, and stories of Ukrainian military and civilians defying Russian forces
(Henkhaus 2022).

In regard to inequalities of international information (news) flow patterns, structural inequality

is a historical process influenced by constructions, colonialism, and capitalism among other
things and is seen as a key aspect of the direction, content, and volume of international
information flow, according to Lesame et al (2014:106). Inequalities in information flow are
also known to be linked to even bigger inequalities and imbalances in the distribution of
financial resources and communication technologies throughout the world. These
occurrences are frequently linked to historical influences such as colonialism and current
economic practices, such as capitalism and its expressions, such as cheap labour (Lesame
et al. 2014:106).

When it comes to innovative media technologies role in warfare, Dr. Sebastian Kaempf a
professor at the University of Queensland, says it has completely transformed the nature of
warfare. Dr. Kaempf further claims that the emergence of new digital media technologies,
such as the Internet, has significantly altered the way modern war is waged and visually
depicted (UQ News 2022). Additionally, he believes that modern warfare has a new frontier,
one where conflict is conducted online rather than physically, and where actors on both sides
are progressively replacing bombs and bullets with bytes and bandwidths (UQ News 2022)

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According to Trudel et al (2022), cyber warfare, which employs innovative media technology,
is a critical component of the present conflict between Russia and Ukraine. In Ukraine,
cyberwar is waged on a variety of scales. For instance, drones can collect massive amounts
of data for artificial intelligence to analyse and use for precision targeting. Heat maps, digital
signals, and social media posts may all be used to determine the position of military or
civilians. According to Benabid (2021), the CNN effect theorizes that extensive coverage of
major events on television networks such as CNN can influence domestic and foreign policy
agendas. It is said to occur through shaping public perception, which in turn influences
policymakers' agendas. Thus, the CNN effect may be characterised as independent news
media stimulating public discussion and raising awareness with the goal of developing a
specific policy response to the events being covered (Benabid 2021). Benabid (2021), states
that while the CNN effect' is most known for the humanitarian context in which it is reported,
there are additional elements that contribute to the phenomena. Technological
advancements in media and news transmission, such as the internet, social media, and smart
phones, transmitting and receiving live and uninterrupted news updates has become feasible
from anywhere in the world. Smart phones and internet media platforms have made war
zones more accessible by allowing news reporters to be more mobile in their reporting.
Furthermore, the media still plays a crucial role in informing the public of key issues.
However, technological developments and the growth of social media networks have made
news creation more accessible to citizens, producing the phenomenon of "citizen journalists."
Consequently, the power of influence is no longer primarily in the hands of large news
networks like CNN. Therefore, while the CNN effect is still a prominent concept, its impact
does not appear to be as powerful as it was in the 1990’s (Benabid 2021).

When it comes to innovative media technologies changing how the global public is informed
about the war and how it forms opinions about it, it is important to note that we have moved
away from a relatively stationary communication model, in which journalists report on the
news within predetermined constraints and formats, to intense division and even
participation. Social media users help to the spread of information about the fight by sharing
and commenting about it online. Since Russia's invasion of Ukraine, it is clear that this war is
unlike any other; that since Ukrainians have cell phones and access to social media
platforms, conventional control of information and propaganda is no longer possible, and that
people can see through the fog of war (Trudel et al 2022).

The Cambridge dictionary defines disinformation as "false information spread in order to

deceive people" (Cambridge dictionary 2022). In the past month, most social media feeds
have been flooded with messages regarding the Russia-Ukraine conflict. While some of
these posts come from legitimate news outlets, many of them are disinformation—inaccurate
information that is passed off as fact in order to deceive. According to Scott (2022), even
before Russia invaded Ukraine, the media and fact checkers have been sorting through
hundreds of assertions about claimed provocations, missile attacks, atrocities, and victories
and losses. StopFake and the Eyes on Russia Project, both located in Kyiv, are among the
organizations separating fact from fiction. According to analysts, a barrage of disinformation
is circulating on social media, websites, messaging platforms like Telegram and Viber, and
even TV, ranging from Russia's Vladimir Putin saying the invasion is needed to "de-nazify"
Ukraine to posts claiming Ukrainian forces are planting explosives under their own buildings.
These postings and misinformation, if left unchecked, may spread confusion and even alter
public opinion (Scott 2022). Additionally, many traditional propaganda methods have found
their way into cyberspace, but a recent addition is the ability to target and personalise
disinformation. Military propaganda strategies are combined with online marketing
technologies. Since it is possible to identify troops and their families, genuine or fictitious
threats can be used to convince them to surrender. This campaign also includes
disseminating a deepfake film purporting to show Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky
pleading with the Ukrainian people to surrender to the Russians (Trudel et al 2022).

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The methodology used in the content analysis is qualitative and aims to identify themes and
patterns of coverage concerning the Ukraine-Russia conflicts; this was executed using five
articles extracted from each of the two South African online publications selected. The units
of analysis are themes that appear in each newspaper. Content analysis, according to Du
Plooy (2009), is a methodology used to investigate, characterize, and infer characteristics of
messages. It is essentially a research method for determining the presence of specific words,
topics, or concepts in qualitative data such as text. Researchers can measure and evaluate
the frequency, meanings, and relationships of certain words, themes, or concepts using
content analysis (Du Plooy 2009).

The Mail & Guardian and the Daily Maverick are both online publications that were selected
for content analysis due to their accessibility. The five articles selected from the Mail and
Guardian are Ukraine: Understanding the war in Ukraine 14 March 2022, The Ukraine-Russia
standoff is a watershed moment for Nato published 12 February 2022, Ukraine: A conflict
soaked in contradictions published 7 March 2022, Russia has a fascism problem and it’s not
Ukraine published 7 March 2022 and Ukraine refugees: West is empathic – if you are blonde
published 11 March 2022. The five articles selected from Business Insider are; Sanctions,
oligarchs, terrified refugees - Ukraine invasion one month on, here's what has happened so
far published 26 March 2022, Number of Ukrainians displaced by Russia's invasion has
swelled to nearly 10 million, UN agencies say published 18 March 2022, TikTok is full of
videos of Russia's troop build-up, it may be aiding Putin's intimidation campaign published
16 February 2022, UN says Ukrainian refugee crisis amid Russia's invasion has exceeded
'any worst-case scenario planning' published 21 March 2022 and Putin had a range of ways
to attack Ukraine. He went with the worst-case scenario for the West published 24 February
2022.

The following are the patterns of coverage identified in the Mail & Guardian: discourse on the
Russian invasion, Russian violence against Ukraine, Russian-Ukraine negotiations, pro-
Ukraine and Anti-Russia rhetoric and NATO's position in the war. The common patterns found
in the Business Insider are coverage on refugees, sanctions and cyber security.

The five themes that emerged from the analysis are conflict, misinformation circulating in
social media, racism in western media, displacement and cyber warfare.
In the Mail & Guardian the theme of conflict is rife throughout the articles selected. For
instance in the articles titled The Ukraine-Russia standoff is a watershed moment for Nato
and Russia has a fascism problem and it’s not Ukraine the coverage is largely focused on
the escalation of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine. It discusses in detail the days
leading up to the Russian Invasion and the effects of the conflict such as the deaths of civilian
lives and reporters.

Another theme that can be identified in the Mail & Guardian is the coverage of misinformation
in social media, this can be seen in the article titled Understanding the war in Ukraine, which
states that much of the content relating to war that can be found on platforms such as Tik
Tok and YouTube has either been misidentified or is from other conflicts (Prashad 2022)
The theme of racism in western media can be identified in the Mail & Guardian article titled,
Ukraine refugees: West is empathic – if you are blonde. Here the coverage is largely on the
on the topic of racism and how the lives of Ukrainian refugees are valued above others such
as Palestinians and Syrians in western media and countries, as they believe Ukrainians to
be ‘civilised’ individuals (Karsten 2022).

Displacement is another theme that can be identified, in Business Insider are in the articles
titled, Sanctions, oligarchs, terrified refugees - Ukraine invasion one month on, here's what
has happened so far, UN says Ukrainian refugee crisis amid Russia's invasion has exceeded
'any worst-case scenario planning' and Number of Ukrainians displaced by Russia's invasion
has swelled to nearly 10 million, UN agencies say. In these articles the focus is greatly on

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the displacement of nearly 10 million Ukrainians who have been forced to leave their homes
due to the Russian invasion. They essentially reference the thousands of Ukrainians who
have escaped to neighbouring countries such as Poland.
The theme of cyber warfare can be seen in the Business Insider articles titled, TikTok is full
of videos of Russia's troop build-up, it may be aiding Putin's intimidation campaign. The
coverage in this article relates to the cyber warfare that Russia is using to not only intimidate
society but to also destabilize the situation in Ukraine.

In terms of the South African media’s grand narrative on the Russia-Ukraine conflict, it
appears that they have taken a harsh critique of Russia's activities in the war which appears
to be unanimous across both newspapers. News sources that were used predominately in
the articles are the BBC News, NBC News and The New York Times. The tone of the articles
in the Mail & Guardian are informal and the articles in Business Insider take a more objective
tone of reporting. In addition, most of the articles in the Mail & Guardian are opinion pieces,
in contrast the Business Insider articles consist of mainly fact reporting. The implications of
opinion pieces are frequently convincing because it tends to have a long-term effect on
people's perspectives, regardless of their political affiliation or original stance on a matter.
However, while opinion pieces are useful to persuade, more careful readers tend to prefer
fact reporting as it provides evidence to back its claims.

The apparent racist rhetoric being promoted in the media is an interesting finding from the
content analysis. For example, CBS News reporter Charlie D'Agata remarked that Ukraine
isn't a region, like Iraq or Afghanistan, where violence has raged for decades. It is a relatively
civilized, European city where a war is unlikely to occur (Prashad 2022). Similarly, a former
BBC correspondent who now works for Al Jazeera stated that Ukrainians are not like the
people trying to flee North African; rather, they look like any European family you might live
next door to. Not only are these statements made by news reporter the most egregious
examples of racism, but it is also visible in the massive amount of coverage given to the
Ukraine-Russia conflict by foreign media and broadcasters (Noko 2022).

In conclusion, this essay dealt with a variety of issues relating to the Ukrainian-Russian
conflict, it first conducted a literature review, second methodology and lastly a data analysis.
Here it focused on five of the intergovernmental (IGOs) and non-governmental (NGOs) actors
in the war such as NATO, the United Nations, the European Union, CARE, and the World
Bank which have aided Ukrainians in the form of funding, sanctuary and military supplies.
It also evaluated the significance of international communication in warfare and armed
conflicts, it is apparent that the media has always played a significant role during times of
international conflict. The Ukraine and Russia conflict has been no exception in this regard,
with news sources all over the world providing extensive coverage of the war's operations.
It then went on to analyse inequalities in international information flow patterns.

Moreover, it covered how new media technologies have altered the way conflicts are fought
and how the worldwide audience are educated about the war and their opinions about it.
Furthermore, it discussed the CNN media effect and characterised it as the independent
news media that stimulates public discussion and raises awareness with the aim of
developing a specific policy response to the events being covered. Disinformation and its role
in modern warfare was also elaborated upon, as well as how fake news and disinformation
have emerged so far throughout this battle. Next, it briefly outlined content analysis as a
methodology. It also analysed the Mail & Guardian and Business Insider and why they were
the publications of choice. Story headlines and publication dates were also identified. Lastly,
it included a data analysis that reveals coverage patterns in each newspaper as well as five
themes that guided the analyses namely conflict, misinformation circulating in social media,
racism in western media, displacement and cyber warfare. Following that, it examined what
the media's grand narrative in South Africa. It also assessed the tone of the articles in the
Mail & guardian and Business Insider, as well as whether most of the articles were objective
fact reporting or opinion commentary, and the implications thereof.

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