Note Content

Elements of Literature and the Combined Arts - F1

 

Elements of the Essay

 

An essay is simply defined as a literary composition on a particular subject. It is usually short

and it expresses the author's personal thoughts, feelings, experiences, or observations on a phase
of life that has interested him (Irene Mabel Rich, 1965). Biography, history, travel, art, nature,
personal life, and criticism are among the innumerable subjects in the field of choice of an
essayist. Essay writers are usually people who have plenty of time for reflection.

The essay can be roughly grouped as formal and informal. It is considetvd informal when the
essay is light, humorous, and entertaining; and formal when the essay is heavy, informative, and
intellectually stimulating.

When reading an essay, the following elements should be considered:

1. The issue introduced. This reflects the actual purpose of the writer
2. The writer's viewpoint and thought. The final stand of the author; whether he is for or
against the issue he has discussed. 
3. The relevance of the issue to the life of the reader. This refers to the caption,
responsiveness, and enjoyment of the theme.

Love is man's very pulse. Filipinos, therefore, consider love no less significant. They value love,
as much as life, which is precisely why they have this peculiar sense of humor, this sense of
balance. Like life, they do not take love too seriously. They prefer to come out of it alive and
admirable! Why? They have that sense of humor which Bishop Fulton Sheen describes as
"seeing things through." If a beloved dies, then there's another chance at love. Or if one gets
jilted, this heart pain is only a prelude to a forthcoming happiness in love.

The paragraph above is taken from Visitacion de la Torre's essay entitled The Filipino as Lover.
This is a very good example of an informal essay, for the issue is treated lightly and humorously,
and the style is entertaining. The purpose of the author here is to give us a clear picture of
Filipinos as lovers; they are serious in love but when frustrated, they are brave enough to take the
pains lightheartedly. Such attitude is based on its desire to harmonize with nature through
equilibrium-maintenance (pagkakapantay, di-pagkatalo) according to Fr. Leonardo Mercado.
 

Elements of the Novel

The novel is particularly applicable to a long work of prose fiction dealing with characters,
situations, and scenes that represent those of real life and setting and action in the form of a plot.
The purpose of fiction, whether long (the novel) or short (the short story), is to recount a
narrative which gives us moral lessons and brings us pleasure (Van De Bogart, 1973).

 
Novels, like the other genres, have important elements such as setting, plot, characters, theme,
and at times a moral lesson.

The setting of a novel covers the time, the place, and the background. It involves not only
geography but also the entire climate of beliefs, habits, and values Of a particular region and
historical period (Van De Bogart, 1973). Sometimes, it emphasizes a certain locality like
Chinatown in Sta. Cruz, Manila in Edgardo Reyes' Sa Mga Kuko Ng Liwanag. It is essential that
the setting is in keeping with the story that is told.

The plot is the skeleton or framework which gives shape and proportion to the novel. It can also
be described as the story itself, the actual events or happenings in the novel, the most important
substance which concerns human activity and the changes which occur from the beginning to the
end of the story. The conflict is an important element of the plot. It may be caused by the
physical environment like hostile nature, social environment like the conventions, customs or
traditions that exist in a cultural community, other characters, or it may be a physical, emotional,
and mental handicap the main character himself.

To understand the plot better, we should determine the ideals, motives, ambitions or aspirations
of the main characters. As in Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, the hero's only motive in life is to
regain the love of Daisy Buchanan, who is his only dream in life. The same can be observed in
Edgardo M. Reyes' Sa Mga Kuko Ng Liwanag, which narrated the story of Julio, whose main
objective in going to Manila was to look for his sweetheart, Ligaya.

The theme of the novel is compared to the subject of a painting. It is the universal truth found in
the novel, the main idea or topic. In Boris Pasternak's Dr. Zhivago, the theme is one's inhumanity
to fellow human beings. A theme does not mean moral value, for the latter is the message that
teaches the reader.

The characters are the moving spirit of the novel. They do not only act but also manifest the
moral, emotional, and intellectual qualities endowed to them by the authon The characters may
be animated like Ikabod Bubwit or Boomer, or extra-terrestial beings like Uncle Martin in the
TV series, "My Favorite Martian" (Ortiz, 1976).

 
Characters involve two qualities: morality and personality. Character in the first sense, morality,
has the older status as a technical concept in literary criticism. This will tell us the good guys
from the bad guys.

Character in the second sense, personality, is a more modern concept. Character, as personality,
includes speech, hairstyle, hobby, attitude toward work, and all of the complex attitudes and
feelings that define the individual. Character as personality is important in literature because, as
most authors have discovered, people are interesting.

The consistency of character traits is essential in the story but this does not mean that a character
cannot change as a result of the circumstances through which he passes. The narrator, Nick
Carraway, in Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, changed his naivete at the beginning of the story to
complete adulthood at the end. Another change in character traits is manifested in Efren Abueg's
Dilim Sa Umaga, where the main character, Antero, showed materialism and selfishness at the
beginning and became selfless and nationalistic at the end of the novel.

The Elements of Drama

Drama, like prose fiction, utilizes plot and character, develops a theme, arouses emotion or
appeals to humor, and may be either escapist or interpretative in its dealings with life. Like
poetry, it may draw upon all the resources of language, including verse. Much drama is poetry,
but drama has one characteristic peculiar to itself. It is written primarily to be performed, not
read. It normally presents its action 1) through actors, 2) on a stage, and 3) before an audience.

 
Despite the immense diversity of drama as a cultural activity, all plays have certain elements in
common. They are: 1) plot, 2) character, 3) thought, 4) language (dialogue), 5) theme, 6) climax/
denouement, 7) music and spectacle, 8) costume and make-up, 9) scenery and lighting.

1. 1. Plot. It is the term sometimes used to mean a summary of a play's story. It is concerned
with what happens in the story. More properly, it seems to be the overall structure of a play.
Jn this sense, it is the most important element of drama. Most plots follow the same general
pattern. At the beginning of the play, the author briefly and quickly introduces the
characters and provides information about the earlier events and the present situation. This
introduction is called the exposition. Although the exposition is brief, the information
presented is very important for it helps to explain what happens later or why a character acts
the way he does.

2. Character. The characters must be shaped to fit the needs of the plot, and all parts of the
characterization must fit together.

Unless the people in the play seem to be real people, the play will not hold audience interest.
VVe will find them believable only if we know what they are like and can understand why they
act the way they do. The playwright, therefore, must make the characters credible to the
audience.

In addition to understanding what the characters are like, we should recognize each one's role in
the story. The main character, the person who is attempting to resolve the problem, is called the
protagonist. The conflict he/she faces, frequently involves a struggle with some force outside
himself/herself (external conflicts) as with an antagonist, and/or a struggle within himself/herself
(internal conflict).

3. Thought. Every play, even the most lighthearted comedy, involves thoughts in its broadest
sense. In dramatic structure, thoughts include the ideas and emotions implied by the overall
meaning of the play, sometimes the theme. Not all plays explore significant ideas, but every
play makes some comment on human experience either through direct statement or more
commonly by implication.

 
 4. Language (dialogue). Language is a means of expressing the character and the thoughts
dramatically. Language in the theater refers to the dramatic dialogue' which may be in prose
or in verse. Prose dialogue may be naturalistic or rhetorical Naturalistic dialogue is the
actual way people talk, while the rhetorical dialogue is popularly described as high flown,
florid, and oratorical. Verse dialogue makes use of the conventions of poetry for the
purpose of drama.

Dialogue is the conversation between two or more characters in a play

5. Theme. It is what a story means. It is a conviction about the real world we live in, and it
may be stated in several ways. Theme tends to be complex, and may include contradictory
evaluations (Colwell, 1968).

Theme may be directly or indirectly stated. The stated theme, rather than the enacted theme, is
the heart of a play. Theme is enacted throughout the plot.

6. Climax/Denouement. The climax is the scene or incident that is the fruition of the
accumulated suspense, and that stirs the most intense feelings or emotions. It can also be
described as the turning point of the story. It is very likely to be the most elaborately
presented scene in the play. A full-length play will have several big scenes, but the climax
is to be distinguished from the other big scenes by its greater intensity and its structural
relationship to the denouement and development.

Denouement is the working out of the plot, following the climax. In this final part of the play,
usually brief but sometimes a full act, the playwright brings the conflict to an end and explains
how and why everything turned out the way it did.

It is the phase of the final part in the plot-pattern that clarifies or simplifies the complicated
situation, and the solution, the phase that gives the answer, whether favorable or unfavorable to
the question that the plot has presented, developed, and carried through a conclusion.

 
In a full-length play, it is frequently possible to assign certain incidents in the falling action to
denouement and certain incidents to the solution. In the one-act play, however, the denouement
and the solution are frequently indistinguishable.

7. Music and Spectacle. Aside from "background" music, there is music of speech and of
movement. Spectacle intensifies emotions, whatever these emotions are. In the theater, the
element Of a spectacle heightens the atmosphere, whether Of vitality or terror or sorrow.

Music and spectacle were an integral part of the performance of Greek dramas. We know from
historical evidence that the choir danced and sang their choral odes. Aristophanes' later comedies
called for spectacular costumes, especially for the choirs who played the role of frogs, or clouds,
or birds. Shakespeare resorted quite frequently, if not always, to the use of music in the
production play. The Elizabethan playhouse had a gallery reserved for musicians. Modern
productions of Greek and Elizabethan plays have increasingly made use of these two elements.

8. Costume and Make-Up. Every costume should be comfortable and securely put together
so that the performer does not have to worry about it once it is on. Before the dress
rehearsal, all the parts of each costume should be hung together and tagged. A dressing
crew from the costume committee should be on hand to help.

The make-up crew should be allowed plenty of time to do their work after each actor is dressed.
Everything in the make-up box should have its own place and be covered when not in use. Make-
up pencils should be sharp, sponges should be clean, and when grease paint and other materials
are running low, they should be replaced before they are needed.

9. Scenery and Lighting. Scenery and lighting, furniture-painted backdrops, or large props,
should be real. The scenery may be simple, for it is supposed only to suggest the scene. The
imagination of the audience will complete the picture.

Proper lighting can add a great deal to the realism of the play. Consider brightness, color, and
direction in lighting the play. Does the action take place in the bright light of morning, or in the
dull-gray of evening?

 
Is the scene gay or mysterious? White, yellow, amber, and pink lights brighten the stage and are
happy colors. Blue and green dull the scene and produce a cold effect. Red and purple are
mysterious.

Stage lighting is always electrical, and only the assigned and responsible persons should touch
the electrical equipment. An open flame such as a candle or a lantern is never used on the stage.

Importance of Reading Literary Works

Literary works of art like poetry, stories, novels, and plays are worth reading for they not only
entertain us or give pleasure. From some of the characters of the stories or novels, we learn
moral values that can improve our life. Reading literary works helps us acquire knowledge and
information particularly the individual's progress and achievement, thus serving as inspiration.

Note Content

The Drama - F2

Chapter 8

THE DRAMA
 

Drama, which is believed to have its origin in the art of dance, is found in some form in almost
every society, primitive and civilized, and has served a variety of functions in the community. At
its best, it is a reflection Of many phases of life. We learn that the past, as shown on the board of
the theater, is not concerned only with kings and great personages, but with peasants and
mechanics, saints and sinners, and rich and poor as well; that it is not the exclusive province of
fine writers but also of inspired clowns and strolling mummers.

What Is Drama?
 

The abridged Oxford Dictionary defines drama as a composition in prose or in verse, adapted
to be acted and is represented with accompanying gesture, costume, and scenery, as in real
life.

Drama does not however, need a stage, nor does it need costume, props and scenery. What drama
does need is an individual or a group of people who use themselves — their bodies and their
minds -- through action and offers through speech to tell a story.

Drama in ancient Greek meant something that is acted out, or lived through. It is essentially
social and involves contact, communication and the negotiation of meaning. The group nature of
the work imposes certain pressure on the participant, but also brings considerable rewards
(O'Neill and Lambert, 1982).

In drama, the essential requirement for human beings is being developed such as the ability to
take the role of the other people. Humans recognize the emotional responses of other people,
because they feel what the other person feels. Heathcote, et al. (1984) quoted that dramatic
activity is the direct result of the ability to role-play — to want to know how it feels to be in
someone else's shoes. This experience is most obvious in theater. Theatre is a direct experience
that is shared when people imagine and behave as if they were other than themselves in some
other place at another time (Neelands, 1990). 

As audience in the theatre, we allow actors to stand in for us, but we still maintain our separation
or distance. When we identify with the characters the actors are playing, we enlarge the domain
of our being. The actors do not become the characters they are playing, but they bring themselves
and their own experience to their interpretations of the roles in the text. The actors, too, are
experienceing both the subjective and objective reality through the aesthetic distance of the
drama.

Drama is a social encounter in a special place and in a special time. The actors and the spectators
move between real time and imaginary time, from existential reality to dramatic reality.

 
A World-Wide Show (A Dramatic Entertainment)

Miss, Saigon, which was produced by Cameron Mackintosh of England whose company
received a Queen's award for Export Achievement was staged in the Cultural Center of the
Philippines in March 2001. The title Miss Saigon was conceived by Alain-Boublil, a lyricist and
Claude-Michel Shonberg who wrote the musical score.

As to casting, the producers unanimously felt that they had to tell the very real story
authentically and as the music was resolutely western despite its echoes of the Orient, they
needed Asian voices that could sing Western music. This world-wide search took them to 10
countries including the Philippines where they found the majority of their original London cast.
It is here that Miss Lea Salonga of the Philippines became the first star of the show.

Miss Saigon proved to be an overwhelming triumph when it opened at London's greatest musical
theater, Drury Lane. In 1991, a New York production of Miss Saigon opened at the Broadway
Theatre to a huge audience and even bigger headlines. Subsequently, similar successful
productions have been staged in Tokyo, Los Angeles, Budapest, Chicago, Toronto, Seattle,
Stuttgart, Sydney, Stockholm and Copenhagen. Then, in 1999, they thought of staging Miss
Saigon in Concert in Manila. The contract was finalized in 2000, and in March 2001, the
dramatic entertainment was staged at the Cultural Center of the Philippines (souvenir program,
2001).

Such type of production is recommended to be viewed by students taking up "Introduction to the

Humanities."

Development of Drama

Drama originated probably among the primitive tribes in the dance of religious festivals or in
mimetic actions for purposes of showing how a certain feat was accomplished on a given
occasion, like the hunting exploits of some members of the tribe.

1. Ancient Drama. Among the Egyptians Of about 2000 B.C.E., drama existed in religious
ceremonies for the worship Of Osiris. There are some evidences of drama in the Book of
Job and in the song Of Solomon, where occasionally there appear to be parts for two
speakers. But the drama, as it is known today, in distinct forms of tragedy and comedy,
originated in Greece in the festivals of Dionysus in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C.E.,
where poetry, a dithyrambic ode with song and dance, was presented by a leader and a
chorus. In the dramatic contests under Pisistratus, the dithyramb developed into drama. The
earliest Greek dramatic production on record is the tragedy won by Thespis of Icaria in
about 534 B.C.E., when he unconsciously separated from the chorus and made a solo and
later followed by the choir. Following Thespis, Greek tragedy reached its highest peak in
the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Aeschylus added a second, and
Sophocles a third actor to the leader-chorus drama, and these actors in various masks and
costumes took various parts. Aescyhlus' characters are heroic and super-human; his style is
lofty and magnificent. Sophocles' characters are idealized but true to life, though life
furnishes no such models. His plots are models of skill; his language' the perfection of Attic
Greek.
 

2. Medieval Drama. There was gradual development of the three kinds of medieval play. First,
the mystery play was based on the Holy Scriptures. In France, but not in England, it is to be
distinguished from the miracle play, which dealt with the life of a saint or a miracle of the
Virgin. In England, both these forms were termed miracles. Second was the morality play,
where the chief characters represented abstract qualities, such as vice, humanity, or death,
and the tone was generally philosophical. The moralities contained humor.
 

As plays were moved into the churchyard, then into the streets and market places, and finally
came under the control of guilds, elements of humor and realism began to creep into the drama.
One of the first comic characters was the devil. From this development emerged the third kind of
medieval drama, which is the secular drama dealing with everyday characters such as lawyers,
the merchant, the student, the young wife, and the old foolish husband.

3. Renaissance Drama. With the rediscovery of classical literature during this period, the
Greek and Roman dramatists were imitated first in Italy and later, with the spread of
humanism, in France, Germany, and England. Other state performances, particularly the
sport spectacles, were meaningless, but the commedia dell' arte was original and lifelike. It
was an unwritten impromptu drama, produced on platforms on the streets by strolling
players. Masks and costumes, conventionalized with time, told the atidience what to expect
of the characters, all of whom were popular types, used again and again.
 

The most brilliant 16th century drama was from the English, chiefly because, in the reign of
Elizabeth I, drama was the source of entertainment for all classes of people. All of the medieval
and renaissance types of drama were produced.

4. Drama of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. In England, the casual charm that characterized
Elizabethan drama died out under the Puritan regime and did not return until near the end of
the 18th century. The theaters, closed during the Civil War and the Commonwealth period,
 reopened under Charles I to produce the sophisticated, witty, and coarse comedies of
William Wycherly, George Farguhar, and others, and the bombastic, spectacular, and heroic
tragedies of John Dryden, and as the Stuart reign ended, English comedy became maudlin
and sentimental, and tragedy became stiff and dull. In the middle of the 18th century, the
theater was briefly revived by the comedy of manners of Oliver Goldsmith and Richard
Sheridan.

French drama emerged in the 17th century, from its medieval and religious influences, with the
classical tragedies of Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine and the superb comedies of Moliere.
German drama came to maturity much more slowly than did the Roman and English dramas.
Before the middle of the 18th century, the only playwright of note was Hans Sachs, who wrote
formal comedies and tragedies and popular carnival plays. Although English players introduced
Marlowe and Shakespeare to Germany at the end of the 16th century, theatrical performances
soon degenerated into improvised farce, featuring certain shock characters, without however, the
merits of the commedia dell' arte.

The popular 18th century drama in France was the farcical comedy; in England, the comedy of
manners and the d0mestic drama. In the 19th century, romantic drama flourished through0Ut
Europe. Idealized historical or sentimental characters figured in complex plots Of adventure and
triumphant love. Various types of romantic drama, melodrama' the historical play, and the
fantasy play flourished in Italy and in Russia.

5. Modern Drama. Credit should be given to Ibsen, a Norwegian dramatist, for the
development of the modern drama. Ibsen's influence on modern drama was immense. The
production of his work throughout Europe stimulated a great burst of dramatic activity
everywhere. The last two decades of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century
witnessed a great variety of trends. There was a brief revival of romantic fantasy in France;
symbolism was carried to great extremes; expressionism appeared in Germany after World
War I; comedy was rejuvenated in England and the United States. French impressionism
made a small showing in the theater; poetic drama reached new heights in England, Ireland,
France, Spain, and the United States.
 

Oriental Drama

Understanding the Oriental drama, the Japanese, the Chinese, and the Filipino drama, in
particular, will help us appreciate Asian heritage, culture, and civilization more. This is a culture
or civilization not far from those established by Rome, Greece, or other countries.

 
Like Western drama, the drama of Asia originated as an elaboration of liturgical practices.
Eastern drama, in general, is based on the concept Of sangita (or sammita), the threefold art of
music, dance, and poetry fused into single artistic entity. The emphasis is on performance rather
than on the intellectual significance Of the subject matter. Asian actors long ago rejected realistic
Presentation in favor of abstraction and symbolism. In the 19th century, Western influences
began to be felt in the Asian theater, resulting not in the nature of an assimilation, but in a
complete break with native tradition. Thus, in modern times, the classical theater in Eastern
countries subsists as a national heritage side by side with the developing techniques of a new
drama patterned after European practice but strongly colored by local habit and taste.

Note Content

Philippine Drama - F3
Philippine Drama

Before the Spanish period, the early forms of the Philippine drama were the duplo and the
karagatan. The duplo was a poetical debate held by trained men and women in the ninth night,
the last night of the mourning period for the dead. The male participants, bellacos, are the heads
of the game. The karagatan was also a poetical debate like the duplo, but its participants were
amateurs. Both the duplo and the karagatan were held in the homes. The theme was all about a
ring that fell into the sea. 

The first recorded drama was staged in Cebu way back in 1598. It was a comedia written
by Vicente Puche and was performed in honor Of Msgr. Pedro de AgurtO' Cebu's first
bishop (Marcelo 1972). Eleven years later, in 1609, another stage play portraying the life
of Santa Barbara was staged in Bicol.

 Three kinds of plays became Popular among the masses during the Spanish era. They were
the Cenakulo, the Moro-moro, and the Zarzuela. The Ati-atihan and the Moriones emerged as
street dramas.

1. Cenakulo. It is a very heavy drama shown in relation to the life sacrifices and death of
Jesus Christ. It is like a passion play presented and celebrated during the monthof March or
April, depending upon the exact date of the Holy Week. There are two kinds of
presentations: the ablada (oral) and the kantada (song) (Panganiban, 1954). There are
several versions of the Cenakulo. The Tagalog, Iluko, Kapampangan, Bikol, and Bisayan
versions are some examples. The Cenakulo is divided into several parts, one part for each
night of the Holy Week. Each performance lasts from three to four hours. In Malibay, Pasay
for instance, the entire Cenakulo cycle starts with the creation and ends with the
resurrection.

The Cenakulo or Passion Play is performed before the villagers in an open space, usually the
church patio, at one end of which a platform is usually erected. The audience provide their own
benches, and would come for nine nights to complete the serial. They come, it appears, for a
chance to applaud their favorite Biblical characters and to boo the Roman centurion. They come
to witness the crucifixion or the resurrection when Christ ascends from the open tomb to be
greeted with much cheering, fireworks, and the vigorous playing of a small town band. The
resurrection scene is reenacted complete with the sound of thunder and lightning and the
darkening of the scene.

In recent years, there has been a decrease in the Cenakulo performances first in the cities and
then in the provinces. This liturgic drama gradually emerged on the professional stages where the
modern technology of lighting, sound, and other special effects add to the spectacle of its
staging. It has also been repeatedly filmed for special showing during the lenten season in Manila
and in the provinces.

2. Moro-moro. It is a cloak-and-dagger play depicting the wars between the Christians and
the Muslims, with the Christians always on the winning side. The first Moro-moro was
written by Fr. Jeronimo Perez and was staged in Manila in 1637, to commemorate
Governor General Consueras' victory over the Muslims of Mindanao. Since then, it has
become the favorite play of the people, especially during the town fiestas.

3. Zarzuela. It is a melodrama with songs and dances that have a three-in-one-act play. It is
intended to make the mass feeling towards love, fear, grief, sorrow or any emotional reactions
sublime. It sometimes shows the political and social conditions of our country. The musical part
of the zarzuela has given much opportunity for creativity and appreciation of the audience until
the revolt in Cavite in the year 1872. It is played by 20 to 25 professional zarzuela artists (actors,
actresses, and extras).

The zarzuela is a musical comedy. Rizal wrote a zarzuela entitled Junto Al Pasig (Beside the
Pasig). It was staged at the Ateneo de Manila on December 8, 1880 on the occasion of the
celebration of the Feast Day of the Immaculate Conception, patron saint of the college.

At the beginning of the American rule, the Moro-moro was replaced by the zarzuela. The
memories of the Philippine revolution were still fresh in the minds Of the Filipinos, so the early
zarzuelas were nationalistic in theme and plot. Among them were Pag-ibig sa Lupang
Tinubuan (Love for Native Land) by Pascual Poblete; Tanikalang Ginto (Gold Chain) by
Juan Abad; Malaya (Free) by Tomas Remigio; Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday,
Today, and Tomorrow) by Aurelio Tolentino; and Walang Sugat (No Wound) by Severino
Reyes. These zarzuelas were popular among the masses. They were so nationalistic that the
American authorities banned them. Poblete and Tolentino, two of the most nationalistic zarzuela
writers, were put in jail.

The introduction of the Hollywood "talkies" (talking pictures) in 1930 marked the eclipse of the
Filipino theater. Like the Moro-moro, the zarzuela vanished as a popular theater art because the
people patronized the American movies, but not the Ati-atihan, Cenakulo and Moriones that are
still shown up to the present. The period from 1905 to 1930 was the Golden Age of the zarzuelas
in the Philippines (Fernandez, 1978).

Worthy to mention is the organization of the Zarzuela Foundation of the Philippines by Ms.
Imelda R. Marcos and Mr. Teodoro F. Valencia to revive and develop this particular theater
form. The rationale Of this "foundation" is "hopefully to create a mass base of support for the
zarzuelas all over the country."

The foundation successfully revived one Of the Pre-war zarzuela favorites, Walang Sugat, 1902
by Severino Reyes in 1977. The revival of the old zarzuelas, however, according to the
organizers of the foundation, "is just a beginning, 100king back into the cultural past in
preparation for the next stop which is to produce new works relevant to the present."

4. Moriones. The Morion festival is a Lenten ritual that is as colorful as it is unique. It is

celebrated every Holy Week in Marinduque, an island at the southern end of Luzon,
particularly in the towns of Boac, Gasan, and Mogpog.

Morion means mask or visor, (Fig. 8.2) which is the top part of the medieval Roman armor
covering the face (Alcantara, C. 1974). It is this mask carved from dapdap wood that is the focal
point of the Moriones celebration.

The climax of the Morion festival is the pugutan ceremony held at noon of Easter Sunday. This
part of the celebration is held on the dried river bed outside Boac. Here, the local residents chose
Longinus, who at the time of Pilate, drove his spear into the side of Jesus Christ as he hung from
the cross. Legend says that Longinus was blind in his left eye, the sight of which was restored
when a drop of blood that spurted from his thrust fell on it. When Christ resurrected, Longinus
was the first to proclaim his Divinity. He went all over town proclaiming the miraculous
recovery of his sight and professing belief in the Man who called Himself Jesus Christ.
 

The Roman authorities could not allow such apostasy, so they sent men after him and when he
was captured, he was put to death by beheading.

Men participate in this ritual and go about the streets of Marinduque as morions. They perform
this as an act of penance or thanksgiving for some favor granted in the past. Long before the
week of celebration, the participating menfolk would be hard at work preparing their masks for
the festival.

5. Ati-atihan. The Ati-atihan is a pagan ritual which has become an annual affair that the
natives look forward to with great expectation. Undoubtedly, it is the most extravagant
fiesta in the Philippines celebrated in Kalibo, Aklan, every third Sunday of January in honor
of the Infant Jesus. Its origin has been lost in antiquity. One of the charms of the custom,
however, is that, its practice remains long

after the practical reasons for its performance have been forgotten. However, all agree that the
Ati-atihan derived its name from Atis, the aboriginal Negritos of the area in the Visayas (Austria,
1981).

"Hala Bira! Hala Bira!" This resonant cry fills the air as the people of Kalibo gyrate through the
streets in a hypnotized mass of dancing and shaking. Feet stomping, hands clapping, bongos
beating, and ears ringing all sound out the rhythmic beat of the Ati-atihan. The Spaniards tried to
do away with this pagan ritual, but when they found out that the tradition of the festival was very
deeply rooted in the people, they tried to give the celebration some Christian significance and
meaning. (Fig. 8.3)

Legend says that the festival was later dedicated to the Santo Niño because of the victories won
by the Spaniards in Kalibo against the Muslim attacks, when they were forced to abandon
Mindanao. Fortified stone Watchtowers were constructed in strategic places along the coasts.
These citadels were under the protection of patron saints and that Kalibo is named after the Santo
Nino. In One particular raid, it was the fortress of the Santo Nino that turned the tide of the
battle, for all the other coastal fortresses had either been silenced or taken. The Santo Nino was
besieged, and the defenders prepared themselves for a hand-to-hand combat by daubing their
faces and bodies with soot 'til they looked like the Atis in disguise. As such, they gallantly made
their stand and courageously fought to defend the fort. This ingeniously devised scheme changed
the course of the battle. The Muslims fled in their kumpits and the people of Kalibo ascribed the
victory to the Santo Nifio and dedicated the celebration of the Ati-atihan to the Infant Christ.

With wild revelry, the people of Aklan celebrate the Ati-atihan dressed in outlandish costumes
and get-ups. This native Mardi Gras finds the participants dressed in improvised attires of
feathers, coconut shells, and palm fronds, as they imitate in their own way the garish tribal
costumes of the Atis. The merrymakers throw their inhibitions to the wind as they prance about
in gay abandon for three consecutive nights.

The Modern Philippine Drama

The modern Philippine drama/ stage play was rejuvenated upon the establishment of the
Repertory Philippines in June Of 1967 which was founded by Zeneida "Bibot" Amador and
Baby Barredo. In its years Of existence, Repertory Philippines has become the country's leading
theater company, keeping abreast of new materials and demanding outstanding performance
from its extraordinary talents.
  

Note Content

The Theater - F4

The term "theater" refers to an art form that involves performing carefully planned actions and
emotions in front of an audience. It has six elements, which will be discussed below performers,
audience, director, performance space, design, and text.

Philippine theater is described as a Wide range of mimetic performances that were created and
presented during Occasions. These performances are also presented with specific social
objectives in mind.

Elements of Theater

1. Performers

 These are persons who are onstage and portray their characters in a convincing way for the
audience.

 
2. Audience

The performers have to present in front of an audience and connect with them. They tend to
respond to the energy the audience shows while watching the play.

3. Director

The director serves as an overseer to the entire production. He or she ensures that the performers
are doing their job well, including understanding and delivering the text. The director also
ensures that the production design works well.

4. Performance Space

This element may refer to the space in which the actors can perform. It may also refer to the
space for the audience to sit or stand.

5. Design

The design is essential in placing the overall feel of the production. There are two aspects of
design. Visual aspects include lighting, set, and costumes, while nonvisual aspects primarily
include sound.

6. Text

This refers to the script. This must be present in a particular play or production.

Forms and Types of Philippine Theater

A typology of Philippine theater was developed based on another typology created by Dr.
Prospero R. Covar, a Filipino anthropologist. In this typology, there are four dramatic traditions
based on where contemporary theater takes place: the dulang pahiyang (rituals), the dulambayan
(people's theater), the teatrong pansimbahan (church-related theater), and theater as art.

Dulang Pahiyang 

In this category, theater is not viewed as a separate activity, but as part of life. Rituals fall under
this type. Other forms include duplo, balagtasan, bayok, and balitaw.

 Rituals
A ritual is described as a way to communicate with gods or spirits. This involves a shaman,
usually a babaylan or an albularyo, calling the spirit and being possessed by that spirit. While in
that particular state, the shaman performs a sacrifice or pours water over the offerings.

Duplo
The duplo is described as a poetic debate, in which the balagtasan was derived from. The
balagtasan involves poems with four lines with 12 syllables per line.

 Bayok
The bayok is a Maranao mimetic joust. The theme of the joust depends on the occasion on when
the joust is to be performed. Two or more singers interpret the theme in a spontaneous song-
dancedebate. The singers, however, have to be careful in articulating verses in order to avoid
heated conflict.

 Balitaw
The balitaw is a poetic debate between a man and a woman. Although the term "balitaw" may
also refer to the song and its lyrics, or the dance, it may also refer to the entire performance itself
since it exhibits an exchange of words in a hypothetical situation. The balitaw later evolved into
drama-balitaw, which involves portraying a particular story on stage with minimal set.

Dulambayan

Also known as people's theater, this is considered "theater in the context of social movements."
Plays under this type aim to improve current systems of government. Common among unions of
peasants, groups of workers, and liberationist movements, these theatrical forms include drama
simboliko, historical plays, plays with social realism, teatrong bayan ng manggagawa, people's
theater, nationalist/ protest/ propaganda theater, and street theater.

 Drama Simboliko
This refers to allegorical nationalist drama which began during the American regime. However,
this was revived during the Marcos regime.

 Street Theater
This refers to theater that is presented outside the theater building and without the stage area. The
political theater is a form of street theater. However, street theater can also be applied in rituals
and religious plays.

Teatrong Pansimbahan

This type oftheater is concerned with spirituality. This is usually performed depending on the
events in the church calendar (Catholic, Protestant). There are some forms that are traditional or
folk, such as in the case of the senakulo and the komedya.

 Komedya
The komedya is a play in verse that portrays the lives of saints. However, the komedya may also
depict actual events, or tales about royalty in the kingdoms of Africa, Europe, Arabia, and Persia.

Dapit
Dapit refers to the tradition of fetching the image of the community's patron saint. This is usually
done the night before the fiesta or even on the day itself. A typical dapit involves escorting the
image from the house of the caretaker to the church, accompanied with music played by the
brass band and dance.

 Flores
Flores, which is presented in the month of May, has three variations. It may refer to the festival
of flowers in honor of Mary, mother of Jesus (flores de Mayo), the everyday offering of flowers
to the image of the Virgin (alay), or the closing procession on the last Sunday of May (flores de
Maria). Another variant of the flores is the sunduan, which involves males fetching young ladies
and going together with the procession. People participating in the sunduan carry beautiful
arrangements of flowers.
 

Hudas
This refers to the burning of the image of Judas Iscariot, which is popular in Bulacan, Pampanga,
and Cebu. This is usually held on the evening of Black Saturday or on the morning of Easter
Sunday.

 Huling Hapunan
This is an actual supper enacted to commemorate the last supper of Jesus with his disciples on
the night before His crucifixion.

Moriones
This is a short street play portraying the capture and beheading of Roman soldier Longinus, who
was involved in the crucifixion of Jesus Christ.

 Paghuhugas ng Paa
This short ritual reenacts Christ washing the feet of his disciples before the Last Supper. This
ritual demonstrates humility and serving others.

 Panunuluyan
This is a procession that reenacts Mary and Joseph's search for an inn in Bethlehem. This
involves using two karo or floats, which bear the images of Mary and Joseph, and singing of one
male and one female singer accompanied by a brass band.

 Pastores or Shepherds' Dance

 

This is a reenactment of shepherds honoring the infant Jesus. This is typically presented before
Christmas Day. In some areas, pastores involves a group of singers dressed as shepherds who go
to every house in the area singing and dancing to Christmas songs.

Osana
The osana is a short reenactment of the triumphal entry of Jesus Christ to Jerusalem.
 

Pangangaluluwa
This refers to a tradition involving carolers who go to each house in the community to act like
souls in purgatory and beg for alms.

Siete Palabras
This is a reenactment of the last three hours of Jesus Christ on the cross. It was during this time
when the Seven Last Words were stated.

 Sinakulo
A sinakulo is a play performed during the Holy Week. It depicts the story of salvation, starting
from the creation of the world up to the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The
traditional sinakulo focused on the final triumph of good over evil. However, the sinakulo
evolved and is now depicting the struggle between sectors and classes.

 Salubong
This short reenactment focuses on the meeting of Mary, mother of Jesus, and Jesus Christ who
rose from the dead.

Soledad
This procession, which is usually performed late in the evening, portrays Mary's grief after
burying Jesus Christ.

Tatlong Hari
This is a reenactment of the travel of the Magi to worship the Infant Jesus in Bethlehem.

 Via Crucis
This tradition is a way of remembering the events leading to Christ's death and burial.

Theater as Art
In this category, theater under this category is based on Western models. Theater is viewed as a
profession. Production values, including set design, props, and lighting, are being considered
seriously. Plays are being performed in formal private buildings and school auditoriums. The
culture of ticketing also plays a role in making sure that the profession will thrive.

Related to school-based theater is the children's theater, which may refer to plays with children
as actors. It may also include plays performed by adults for an audience of children. Children's
theater can also be communitybased, which aims to educate the children and the rest of the
members of the community on basic rights of the children and issues concerning them.

Puppet theater is another example. This is also frequently performed in schools. This is a form of
drama in which puppets portray the roles of the characters in the story. These puppets can be flat
figures that cast shadows on a screen. Rounded miniature figures that are controlled by the
puppeteer can also be used. These rounded figures can be manipulated using hands, rods, strings,
or wires.

Another example of theater as art is opera, which refers to a form of musical theater that was
introduced in the Philippines during the late 19th century.

Theater can also be classified based on influences seen in the form. These are indigenous theater,
plays with Spanish influence, and theater with Anglo-American influence.

Indigenous Theater

This type of theater is usually seen in the form of rituals, mimetic customs, and dances.
Indigenous theater has mostly Malay qualities and is performed in communities that comprise
about 5% of the country's population. The balitaw, duplo, and Maranao bayok also fall under this
type.

Plays with Spanish Influence

These plays include drama, komedya, sinakulo, and sarswela. A sarswela is considered to be the
most popular form of musical theater in the Philippines. It is generally described as a musical
play with a particular structure and standards. Themes depicted in sarswelas usually revolve in
Filipino domestic and social situations.

Theater with Anglo-American Influence

This comprises of bodabil, and modern Filipino plays written in English and in Filipino.
 

 Bodabil
The bodabil is a stage presentation that consists of a range of musical and comedy acts, skits and
monologues, novelty and acrobatic numbers, solos and chorus lines. During the 1980's, this was
used mainly as a form of political theater. Nowadays, the bodabil is performed during town
fiestas, in film musicals, and in radio.

 Modern or Original Plays by Filipinos

During the 1990's, Writers continue to create theater texts using the Filipino language. The
themes of these plays still revolve around social, economic, political, and cultural issues in the
country. Other developments in theater include the existence of the pro-gay culture movement,
and the growing number of theater scholars.

There are two types of modern plays written by Filipinos. The representational style involves
making an illusion of reality with wellrounded characters. The representational play can be
psychological, which gives emphasis on the problems of individuals, or social, which focuses on
individual problems within the context of the society. An original Filipino play can also be
presentational, meaning it focuses on discussing social issues and ideas. A presentational play
can be categorized into the following:

 Documentary Style
This is performed to connect historical persons and events to the present.

Brechtian Theater
This is also known as theater of instruction. Inspired by Bertolt Brecht, this play features a social
orientation and utilizes mime, dances, songs, stylized sets and costumes, and typical characters.
Themes are usually taken from history, folklore, and other sources. Related to the Brechtian
theater is the Absurd Theater, in which situations are deliberately exaggerated to prove an idea
and whose characters are seen as types instead of as individuals.

Dula-Tula
The dula-tula is a variant of the dramatic monologue, which involves one actor speaking while
acting out his emotions and thoughts. However, in the dula-tula, other characters are present to
play all the parts, and one actor simply acts as the narrator and is the only person speaking in the
play. This was first performed by UP Repertory Company during the early 1970s.

 
 Traditional forms such as sinakulo and komedya.