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Abcc1103 Bi
Abcc1103 Bi
ABCC1103
Introduction to Communication
Arfah Yusof
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
ABCC1103 Introduction to Communication is one of the courses offered by the
Faculty of Applied Social Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This
course is worth three credit hours and should be covered within 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a core course for students pursuing the degree in Bachelor of
Communication and Bachelor of Multimedia Communication. This module aims
to impart the basic concepts in communication, its development and functions in
human relations.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm that you have the course material, know the course
requirements and understand how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Be familiar with communication as an important discipline and its
importance in various life contexts;
2. Explain the scope of communication;
3. Identify issues relating to the development of the communication field; and
4. Discuss the implications of information communication technology on
communication.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 11 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented
below:
Topic 3 explains early models used and how communication takes place in
different contexts.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There is no prerequisite requirement for learners taking this subject.
EVALUATION METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
INTRODUCTION
There are several definitions of communication given by experts that attempt to
explain the process of communication. However, these definitions more or less
differ because these experts are influenced by the contexts and changes in the
communication landscape that take place over time.
ACTIVITY 1.1
To further enhance your understanding of its meaning, we will explore the other
definitions of communication. Each definition has an intended objective meant to
suit a particular time and context. Although communication is considered a
complex process, it can be seen from various dimensions depending on the
context; role of the source and receiver; purpose; and meaning of the symbols
involved. We will now examine the definitions of communication from various
perspectives, based on the purpose for which the communication was made.
of concepts to look at how people use symbols (in the form of words) to
form uniformity in meaning to be shared with others.
When a relationship runs very well, individuals become satisfied and pleased by
the experience. If the reverse takes place, misunderstanding and conflict will
plague the relationship.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Give examples of scenarios where communication is used to do the
following:
(a) Forms uniformity between a person and another;
(b) Distributes information;
(c) Transmits ideas; and
(d) Shares information.
ACTIVITY 1.2
The concept of „Art for the Society‰ is always upheld by artistes such
as poets, painters, musicians, etc. Do you know that the media used by
them are also a form of communication that can connect the artiste
with the society? What is your opinion on this matter?
ACTIVITY 1.3
What is communication?
1. Communication is a process of acting on information.
2. Communication is a process whereby people assign meanings to
stimuli in order to make sense of the world.
3. Communication is the transmission of ideas, emotions and skills
by using graphics, symbols and words.
4. Communication is a sharing of information.
5. Communication is a process where one person tells something to
another through the written or spoken word.
Communication takes place all the time and sometimes it happens without being
realised. A person involves himself in communication either verbally or non-
verbally. This can be seen from various activities such as talking, listening,
thinking, watching films, watching television, listening to the radio, discussing in
a group or meditating. A person who is silent may be communicating within
himself as he is thinking of something.
The capacity to communicate well and effectively is often related to the success of
a person in adapting himself in various situations be it in personal relationships,
between members of different cultures, and in oneÊs professional and private life.
The failure to communicate well will affect the establishment of relationships.
The importance of communication can be seen in several aspects that involve:
(a) Our personal lives;
(b) Career advancement;
(c) Ethics in communicating;
(d) Adapting in a multicultural society; and
(e) Changes in technology and relationships.
ACTIVITY 1.4
ACTIVITY 1.5
Communication is a process that has neither a beginning nor an end. The process
of channelling messages is continuous. Therefore, communication is said to be a
dynamic process.
1.3.1 Source
The source is the originator of a message. Everyone can be a source whether one
is an individual, a group, an association or an organisation. In the
communication process, the source is anyone who has an opinion, idea, feeling or
message which he intends to transmit to another person. If the source says
something or explains something to another person, this process is called coding
or forming the message. For example, the explanation for a problem given by a
Mathematics teacher to his students constitutes the message. An effective
communication process requires the source to have the four characteristics
shown in the diagram in Figure 1.7.
The source must also have the ability to consider and evaluate things. This
is crucial in the encoding process. If the source is not capable of normal
thought processes, that person would face barriers in trying to convey his
message, which would result in ineffective communication.
(b) Attitude
A source should have the right attitude towards the message and believe
that what he is communicating will benefit his listeners. If a negative
attitude exists, it is very difficult for the communication process to run
smoothly or have an impact. The link between attitude and the message is
also important. If there is incongruity between the two, the communication
process would be ineffective.
For example, a person who is not convinced of his message would find it
hard to deliver it. The audience may lose confidence in him and ignore his
message.
For example, a specialist speaking about health issues associated with the
haze should not be too technical in explaining the causes and precautions to
be taken, or his audience, who may be ordinary housewives and parents,
would be more confused than enlightened.
1.3.2 Receiver
The receiver in a communication process is the target of a message. A receiver
can be an individual, a small group, an organisation or a large number of
persons. In mass communication, receivers of a message are called the audience.
The audience or receiver normally possess certain characteristics such as the skill
to communicate, attitude, level of knowledge, as well as positions in a socio-
cultural system.
(b) Attitude
In communicating, the receiver must also have a positive attitude in
interpreting a message. If there is conflict caused by a clash in attitude of a
source and his receiver then the communication that takes place will be of
no benefit.
1.3.3 Message
Have you ever watched a war movie? Do you know the message being conveyed
when a white flag is shown?
A message is the meaning contained in the words or symbols used by the source
to deliver and express his intention. It is a result of the encoding process carried
out by the source based on his thinking.
A message should contain ideas and feelings intended for the receiver. A
message contains ideas and feelings that are intended to be shared between the
source and the receiver. However, ideas and feelings can only be communicated
through certain symbols, be they verbal, non-verbal, concrete or abstract.
In short, whatever that has meaning can be termed as a message. For example, a
manager shows a serious face during a meeting when he receives the sales report
that shows a drop in sales. Certainly, the message to be understood by the
marketing staff is that they have to think of a promotional strategy for an
effective integrated marketing communication.
There are three main characteristics which a message must have if it is to be sent
effectively to the receiver. They are:
In forming a message, the source has to select and arrange both the code
and content of the message. How a person prepares his message depends
on several factors. One of the factors is the style of the preparation. The
person who intends to communicate also influences the preparation of the
message.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1.3.4 Channel
A channel can be defined as a tool or mediator that channels the message from
the source to one or more receivers. The selection of channels determines the
effectiveness of the communication. Every channel has certain weaknesses and
strengths. To get the best impact, the most effective way is to use several
channels to deliver a message. Other than that, the choice of a channel must take
into account its suitability with the situation and the receiver. In general,
channels are available in the following forms (see Figure 1.11).
The different types of communication media are not without their own
weaknesses and strengths. Therefore, the selection of a channel must be
made to suit the ability of receivers and the message. At the moment, access
to technology and its applications are hot topics of discussions, because the
digital world divides between the haves and the have-nots, between the
information-rich and the information-poor.
ACTIVITY 1.6
In your opinion, can the method of sending messages through the
Internet, such as e-mail or chat replace face-to-face communication?
1.3.5 Noise
Noise is any form of barrier present in a communication process. The presence of
noise disables a receiver from receiving the message clearly or accurately. The
sound of a noisy engine roaring for instance hinders the message from being
delivered, received and understood accurately.
1.3.6 Feedback
Feedback refers to the response taking place when a receiver gives a reaction to
the message delivered by the source. In a communication between individuals,
feedback is spontaneous. For example if the source asks, „How are you now?‰
and the receiver replies, „Very well, thank you‰. Feedback may also be shown on
the face while replying (see Figure 1.13). The reply and the look on the receiverÊs
face are feedback to the message delivered by the source. Similarly, AÊs jokes that
cause B to smile and laugh are effective in getting that feedback. When the
feedback is positive, the source may continue his communication. However, if
the feedback is negative, he may stop.
Therefore, only a message that is understood by both sides can help to make a
communication successful. The wider the scope of the frame of reference, the
more likely for the communication to be effective.
1.3.8 Context
Communication takes place in certain contexts; it does not happen in a
„vacuum.‰ Sometimes it occurs in a natural situation without it even being
realised. Communication context refers to the surrounding situation or
conditions where communication takes place. DeVito (2001) states that
communication that takes place in a certain context may influence its form and
content. Sometimes contexts are also not clear and in certain conditions may
dominate (either stimulating or hindering) the message from being delivered.
Each of these contexts inter-relates and influences each other, affecting what is
being communicated. It also influences the environment, behaviours and actions
beside determining the types of communication to be used.
(Emerson, 1836).
people from different parts of the country or the world may be conducted
through IT such as teleconferencing.
1.4.1 Information
Today, people generally obtain news and information about current affairs
through the newspapers, radio and television. In addition to that, the Internet is
fast becoming a channel for people to easily obtain information.
This function is one of the communication functions that is often used in peopleÊs
lives (see Figure 1.17). This function aims to inform other people about certain
things that the communicator feels must be known by others. There are many
examples of communication carried out for this type of function, for example:
signboards with signs such as „No Smoking‰, „Please Queue‰, „Keep Left‰, „Be
careful on the road‰ and so on.
1.4.2 Education
Communication also plays a role in delivering educational materials.
Education/learning takes place since childhood until a person becomes an
adult. An educator becomes the principal actor in contributing knowledge by
interacting with teachers or students. In life, we not only learn through
personal experiences but also from otherÊs experiences. For example, a student
who studies hard and normally achieves good results will most likely have
confidence in the teacher, and is willing and ready to accept knowledge. In this
context, the aim of communication is to transfer knowledge to the receiver. The
educating function shows the importance of the source and the receiver of
information to ensure the functions can be performed efficiently.
1.4.3 Persuasion
Communication plays a very important role in the persuasion process. This
function of communication is different from the two functions discussed earlier.
The persuasion function aims at changing the attitude and behaviour of a
person. However, it does not mean that by using communication we can easily
persuade anyone to do what we want them to do. If we refer to books written
on social psychology, we will find out that not everyone can be convinced or be
persuaded to change their attitudes. There are many examples of persuasion
that can be seen in advertisements and video clips broadcasted in the media.
ACTIVITY 1.7
What are the symbols that you see around you which function to
deliver persuasive messages to their audience?
1.4.4 Entertainment
The communication function of entertaining is the most widespread in daily life.
Cinema, television and radio programmes, comedy, dramas, sketches, comics
and cartoons are all examples of how communication is used to entertain. Since
the public love entertainment programmes, this function of communication has
become very popular and is in high demand. Entertainment magazines for
instance have many fans and sell well in the market. Local and imported comedy
drama programmes have attracted millions of viewers. Radio also broadcasts
popular songs to entertain listeners. Conversing with friends is also a form of
entertainment. Before the existence of television and radio, people entertained
themselves by listening to folktales or by watching puppet shows.
ACTIVITY 1.8
Make a list of television programmes that channel messages using
both edutainment and infotainment concepts.
In the process of socialisation, members of the society learn and practise aspects
such as social skills, beliefs and norms. For example, parents teach their children
to respect their elders. This communication function aims to promote suitable
behaviours among members of the society. Through it the individual establishes
relationship with friends, small groups, family members, colleagues as well as
other members of other communities.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
At the same time, there exist noise elements that have impact on
communication effectiveness.
Channel Message
Communication Noise
Context Receiver
Feedback Source
Frame of reference
LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
The history of human civilisation has a big influence in the field of
communication. The history of communication began 2000 years ago where
during the Greek era, philosophers like Aristotle and Socrates considered
rhetoric as an important aspect in civil life.
The middle of the twentieth century saw the development of public speaking as
a result of social issues during the First and Second World Wars. From public
speaking, the communication field began to witness the effects of propaganda
and media on people. As a result, empirical research (scientifically proven) in
the field of communication was initiated. The studies at that time examined the
speakersÊ influence, credibility, leadership as well as persuasion.
In the 1960Ês and 1970Ês, the focus was on interpersonal communication that
combined the humanistic and scientific perspectives of communication.
Based on the history of the development of communication, we can see that the
scope of communication occurs in various situations. All these will be
summarised as various communication perspectives that will be discussed in
this topic.
Have you ever heard of self-evaluation? Actually, this thought process happens
within us all the time. We think whether we want to take a particular action or
not.
Besides thinking about a person, we also think of things events and incidences
taking place around us. We also think of ideas during discussions and about
ourselves. Indirectly, this process involves the evaluation process. In this case, we
view ourselves as the model that receives and processes the message, stores and
recalls the received message. We often use intrapersonal communication in the
process of remembering or expecting something, considering something,
pacifying ourselves and making decisions. For example, Deana who received a
bonus for her excellent work performance would definitely feel very happy on
that day. On the other hand, Raimi, who did not get any bonus would definitely
be angry or feel sad at that moment.
ACTIVITY 2.1
In your opinion, what are the challenges of intrapersonal
communication? List three challenges.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
ACTIVITY 2.2
Were you a member of the Scouts or the Girl Guides Movement?
In your view, what are the differences between a group and a team?
We probably realise that in actual fact, people normally like to mix among
themselves until certain social groups are formed. A group is usually made up of
three to 20 individuals. The formation of social groups whether formal or
informal, has a role in providing satisfaction and psychological strength to
support society and close friendship.
What was the main objective of the lectures as conducted by its sponsors?
Public communication happens formally and has a certain structure. The sender
of the message cannot interact with the public as in the case of interpersonal
communication because of distance and the large number of people involved.
(a) The speaker must know the type of audience listening to the speech.
Analysis of the audience helps the speaker to know their demographic
background and would definitely help in understanding what it wants to
know and hear. A speaker can also make assumptions of the audienceÊs
reactions.
(b) By taking the purpose of the speech into consideration, the speaker can
select and focus on topics that are appropriate with the desired objectives,
whether to inform, persuade or advise. Furthermore, the speaker will also
have the opportunity to carry out sufficient studies to strengthen the
arguments to be presented to the public.
(c) Location of speech.
(d) Time allocated to the speech.
The knowledge on What, Who, Where and When will help the speaker to make
early preparations in making an effective public speech.
Public communication is not easy to prepare. The main challenge rests with the
source, i.e. the communicator. It is hard to understand the wishes and potential
of the public from various diverse backgrounds. In short, the speaker must make
early preparations on the topic, understand the audience and know what is
regarded as a good speech. First and foremost, a speaker must possess
credibility. Practising good ethics while delivering a speech is also important in
making an effective public communication speech.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
What are the steps that must be taken into account before making a
public speech?
Some of the mass media mediators are listed in the following Table 2.3.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Communication also takes place through natural media.
Give examples of natural media.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Mass media and mass communication are often considered as
similar. Is the telephone an example of a mass media mediator?
There are many advanced studies on the impact of mass media on the public, the
mass media model, the publicÊs selection of media that provides satisfaction, the
economy and media ownership, as well as technological implications on the
media and the public.
In the present digital era, mass communication faces various challenges and
raises issues on the role of media in technological development such as ethical
issues, issue of control over the media, implication of information on social
public and information explosion across international borders.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Almost all the time, a person engages in communicating with other people. Not
all individuals have similar background and practices. Communication
effectiveness does not depend only on the ability of a person to speak verbally or
express through non-verbal communication. Not all interaction among people
achieves the objectives. On the other hand, one most important factors is to
understand the pattern of communication that involves different cultures. Only
by understanding the other culture will a person be able to expect, adapt and
assimilate himself in a meaningful relation with another.
What are the barriers in the effort to adapt oneself in the context of cultural
differences? Challenges in intercultural communication exist because:
(a) A person who practises a different culture perceives what happens around
him differently or makes a comparison between the culture he practices
with those of others.
(b) Each culture has a different acceptance of a personÊs roles.
(c) Each culture has a different view towards the objectives that are considered
important among members of the culture.
(d) Culture influences the basis for a personÊs identity (Trenholm, 2001).
SELF-CHECK 2.4
ACTIVITY 2.6
What do you think has caused the IRC (Internet Relay Chat)
revolution? The emergence of the IRC at the beginning stage of the
Internet a long time ago had enabled people all over the world to
communicate directly over geographical borders and time.
Communication has increased widely enabling interactive
discussion. What are the implications of the IRC that you would
expect in the future?
The patterns of information flow are no longer the same as before. The method of
delivering digital information now takes over the conventional method.
Information becomes a commodity that is no longer hard to obtain. Methods of
communication have diversified in accordance with the development of
information communication technology. Those involved in online
communication do not interface physically but only via electronic mediator in the
cyber world. Virtually developed relationships do not channel messages verbally
as in the case of face-to-face communication. Figure 2.14 is an example of a
communication method through an Internet service. E-mail is increasingly
popular in delivering messages.
Services provided via Internet help the user and are cheaper compared to
conventional communication methods. Groups share information through
bulletin boards and newsgroups. Interactive characteristics of electronic
communication technology enable an individual or group to interact
spontaneously via chatting. Today, technology has changed the communication
method. Written communication is now done online. The cell phone has also
changed verbal communication method to the use of Short Messaging Service
(SMS) and Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS).
How is self-
concept formed?
How does self- Increase self-
concept esteem,
influence improve self-
communication? awareness,
improve
To think, How can the
Intrapersonal: analytical
analyse, ability to analyse
ability and
Communication respond and and solve
problem
with oneself. make problems be
solving skills,
reasoning. improved and
increase self-
taught?
control, reduce
What is the pressure and
relationship manage self-
between conflicts.
personality and
communication?
What is
interpersonal Improve the
effectiveness? effectiveness of
interpersonal
Why do people
communication
establish
Interpersonal: Establish and
To explore, relations?
maintain
Communication relate, What binds the relations
between two influence ties of lovers, between lovers,
persons. and assist. family and family and
friends? friends.
What separates Improve the
them? How can ability to solve
their relations be problems.
restored?
What are
characteristics
that make a
leader?
What are the Increase the
qualities of a ability of
good leader? group
To share What are the members.
information, roles of Improve
Small Group exchange members in a leadership.
ideas, solve group? Using the
Communication problems, What is the best group to
and assist thing that a achieve certain
one another. group can objectives
achieve and the such as
worst thing that solving
can happen to a problems.
group?
How can a
group be made
effective?
Table 2.4 explains several types of communication that show the number of
participants in the process of communication from a person (intrapersonal) to an
audience consisting of thousands/millions of people (mass) and the questions
and skills obtained.
ACTIVITY 2.7
Communication has branched out into the field of journalism (print media like
newspapers, magazines and books), broadcasting (radio, television and
electronic media films), advertising, public relations, political communication,
intercultural communication, international communication and development
communication. The development of information and communication
technology has contributed one more field, i.e. multimedia communication. The
convergence of technology has resulted in the various combinations in
broadcasting field, production techniques and communication in human
relations. Online communication via the Internet, webcasting and online
journalism are fields that are increasingly popular.
SELF-CHECK 2.5
What are the career prospects for a student who chooses to study
in the field of communication?
There are various forms of communication and each of them has different
characteristics and functions.
- Intrapersonal communication;
- Interpersonal communication;
- Group communication;
- Organisational communication;
- Public communication;
- Mass communication;
- Intercultural communication; and
- Online communication.
Interpersonal Public
Intrapersonal Small group communication
Mass
LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you were introduced to the basic concepts and
components of communication, which would help a lot in your understanding
of the communication process and its importance in our lives. The wide scope
of communication has made the field unique.
In actual fact, many communication models are used to explain how the process
of communication takes place in different contexts. Learning these
communication models would help you understand clearly the process that goes
on.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
The SMCR model emphasises the relationship between the source and receiver as
important variables in the process of communication. According to this model,
the effectiveness of the communication process that takes place is based on
several factors found in the source and receiver such as communication skills,
attitudes of the source and receiver towards the delivered or received message,
accumulated knowledge, cultural practice and the impact of social system on
communication. Other elements of the message and channel can be seen in
Figure 3.1.
Wood (2001) divides communication models into three general types, i.e. linear
model, interaction model and transaction model. Figure 3.2, shows the three
types of communication.
Harold Laswell (1948), a political scientist, presents a simple and most useful
model to explain the communication process. To describe the communication
process, he does not use diagrams. Instead, he proposes several basic questions
that are listed below:
(a) Who?
(b) What is said?
(c) Through what channel?
(d) To whom?
(e) With what effects?
In 1949, Shannon and Weaver have expressed these questions in graphic form.
These early models are not complete and only focus on the process of one-way
communication. However, in reality there is sharing of meaning in the
interaction. Furthermore, according to the communication process in the models,
the person who receives the message is passive. This is not a genuine view of
how communication processes occur. To evaluate the models, one must consider
the adaptation of the models from the perspective of the time they were
formulated. The fact is that the early view in describing the communication
process through one-way models went well with the general use and acceptance
towards communication during that era. Although there are many weaknesses in
the earlier models and they are not widely used, all communication models used
today have been developed and formulated guided by these early models.
In this model (see Figure 3.3), the source of information will produce a message
in the form of speech, writing or picture to be delivered to other people. By using
appropriate signals, message is sent through certain channels to the receiver.
formulates and interprets the meaning from the message received in the context
of his own personal experience. He presents two significant concepts in
communication:
(a) Frame of reference
(b) Field of experience
To him, the experience that the source and receiver have gone through earlier
forms the frame of reference or field of experience.
Each individual involved in the communication process has his own experience;
however, the message is only effective if both sides understand the meaning of
the message. Thus, based on their unique experiences, only the message that is
understood by both source and receiver would determine the effectiveness of the
communication. This means the sharing of information and experiences between
the two individuals in communication would influence the frequency of message
exchanging process between them. An overlapping or meeting of experiences
and similarities between two communicators will increase the understanding of
one of the other and vice versa. Unfortunately, personal experiences are also the
reason why misunderstandings occur in communication.
The context in which communication takes place influences the way a message is
encoded, interpreted or decoded. In certain situations, fields of experience act as
frames of reference that help the process of understanding. In other words, the
fields of experience act as filters to receive or reject a message.
In the above transaction model (see Figure 3.5), the source and the receiver are
responsible for sending and receiving messages. Both source and receiver share
messages that are sent or received from various channels. Messages are always
reciprocal, indicating that the relationship is established in certain systems. At
the same time, noise that may exist or emerge affects delivery or acceptance of
messages.
between him and B. A nose that is overly sensitive to bad odour or a headache
influences the interpretation and perception towards a person who is
communicating with and towards the message received.
- Harold Lasswell
An effect must be achieved if communication takes place.
- Claude Shannon & Warren Weaver
Semantic noise can be a major communication barrier.
- Wilbur Schramm
Overlapping experiences make it easier to communicate successfully.
- John White & Matilda White Riley
Membership in primary groups affects how messages are sent and
received.
- David K. Berlo
Several important factors relating to source, message, channel and
receiver must be considered.
INTRODUCTION
The communication system includes all the communication processes that take
place in human relations; whether personal, small or large groups, or even
organisations.
Knowing oneself and forming oneÊs own self-identity are important in human
relationships. Only through self-awareness, can a person adapt himself/herself
to various levels and contexts of communication.
This topic will explore the extent to which perception influences the relationships
established among colleagues and friends in workplace situations and among
members of society.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
A system is the combined result of parts which respond to and rely on each other
until finally they form a complete whole. Each part forming the system is a
combination of sub-systems which function and are managed in the related
system. For example, if a person is not well, his thought processes would
function less than perfect. The whole body is affected, including his/her feelings.
In a complex system, damage on one part would affect the other parts. The
computer is another example of a system, performing tasks according to a
specific set of instructions. Damage to the Central Processing Unit (CPU) which is
the heart of all computer activities will cause data processing failure.
Environment and time factors are elements that influence specific systems.
Interaction in parts of the communication system will also form new elements.
Systems formed in groups, for example, will form norms, culture and practices
which change the patterns of communication which determine the success or
failure of team spirit. In a personal relationship, the element of trust is important
and a betrayal of trust may change the relationship between people.
Every system formed will not always undergo a balanced situation all the time.
Change is certain to happen and it will threaten or disturb the internal and
Wood (2001) regards the concept of self-identity as a process. This process can be
seen through interactions within ourselves, between ourselves and other people
and among members of a group.
Basically, communication comes from within ourselves and will end up also
within ourselves. This is because communication plays an important role in the
formation of self-identity. A person cannot explain an idea, declare needs or
interact effectively, without communication.
A personÊs self-identity depends on the image that he/she puts forward. Signs of
self-identity may be seen through the style displayed by certain individuals such
as their dressing, hairstyles, non-verbal behaviours, personal accessories and
home decor, all of which influence other peopleÊs views of them.
ACTIVITY 4.1
You are invited to attend a state level gathering to celebrate Hari Raya
Aidilfitri. Based on situations that you have experienced, think of
several examples of positive or negative self-concepts that might affect
the way you communicate at such a festival.
The general perception of a person involves how other people look at that
person. Their perception of that person will determine the way they accept him.
The impression that you think you have formed on this group of people may
cause you to improve your self-confidence and self-esteem or vice-versa.
Knowing oneself is not easy. A person learns many things about himself through
his own life experiences. The perception of a person of himself is founded on his
new and old experiences and the background of the culture he practises.
Therefore, having a stable self-concept will cause a person to have a positive self-
image as he only focuses on the strengths that he possesses.
Sometimes a person may not know himself despite having gone through various
experiences in his life. As a normal person, he may have certain strengths or
weaknesses. Knowing the „self‰ requires a person to evaluate himself from his
own point of view and from othersÊ opinions of him. This also includes what is
thought about him and the beliefs that he upholds about himself. The
combination of attitudes and beliefs upheld by a person is formed throughout his
life experience. It is this perception and view that are formed within a person that
mould actions depicting his self-identity in various activities. A psychology
expert, Karen Horney, defined „self‰ as the strength present in each person
which is unique to him that serves as a basis for building self (Beebe, Beebe and
Redmund, 1999).
There are two components in self-identity. They are self-image and self-esteem
(see Figure 4.2). Self-image is the picture that a person desires to portray of
himself, whereas self-esteem explores to what extent that person may evaluate
and accept himself based on his social, physical and psychological attributes
(Gamble & Gamble, 2002) (Seller & Beall, 2002).
There are many ways a person may learn about himself. Psychology and
sociology experts have identified four events or situations which can help
individuals to learn about themselves. (Figure 4.3).
Self-concept and how one looks at himself influence how we communicate and
provide feedback to others. Besides looking at oneself based on the depiction by
The concept known as „self-fulfilling prophecy‰ states that the view held by a
person of him would influence his action or behaviour in certain situations.
Therefore, if a person wishes to enhance or improve his communication with
another, he must re-evaluate the self-identity that he has been displaying.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Experts say that there are various „selves‰ which show the various
roles a person plays in his life. State the roles that you play in the
following situations:
(a) At home
(b) In the office
(c) In class
(d) Online chatting
ACTIVITY 4.3
A „masculine‰ character is normally associated with those who are firm, have
material success and a strong physical body. A „feminine‰ character, on the other
hand, refers to those who are refined and gentle; interested in improving the
quality of life. Masculine individuals tend to be uncompromising and direct,
while feminine people prefer to compromise when solving conflicts.
A baby is labelled by its gender and its life is patterned since birth. This happens
for example through the selection of colour, types of toys and particularly by the
choice of names given to it. Indirectly, the characteristics related to oneÊs sex
result in a gender stereotyping and this perception influences the „self‰ of the
baby as it grows into an adult.
The differences in life expectations and patterns between male and female can be
seen in the following:
(a) Listening
Women are brought up to be attentive while listening to people. They are
also asked to give their responses. Such responses refer to their interests in
the topics of their conversation. Men will usually make statements when
they feel that they have something they want to say. At the workplace and
in personal relationships, women always deem men as not maximising the
listening process because of their less expressive self-identities. Like
women, men have their own views of womenÊs responses. They often think
womenÊs responses to be annoying and only demanding for attention.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
State two ways which can help initiate good personal relations.
Openness/Self -disclosure
Studies show that openness or self-disclosure is effective in understanding and
learning about other individuals. Openness in communication happens when an
individual openly communicates with one or more individuals about himself.
The process of self-disclosure would create understanding between the
individuals involved which takes this relationship to a level of friendship. This
relationship will also improve further when the individuals concerned feel that
they are being appreciated. In addition, this will also help reduce uncertainty in
the relationship established between the individuals.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Have you ever read about Johari Window? What is the connection that
you can observe between your „self‰ and your relationship with your
friends or family members?
Every person originates from a family. The concept of family differs from one
society to another. A family normally means a group of people who are related to
one another and who stay and share their lives together. The family system
formed requires its members to interact and share responsibilities between them
at interpersonal levels. Therefore, a person must examine the pattern of
interactions within a family system in order to understand not only about himself
but also the human relations which form the relationship in the family. This will
subsequently help in evaluating oneself and the family and later in establishing
an effective way of communication and how we adapt ourselves with other
members of society around us.
A person cannot run away from being involved in some kind of family life. The
relationship that exists sometimes looks fine but at other times is full of
problems. Therefore, the roles of a family member keep changing according to
situations, experiences and time. The needs of a family may also influence its
memberÊs interactions.
Human relations are complex and subjective, especially with regards to family
members. However, family relationship is the basis for knowing social
relationship. Considering every family has its own social life, understanding
family relations is essential.
The approach to family system in general looks at the family as a distinct unit or
system. The bigger the family, the more complex the relations that exist between
the family members. A family communication process results from interactive
relations and interdependence among family members. This process takes place
through the generation of messages delivered through the family network.
The family system is a very complex system. It is formed by the process that
takes place in the components of the system. If a component changes, the other
components will respond to this change, either by also changing or merely
accepting the influence adapted from such changes.
Littlejohn (1983) states that a system consists of four elements that can be applied
to understand the system in a family. The elements meant here are object,
characteristics or features, relationship and environment. Although the system
may be of the closed or open type, the four elements must be allowed to play
their roles so that the system can function to ensure the well being, of the social
system, organisation, individual or the family system itself (see Figure 4.4).
(d) Self-adaptation
Communication as a system needs equilibrium. However, a balanced
situation is rather difficult to achieve especially in a very complex family
system. Therefore, to attain equilibrium, every family member should be
able to adapt him/herself to any form of change regardless of whether it is
expected or not. The change that happens is a part of a family life
experience. This is because a family is not a system that has permanent
features. The family system may often change to create integration and
evolution in the process of establishing effective communication.
(e) Openness
A family system is a part of an open social system. Practising openness in
the family involves a healthy communication process among family
members. Only by being open, can a person be easily understood.
ACTIVITY 4.5
How can conflict take place in family relationship? What are the factors
contributing to the occurrence of a conflict and what are its implications
on the communication among family members?
members that there are certain rules in the family. It explains what kinds of
behaviour are accepted in the family.
Most of our life, we interact with people around us. Communication with
others helps a person to know his/her own self.
Similarly, in relationships and interactions that are shared with others, seeing
oneÊs own differences also influences the self identity of a person.
Relationship with friends, self-perception and family influence all help in the
formation of a personÊs self-identity.
In short, all these factors determine whether a personÊs self is accepted or not.
Possessing a self-identity which is liked and accepted by other individuals or
society helps to establish an effective communication.
Gender Self-formation
Self-concept Self-identity
Self-disclosure
INTRODUCTION
Communication is established when interaction exists between two people
whether formally or informally. We have discussed the basic concepts in
interpersonal relationship in communication. In this topic, we will discuss
interpersonal relationships further by focusing on the relationship established
through friendship.
that shape, build, maintain and sometimes dismantle the friendship that has been
formed.
A Malay proverb states that a friend to laugh with is easy to find but a friend to
cry with is hard to come by. Is this true? Have we ever thought of what makes a
lasting relationship? How many among us truly have genuine friends? How long
does a friendship last? What causes a long-standing friendship to end?
In daily life, we often relate to others and establish a social relationship with
friends either old or young. We not only interact but also at times attempt to
create a close personal relationship with people in our communication network.
What is important in the personal relationship is commitment between
individuals in establishing friendship. When we regard someone as a friend, we
assume the person is close to us and can share his ideas with us.
It is also at this early stage that a person exchanges ideas in his effort to
learn more about interests or similarities that exist between them because
by knowing the other person, the person will feel more relaxed and
comfortable in communicating and sharing his ideas.
(b) Level 2: Close Relations
A close relationship is established once people find their relationship
satisfying. At this stage, the feeling that one is in need of each other is
created. Those who reach this level of friendship are more open to sharing
their happiness and frustration. Trust and commitment are important here
because they will start sharing plans and hopes. Consequently, the
individuals involved in the relationship begin to form a friendship. They
then do and share many things together. Such a relationship is found
among close friends or a close couple who intend to set up a family.
(c) Level 3: Strong Relations
Relationship at this level requires commitment. The individuals involved
will make plans for the future and agree to share their lives together. This
relationship does not only involve romantic ones but also between close
friends, business partners and so on. For example, housemates who agree
to stay together will share in the payment of rental, bills and food. Business
partners also plan for the future of the company they own. Team
cooperation is vital among the members of an army when facing a battle.
A personal relationship which grows from one level to another depends on the
decisions made by both sides. The decision to maintain a friendship can be either
to remain at the early acquaintance stage or to pursue intimacy at a higher level.
What are the factors that can cause conflicts in personal relations? When there is
imbalance or differences between individuals, a harmonious situation will
change. A difference of opinion that cannot be resolved will lead to disputes or
quarrels. Sometimes, a relationship without conflicts may also make the
friendship distant because each side feels very comfortable as there is no issue to
be discussed (see Figure 5.3).
Each member of an organisation may interact face to face or online with the
leader, subordinate or other individuals outside the organisation. The more
complex the system in an organisation, the more complex will be the
relationships between members. Therefore, the pattern of communication
practised in an organisation is very important in establishing a harmonious
relationship for a conducive working environment.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Communication among organisational members takes place all the time and in
every activity. Interactions that take place in open communication at the
workplace create a conducive organisational climate. Trust and mutual respect
unite organisational members, causing them to be satisfied in performing their
work. A conflict, on the other hand, will lead to a misunderstanding or harsh
words being spoken or cause members to suffer emotional stress. All these finally
lead to job dissatisfaction.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
SELF-CHECK 5.2
ACTIVITY 5.2
(a) Channel
The channels that are used as a communication mediator should be able
to achieve the goals of communication delivered in the messages to the
whole community effectively.
(c) Code
All symbols used in a code should be made into a system that can be easily
deciphered by the public.
(b) A system of storing information that is effective and free from the influence
of any party
This system should be consistent with the capacity of the community and
institutions distributing the information so that the society may utilise the
information effectively.
We also need to pay attention to the sources of information in the context of the
society. Usually, the institution that has the influence and a high financial
capacity has more capability to distribute information widely. Such an
institution is able to shape the societyÊs thought orientation which is the result
of selective information delivered.
(a) The process of social change has a direct relationship on the communication
process
This involves advancement of knowledge including techniques, ideas,
information, institutions and cultural practices.
(b) The process of social change brings about changes in the way of life
This is evident in the use of technological devices which function as
communication media that generate interactivity in community relationship.
The change may enhance the involvement of society in the process of
receiving and distributing information.
Figure 5.8: Relationship between communication and social change in the community
Culture is also seen as a symbolic process that is learned, practised and passed
down from one generation to another through communication. A person is not
considered part of a culture just because he is born into a particular culture
(enculturation).
Culture is related to beliefs, attitudes, values, wealth and love. DeVito (2000)
relates culture as artefacts channelled through communication, other than the
beliefs and behaviours of a person.
A subjective approach towards culture combines beliefs, values and norms that
guide a personÊs conduct. A personÊs conduct results from his perception and
expectation of life. Culture is seen as the sharing of a set of ideas and practices
contained in the mental software which controls a personÊs behaviour.
ACTIVITY 5.3
(b) Cognitive ability affects what and how a person forms a perception.
(c) Spoken language affects the messages delivered and causes the
interpretation of meaning to vary from culture to culture.
(d) Every culture has a different way of accepting and looking at a personÊs
roles. The perception that influences the self-construct on the stereotype
and cognitive scheme leads to certain actions, attributes or bias against
other cultures. Indirectly, it forms a different view on the goals that are
considered important among the experts in those cultures.
ACTIVITY 5.4
Being aware of the factors that raise conflicts makes a person act objectively
and not emotionally.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of verbal communication in the
communication process;
2. Describe types of verbal communication and their differences;
3. Evaluate how language influences the effectiveness of verbal
communication; and
4. Identify barriers in establishing effective verbal communication.
INTRODUCTION
This topic delves into another important aspect in determining effective
communication. The aspect meant here is verbal and non-verbal communication,
its effect on human relations and interactions with the environment. Discussions
on verbal communication would be incomplete without consideration of the
language aspect as a code in the message delivered. Verbal communication
involves culture, gender and language that is suitable for the context of
communication.
What is apparent here is that there are meanings given and messages delivered
by two interacting individuals in the communication that has taken place.
Messages delivered can be seen in various conditions. In a speech given at a
function, a person who speaks with an unclear voice will surely make the
listeners feel bored. In that scenario, the communication may not achieve its goal.
A manÊs greeting and constant glances in the direction of a young lady whom he
has just met may indicate that he is interested in her. An e-mail may not be fully
understood by the receiver if it was written in confusing language. An SMS with
many abbreviations may be misinterpreted by the receiver.
In face-to-face relationships, verbal and non-verbal cues often take place. Non-
verbal cues have a big influence on the first impression towards a condition. In
most situations, non-verbal perceptions may be more accepted. This happens
when an individual evaluates interpersonal style, leadership credibility or
feedback by taking into consideration the interpretation based on emotion and
behaviour.
Verbal communication happens in the spoken and written forms. However, both
should be viewed from different perspectives. At a discussion, communication
ACTIVITY 6.1
Think of a situation or incident around you. Make a list of the
forms of verbal communication that you can see.
For example, the words „proud‰ and „frustrated‰ are made by combining letters
to form words. Both words describe an emotion or feeling. Each word has a
particular meaning and happens in a certain situation.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Symbols are widely used. All road users understand red, green and yellow colours
on traffic lights wherever they are. Today, computer icons such as print , close,
copy and paste are understood because they explain certain instructions to
computer users. Emoticons were created in online communication for universal
understanding. Similar to WWW, which is understood as World Wide Web,
FAQ is the acronym for Frequently Asked Questions and electronic mail is
better known as e-mail.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Discuss other symbols in computer application language
that can be categorised as verbal communication.
2. Give three examples of metaphors that carry meaning in the
Malay language.
new acquaintance or someone who is not a close friend, it would have a different
effect.
In terms of words, we will assume that the person is protesting against another
personÊs opinion. However, if we listen to his speech carefully, we will
understand the message that he actually intended to deliver. If his speech is
delivered with a harsh tone together with certain gestures, we might be able to
reveal the actual implicit message in the speech.
By using language, we are also able to create the situation that we desire. The
situation may be a happy one or otherwise. With language, we are also able to
deceive others.
Language also contains words that test a personÊs mind. In addition, it encourages
us to think rationally and logically.
Language has unique and specific meanings according to what we want to say.
The language used while communicating enables a person to change the sentence
structure according to his needs and desires.
6.4.1 Syntax
Syntax is the study of language which relates to the arrangement or sequence of
words used to interact. It refers to the rules or system that must be followed in use of
a language. Grammar gives meaning to a language. For example, if the sentence,
„Let us go for a walk‰, it is reversed into „Walk a for go us let‰, we certainly would
not understand it because it is confusing.
6.4.2 Semantics
Semantics is the sharing of meaning. Semantics refers to the link between a word
and certain feelings, ideas and context.
Meaning can be seen in two forms i.e. denotative meaning and connotative
meaning.
(a) Denotative is a word that has concrete meaning and can be seen, found or
referred to in a dictionary. These meanings are generally accepted.
(b) Connotative meaning is abstract and refers to meaning that is quite
distinctive. Sometimes, connotative meaning is disguised or implies
certain emotions, feelings or experiences. Therefore, a word that has a
6.4.3 Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to how language is used to interact. It surpasses the
arrangement of words (grammar) and the meaning of words. Its focus is on how
to use sentences while communicating. The pragmatic aspect of language is also
known as speech act.
What is the importance of the pragmatics aspect? It involves the use of a sentence,
word and language at appropriate places for certain purposes such as questioning,
praising, threatening, etc.
(b) Image
Highlighting oneself in a group that is interacting with each other is
considered important. This is so that the person is comfortable in terms of
idea presentation or acceptance.
(c) Relationship
There is a difference in the language used between an individual and
another. For example, pity or love is expressed differently between new
and old acquaintances, brothers, parents, friends, lovers and spouses.
(d) Situation
Different places require us to use different ways of communicating. For
example, communication in the office, at a birthday party, among
politicians, in the prayer hall, at functions, at funeral, etc. Different events
require different ways of speech so that the communication is appropriate
for each the situation.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
What is the meaning of the language aspects of syntax, semantics and
pragmatics? How can we apply them in verbal and non-verbal
communication?
(a) Ensure that the symbols and language used give exact, suitable and clear
meaning so that these are easily understood. This is because both symbols
and language carry different meanings in different cultural contexts and
situations. Differences in culture and life experience give rise to diverse
interpretations and perceptions among people. Although it is difficult for a
person to avoid misunderstandings from arising in verbal communication,
the use of good language will help minimise confusion.
(b) The validity of source can be defined as the acceptance of the truth of a
communication source in an established communication situation.
Although being able to speak in front of the audience, the expertise of source
may not be able to ensure the effectiveness of the message delivered. The source
must be reliable to the audience.
The perception of „acceptable and reliable‰ depends on the extent to which the
source is regarded as not having any hidden intention. A marketing agent
promoting a product is considered unreliable if the promotion he is presenting is
illogical, unacceptable or regarded as too forceful. The same can be said about
politics. A party candidate would lose public trust if he has a reputation for
making false promises or is exposed as having an extramarital affair.
The extent to which a person effectively presents himself may help him to control
his audience. A dynamic communicator is able to deliver his messages
confidently, spiritedly, loudly, firmly and directly.
ACTIVITY 6.3
Pragmatics Syntax
Semantics Verbal communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
There have been many studies carried out on non-verbal communication and its
effects on the communication process. A person is capable of communicating his
reaction to another person without saying anything and this happens even
without us knowing it. We can observe that most of a personÊs actions and
feelings are displayed by the personÊs behaviour while communicating. Studies
on non-verbal communication have proved that 65% of the meaning of
interaction between people comes from non-verbal communication. This topic
will discuss the characteristics of non-verbal communication as well as its
importance, implications and challenges on effective communication.
Wood (2001), Gamble & Gamble (2002), Trenholm & Jensen (1998) and many
others proposed their definitions of non-verbal communication. In general, all
forms of communication with the purpose of delivering messages or responses
without words are non-verbal communication. A sorrowful voice, a sour face, a
cynical smile, mode of dressing, personal adornment, the manner of sitting or
standing, hand signals and the distance from the other person while speaking; all
these strengthen the message in communication. Non-verbal communication
through behaviour, attributes and objects, other than words, gives social
meaning (Seiler & Beall, 2002).
ACTIVITY 7.1
What is the meaning of the green traffic light when driving on the
road? Give other examples of non-verbal communication around
you.
singer. For example, Adli may be regarded as a speaker who entertains listeners.
However Nasir, a well-known singer, may be regarded as a boring concert host.
Therefore, perception is closely related to non-verbal communication.
(a) Kinesics
Body movement and what can be seen on the face represent a thousand
meanings. The behaviour shown tells other people various things about a
person. This includes feelings, emotions and the purpose of the action.
The nodding of the head, lip movements or a meaningful gaze are capable
of influencing a personÊs feelings. Eyes are capable of expressing hatred,
enthusiasm, anger, affection, worry or even boredom.
Signals indicating that a person does not want to be disturbed can also be
observed on a personÊs face. When a person shows friendliness or a smiling
face, then our perception is that he has an open attitude and can be brought
into discussion. A father who looks away or is deliberately not listening to
his son, shows that he is not ready to discuss things with his son.
Facial expressions are not learned but exist naturally from instinct and
emotion. Through examining facial expressions, we may learn whether a
person is speaking truthfully or not. If the facial expression is opposite to
what is being said, then we know that the individual is not speaking the
truth. If however, we find his face reddish in colour, it shows that he is
trying to hide his real feelings.
In short, facial appearance and facial expression will determine whether the
communication established between two individuals will be cordial at the
first meeting or not.
Some faces show clearly whether the person is happy, angry or full of hate,
etc. For example, a woman who keeps looking at another man will cause
her boyfriend to be jealous and this would show in his unhappy expression.
Such a facial expression happens spontaneously without being realised by
the boyfriend.
ACTIVITY 7.2
In what condition have you seen a facial expression which does not
represent the real emotion of a person?
By giving certain eyes signals, we may know whether a person likes or does
not like certain things. This signal is capable of disclosing a feeling that
cannot be expressed in words. For example, when seeing a surprising or
unexpected event, eye reaction accompanied with a surprised face would
certainly appear and these reactions happen spontaneously.
Eyes are also capable of revealing the answers to many questions that may
arise. Sometimes they may also hide the actual feeling. This condition often
happens when a person tries to hide a mistake. Looking in another
direction may represent a guilty feeling.
Based on these, we often form stereotypes of people. At the same time, these
stereotypes are often reinforced by culture and the media. Society tends to
take into account physical appearance as the main factor when evaluating
others.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Give several examples of stereotypes on physical appearances that
you know.
Even dressing is related to oneÊs status and image. A woman who puts on a
beautiful dress and personal accessories such as necklace, bracelet, ring,
and high heel shoes with lipstick and face powder as well as coloured
mascara can display a certain image to the audience. A person who wants
to show his professional image may put on a dark coloured suit when
meeting a client. A person who wishes to attend an award
presentation event will wear a branded outfit.
Artefacts are also often used to reveal the identity of a country. National
symbols or flags are used to decorate the hall when a national leader is
delivering a speech.
We also often see a person decorating his office wall with awards, pictures
or medals of valour received to show status or as a remembrance. All forms
of artefacts are used with the purpose of communicating non-verbal
messages.
ACTIVITY 7.4
Besides that, touching can also be used to bring out positive emotional
effects. For example, hugs between friends at the airport could mean either
farewell, welcome home or safe journey. Similarly, when a person is sad at
the death of a loved one, a sympathetic embrace would make that person
feel better.
The duration of time a person spends with another indicates the priority
given to that person. Surely we all prefer to spend a longer time with those
we like, compared to those we do not like.
ACTIVITY 7.5
If a lecture starts at 8.30 am but you arrive at 9.30 am, what sort of
perception would your lecturer have of you?
(f) Paralanguage
Paralanguage is an aspect of vocal communication which hinges on the way
we speak. It is used together with speech with the aim of strengthening
what is spoken. Characteristics of paralanguage involve tone of voice,
speed, „volume‰ and quality. These include sighs, laughs, groans, pauses or
sound rhythms. Perception is closely related with paralanguage because it
The voice may also influence a personÊs perception and because of that,
vocal cues are controlled to strengthen an image. Each of us usually knows
how to control our voices to show happiness, sadness or anger. Those who
have coarse and loud voices are regarded as aggressive. A CEO who is
angry in a meeting tries to control his anger. A person speaking in front of a
group of students must control his/her voice. A person attending a job
interview must also control his voice.
Sometimes the tone of voice may not show every emotion. Instead, there
are other non-verbal signals such as facial expressions. For example, a
newscaster may slow down his news reading when reporting the news of a
death, while a sports commentator may use an up-beat and fast tone to
show a fighting spirit.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
We often form first impressions or perceptions about new people based on their
external characteristics. If a person dresses smartly, we will regard him more
favourably than a person with poor clothing. When we see Siti and Azizi having
a friendly chat at the cafe, we will perceive that they have a closer relationship
than mere friendship. We may even regard them as a pair of lovers. Although it
may be wrong, that perception has been formed.
Sometimes we do not want other people to know what we feel, so we try to hide
it. However, a sour face and inappropriate tone of voice may expose what we are
feeling. A sour face for instance is a non-verbal communication that clearly
reflects anger. On the other hand, the happiness we feel when receiving a gift can
be shown with a simple grateful smile.
Figure 7.6: Example of emoticons, which can be sent through „messenger tools‰ in
the Internet
SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. What are the five characteristic of non-verbal communication?
2. State the functions of non-verbal communication.
Use of space is also related to the status and influence of an individual. Personal
space is determined by factors such as psychology, condition, the topic of
discussion and culture. Therefore, the size of personal space is different
according to individuals. As in the case of area space, each of us may not like our
individual space invaded.
The level of friendship along with oneÊs gender, status and psychological state
tend to influence our acceptance of others. We may not be concerned if a known
friend sits near us, laughing in a friendly manner while talking or discussing.
However, we may not be comfortable if a new acquaintance sits near us and
behaves in the same way.
Sex also influences personal space limits. In Eastern customs, there are limits to
the mixing of men and women.
A child may not feel comfortable when a stranger invites him to sit with him. A
student who is invited to have dinner with the President of the university would
definitely feel uncomfortable and shy; preferring to eat with his peers instead.
The different status between them influences the communication space.
Similarity in race and culture simplifies relations. An individual will stand or talk
at a closer distance if there is a similarity and vice versa.
ACTIVITY 7.6
ACTIVITY 7.7
ACTIVITY 7.8
1. To what extent is verbal communication effective compared to
non-verbal communication at your workplace?
Artefacts Paralanguage
Chronemics Physical appearance
Distance zone Proxemics
Haptics Quiet
Kinesics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the basic concept of mass communication;
2. Describe the functions and effects of mass media;
3. Identify the factors that influence mass media; and
4. Compare several models of mass communication.
INTRODUCTION
Mass communication is a process of delivering information and entertainment to
people throughout the world through mass media channels such as books, films,
television, radio, newspapers and online media. The capability of mass media to
reach out to people wherever they are makes it more influential. The process of
information delivery via mass communication is a complex process which
involves media institutions, media practitioners, advertisers and the public from
various backgrounds. This topic will discuss the concept of mass communication
and its effects on the public.
(a) Communicator
Those who produce messages are mass communicators. Information is
prepared by various individuals who produce the contents of the message.
Communicators include lyrics writer, scriptwriter, animator, reporter,
programme announcer and media practitioner.
(b) Message
Message is the information content such as story, short story, novel, film,
TV programmes, news, song lyrics, newspaper advertisements, notice
board or website. A message in mass communication is very structured and
is largely accepted by the public.
(d) Gatekeeper
Gatekeeper refers to an individual or group who plays the role of selecting,
changing, receiving or rejecting messages that are channelled through mass
communication.
(e) Public
Public refers to users and receivers of messages from the media. The
targeted public of mass communication consists of individuals with
different needs and backgrounds and, are from different locations. In the
context of mass media, the size of the public cannot be determined.
Communication established through mass communication occurs formally
while the source is far from the receiver, who can be anyone who uses the
media, either print, electronic, digital or entertainment.
In the context of mass communication, the public does not have any
association or minimal control over the information received. In mass
communication, feedback from the public is very limited.
Based on Figure 8.1, the following can be said about mass communication:
(a) A complex source that operates in an organisation or institution that is
profit-oriented.
(b) The public is huge, located anywhere and separated by geographical
locations and boundaries, space and time. They also have different desires,
interests and needs.
(c) Communication occurs through the mediator, which requires the use of
technology to encode and decode information.
(c) Tools
The information transmission process is very dependent on technical tools,
broadcasting equipment or technology that has the capability to reach the
public at scattered locations.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
The evolution of media took place at the same time as the civilisation of human
life. The convergence of communication media has brought big changes to the
development of communication media. TodayÊs digital technology has
revolutionised the media landscape. The technological development has changed
the ways information is shared.
The printing revolution facilitated mass publication and set off the
Industrial Revolution, especially in large cities. This also led to massive
migration of rural folks to the cities. The number of agricultural workers
decreased, while industrial workers increased rapidly. This encouraged
reading activities among the people in order to fulfil increasingly complex
job requirements. This led to the birth of newspapers in the 1830s, which
represented the first form of mass media, followed by film, radio and
television.
audience was separated because they no longer had to stay within the same
locality. Face-to-face communication at this stage became less important.
Radio and television became more prominent and were the preferred
alternatives to books and printed materials. Indirectly, the role of printing
media became less important. Electronic media has advanced with the
development of computer technology. Cable and satellite televisions, on the
other hand, have enabled programmes to be broadcast beyond boundaries.
According to McLuhan, the electronic era enables people to access and share
information wherever they are. The mass media is now more interactive and
allows fragmentation of audience according to their respective preferences. Also,
audience of the new media is open to information that is quick and easy to access.
They are more exposed to events taking place around them as well as changes in
the political system and world economy. Messages are delivered within a short
time which is the foundation of the concept of universal village introduced by
McLean.
The mass format of the communication pattern emerged when the elements of
science and industry invented technologies in printing, camera, film, radio and
television. These creations heightened the capability of human senses. Societies
that progressed in unison with this development are mostly centred in
institutions like schools, government and large social institutions. Responsibilities
previously shouldered by individuals were taken over by these institutions. The
use of satellite and digital technology does not affect the role of communication
as a tool to connect people. However, it can have damaging effects on society. We
will discuss the implications of technology in the last topic.
ACTIVITY 8.1
ACTIVITY 8.2
Figure 8.6 shows the information flow taking place in the environment
where it is delivered by the source to the audience through mediators such
as television, radio, newspapers and magazines. The source is limited, while
the receivers are many and varied.
This model also shows the role of gatekeepers in filtering and determining
the pattern of news presentation, entertainment programmes, films, dramas
or documentaries presented to the audience. The gatekeepers, who are the
sources of information, refer to editors, television producers, advertisers
and newsroom directors. Information that is filtered goes through the
process of printing or previews. For example, Julia, an entertainment
reporter, writes an article on the life of a rising singer, Bob. Another article
is on Della, a new and upcoming singer. The editor of Entertainment
magazine finds the article about Della more newsworthy due to her rising
popularity. The editor decides to run the article on Bob in a small column in
the inner pages, while DellaÊs story appears on the front page together with
a colour photograph of her.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
In this model, it is clear that there is no gatekeeper to filter, select or control the
messages.
The Internet, with its capacity to deliver information beyond the constraints of
time and geographical barriers, presents many choices. Through a sports website,
for example, Armand can watch a rugby game live without having to wait for the
newspaper or watch the recorded broadcast the following day. Hypertext
provides the platform for information search needed by users.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Mass communication makes it possible to bridge the gap in time and distance
besides facilitating information access.
The relationship between mass media and the audience is very close. The
process of message transmission through mass communication uses a mass
media mediator.
Experts provide opinions and views in discussing the effects of mass media
on the audience from the context of media selection, agenda determination,
usage and its implication on audience behaviour.
Sources of mass media today are more diverse, less dominant and
professional.
In todayÊs mass communication, users determine and select the media they
prefer. Audience preference has shifted from passive mass media to new
interactive media.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we were introduced to the basic concept of mass
communication and saw how it became the core of life in society. The evolution
of mass communication has greatly impacted the relationships between
individuals (interpersonal) and society. In this topic, you will be introduced to
the functions and effects of mass communication from various perspectives. This
topic will also look at the impact of media on the audience.
In general, mass communication at the macro level fulfils the following purposes
(see Figure 9.2).
9.2.1 Surveillance
Surveillance is known as reporting and plays a role in distributing information
via the media. Figure 9.3 below illustrates the function of surveillance.
9.2.2 Interpretation
The mass media does not only supply certain facts and data. It also provides
information on the goals, meaning and significance of an event.
9.2.3 Linkage
The mass media is also capable of linking together different elements in society.
For example, advertising attempts to combine buyersÊ needs with sellersÊ
products. Voters get to know more about their elected representatives through
the newspapers, television, radio and websites. The electronic media or
newspapers are effective avenues to raise funds for sick children and victims of
war and natural disasters.
Separated communities that still share common interests can also be united by
the media. Advancements in IT have allowed the rapid and widespread
dissemination of information, overcoming the constraints of time and boundaries.
Various websites, newsgroups and chat rooms have developed platforms for two
or more people to form virtual communities. The online facilities provided are
able to connect various communities to share opinions and life experiences with
each other.
Sometimes the Internet media also creates relationships and unites social groups
that previously did not realise that they had common interests. The function to
relate and connect also shows the mediaÊs capacity to provide avenues for
members of society to show off their talents and interests.
However, this function has its weaknesses too. Among others, it may provide the
opportunity for certain dissatisfied groups to come together and protest leading
to a revolution. This can be harmful to society.
The mass media plays a role in displaying the different values and practices of
the society. Through observation, listening and reading, a person can learn about
how a society acts and the values it holds.
Among the various types of media available now, which one has the most
potential to transmit values among the members of society? Television seems to
have the biggest potential in socialising a community because it is capable of
delivering messages to a wider audience compared to other media types.
9.2.5 Entertainment
The most important function of mass communication is to entertain. Today, most
households have at least one television set at home; thus allowing people to enjoy
watching films, music, sports news, entertainment programmes, sitcoms and
cartoons on a daily basis. Consumers also have the option of subscribing to cable
television at a price they can afford.
9.2.6 Persuasion
The persuasive function of media can be seen from the way advertisers influence
their target audience. For example, the broadcast media will show
advertisements for shampoos, automobile accessories, weight control products
and mega sales promotions, etc, to induce viewers to spend their money.
Since the audience are exposed to a variety of messages from all types of media,
they are not excluded from the elements of persuasion. Documentary or
interview programmes have indirect elements of persuasion. Newspapers also
use their editorial and „op-ed‰ (opposite editorial) sections to present opinions
and to persuade.
ACTIVITY 9.1
9.2.7 Influence
The media is capable of uniting a community by spreading a message that would
affect everyone. A local newspaper, for example provides the shared knowledge
and experiences of the community. This will indirectly influence them to act on
an upcoming issue. In certain situations, the media helps to influence peopleÊs
views on a subject.
who has fast Internet access will get information almost instantly. The Internet is
a platform with the potential to influence the search for information, compared to
the print media. An issue or an event that has just happened can be presented at
lightning speed and can be accessed by the audience. Social bodies and
communities are able to use the Internet as a platform to voice their collective
views and as a medium for communication.
ACTIVITY 9.2
After learning the functions of mass communication at the macro analysis level,
we will next explore the function of mass communication at the micro level. At
this level, we will look at how an individual uses media in his daily life.
The function of media at the micro level is well-described in the theory of usage
and satisfaction. According to this theory, the audience has certain needs. The
audience actively selects the media that best satisfies their need to get
information, to relieve feelings of emptiness or boredom, to entertain oneself, to
escape from problems, etc.
A person may turn to various types of media to multi-task. For example, reading
the Star newspaper while having breakfast, listening to Radio Era or HitzFM
while driving to the office, listening to the CD of a favourite singer while doing
housekeeping, watching „Art Attack‰ while preparing dinner or skimming
through „Cosmopolitan‰ or „Anjung Seri‰ as bedtime reading. All such activities
show how mass media fulfils the needs of individuals.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
There are many studies carried out to learn why a person selects a particular
media. Some survey findings show that the audience uses a certain media
because they want to know the latest happenings or to satisfy their thirst for
knowledge.
9.3.3 Socialisation
From watching television, a person can interact with others to swap ideas and
opinions about events and programmes. Social conversation will become more
pleasant if a person can talk with others about a „box-office‰ movie, a National
Geographic programme or a recent drama.
Similarities that exist in social relationships may create a more attractive and
effective communication climate.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Can the media reduce your boredom? How do you use the media to
spend your leisure time, release tension and amuse yourself while
The media is also used to fulfil the best para-social needs. Digital communication
technology allows a person to communicate with others wherever they are. The
availability of the Internet now raises a question on the social functions of media.
The Internet has specifically attracted attention especially in its function to create
and maintain virtual communities.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
When society becomes more stratified, then wealth, economy and learning
become imbalanced. Due to this imbalance, tension will rise when society begins
to interact. In such conditions, what can the media do to change these conditions?
Educational programmes are shown in Disney Channel and TVIQ. The RTM
station broadcasts 3R and „Sesame StreetÊ programmes. These programmes are
successful in attracting childrenÊs interests because „edutainment‰ elements are
presented.
Many studies have discussed the information gap that exists as a result of
advances in media technology. In such conditions, the group with access to
information from various forms of media, either print or electronic, is seen as the
group that has the advantage.
In selecting a television programme, children may be happier when they get the
opportunity to watch a „Mickey Mouse‰ or a „Pokemon‰ programme. Once their
teacher puts on a documentary programme, the childrenÊs attention will naturally
dissipate. Similarly, an adult who is interested in action films may not get full
satisfaction if he accompanies his friends to watch a romantic comedy.
Sometimes, what the media does not report is more important than what is
broadcasted. It is possible that some important information is not published. It is
also possible that certain news should have been printed on the front page of the
newspaper and received coverage in prime news/main news. Media gatekeepers
play the role in determining which news should be given priority in the media.
This concept which was introduced by Kurt Lewin in 1947, described the role of
gatekeepers (individuals or groups) who select and determine which news passes
through the flow of information control before it reaches the audience. The
gatekeepers consist of editors of magazines and newspapers, radio and television
producers, advertisers, political groups, and station owners who have influence
in determining the information to be delivered to the audience.
The role of the gatekeepers is not only to filter information and content but also to
determine the source of information. Group editors, scriptwriters, producers or
those in the programme selection division determine what and who should be
presented in the news or which experts to invite for certain segments of the
television programme.
ACTIVITY 9.4
Think of the Malay, Bollywood and Hollywood films watched on TV. The
lifestyles shown are usually more attractive and pleasant compared to real life.
However, what is watched on television is believed to cumulatively form the
audienceÊs perspectives. In other words, the longer a person watches television,
the more he tends to regard what is watched as a reality. In fact, there is a strong
correlation between media images and how a person views the realities of life.
In studying the effects and functions of media, early researchers explored various
perspectives of the Communication Model. One of the perspectives is seen in the
Hypodermic Needle Model. The audience in the context of this model received
messages directly and processed them individually and in groups. In this model,
mass communication is regarded as having „magic powers‰ with an impact so
strong that it is able to influence and poison the minds of the large audience. This
always happens in broadcasting information in the form of propaganda.
In the Opinion Leaders Model or the ``two-step modelÊÊ, the audience is seen as a
wide social entity. This model refers to certain individuals with high charisma
able to influence a large audience in making choices. This influence is evident
when politicians are garnering for support; or when brand ambassadors and
celebrities influence you to purchase goods or services, trendy fashions or
cosmetics.
Among the challenges faced by the audience of mass media are as shown in
Figure 9.7.
The basic principle of mass communication ethics is to give audiences the truth
about issues and the freedom of choice to evaluate the issues. The audience
actually has a role to prevent any manipulation of information from taking place.
Ethical principles in communication are important because they indicate respect
towards an individual, group or institution that is involved in the process of
communication. With the presence of good ethical guidelines, there is little
possibility of imposing oneÊs values on others.
However, the audience and the media practitioners are often presented with
situations that require them to evaluate, select and find the balance between truth
and self-interest. As an example, a reporter who makes news coverage on an
artistÊs misconduct may tarnish that individualÊs reputation. The action to
publish the news by the reporter is taken on the basis of „the peopleÊs right to
know‰. The questions that arise from such an action are: what do the audience
actually need to know, and how is it important for them to know?
Ethical issues are often discussed because of their effects on the audience. For
example, an entertainment reporter from ABC magazine who manipulated the
news on the scandal of a film star. Although this has boosted the sale of the
magazines, he is said to be unethical in reporting the news. In another situation, a
person who advertises his product through the Internet to get huge profits is also
regarded as unethical if he cheats.
Ethical issues in mass communication are important because they involve social
responsibility and moral questions. The audience should be able to make critical
evaluations based on the media content or information they receive. Often, these
moral questions become a dilemma to the audience.
(k) To what extent are media practitioners ethical in reporting an issue in the
media?
Besides television, all of the above questions can be applied to the audiences of
other mass communication media such as radio, websites, the Internet, books,
music, magazines, message boards, etc.
ACTIVITY 9.5
What are the implications of communication technology on the media
landscape?
Mass communication has important functions in all aspects of our lives and
in society.
The variety of mass media today opens a door to the world of information
and entertainment not experienced before.
The audience as media users have the choice to determine media use; and
are able to understand and evaluate critically the meanings behind the
content of the media message.
INTRODUCTION
The dawn of the information age means that information and communication
technology have become important elements in the world of communication.
This field has also experienced great changes in accordance with these
technological advancements. The media landscape evolved due to the increased
accessibility of information and communication technology. The global Internet
network, which began with the invention of the computer, has created a new
medium in this age of information. As such, it may be said that communication
technology has led to the formation of relationships that are not limited by mere
physical boundaries.
This topic will discuss several important concepts regarding ICT and its impact
on the media landscape.
Technology is regarded not only as a hardware system that has special functions
but also as a part of the life of a society. Information and communication
technology distributes information through telecommunication devices, such as
telephones, cables and satellites. The relationship between information and
communication technology and communication may be seen when hardware
(equipment) and software (computer programs) are employed to allow users to
communicate. The combination of hardware and software results in information
and communication technology (ICT). Broadcasting satellite networks,
televisions, digital videos, CD-ROMs, digital video disks, audio-visual recorders,
wireless communication devices such as telephones, mobile phones and the
Internet are just a few examples of ICT.
Electronic media technology began with the use of the telegraph in 1850. This
technology was a great leap forward from the age of printing. Unlike printing
technology, the telegraph enabled people to communicate even from long
distances. The invention of the telephone, which was a direct result of the
invention of the telegraph, brought communication to an even more advanced
level. The telephone allowed instant and simultaneous long distance
communication and facilitated an effective delivery of information. The invention
of the telephone brought great changes to the patterns of human communication,
quite unlike printed forms of communication such as written correspondence.
Figure 10.2 depicts the concept of media convergence and the overlap among
these three main industries and how they influence each other. This in turn leads
to further technological development.
The production and creation of various forms of new technology in the industry
of communication and telecommunication aims to facilitate the interlinked
processes of delivery, storage, channelling and re-accessing (i.e. searching)
information (Straubhaar & LaRose, 2000).
In addition to this, cable and fibre optics technology has revolutionised the way
people communicate. Information can be directly supplied from sources all over
whole world quickly and easily. This enables individuals and organisations to
share information and expertise in order to distribute information.
(a) Newspaper
Printing technology contributed to the development of the newspaper
industry. The reform brought by this technology had a great effect on news
sourcing, advertising and distribution. The Internet has also changed the
way reporters source information. Tips are now usually obtained through
e-mail and it is through this same method that their validity is ascertained.
Research can be done through news websites, chat-rooms and newsgroups.
With regard to news production, satellite technology enables newspapers to
be dispatched from news editorial agencies to faraway locations.
In the past, print media (via newspapers) was the primary source of news.
However it has diversified in supplying information to readers by
presenting news through cyberspace. Online newspapers are now seen as a
viable alternative in delivering news to the people. Regardless, both print
and online newspapers have similar functions, namely collecting,
evaluating and conveying information to a large audience.
In the 1980s, early computers sent news to homes through video text.
However, the conception of the World Wide Web (WWW) now allows
news to be distributed more widely. There are now thousands of
newspapers published online.
The boundaries of space and time are no longer a hindrance people who
require news updates. Through Web portals and „push technology‰, people
are now able to access the latest news immediately. At the same time, this
system stores news in an archive, enabling it to be read later. In addition,
these hypertext documents are linked to other similar documents, thus
enabling and facilitating the search for related news topics.
(b) Magazines
When the Internet was first conceived, most magazine publishers believed
that it would threaten the publication of printed magazines. This was due
to the many opportunities provided by the Internet, such as providing a
space for publishing online magazines free of charge.
Online magazines are a fairly new medium which is in direct competition
with printed magazines. By 1995, the development of online magazines
began to gain popularity. Figure 10.3 explains the advantages of using the
Internet in the magazine industry.
(c) Books
Traditionally, printing books have had various weaknesses because of the
difficulty in editing to improve and increase content. The publishing
industry has thus employed digital technology to widen its market.
Due to this, books no longer need to be printed for publication and
marketing. The emergence of the Internet has led to the digital production
of books known as e-books. E-books that can be downloaded online with
additional hyperlinks have now replaced traditional textbooks.
The digital publication of books means that information can be distributed
and marketed to clients, readers and users in general directly through the
Internet.
It also enables information that was previously printed in the form of books
to be obtained more easily and cheaply.
ACTIVITY 10.1
(a) Radio
Since the 1920s, the development of radio broadcasting has been in line
with the development of the music industry and recording technology.
Technological development in radio broadcasting have led to the
emergence of sophisticated digital technology through the convergence of
computers, telecommunications and broadcasting technology. The Internet
and the WWW has also facilitated the downloading of software needed by
many users at the same time. IBOC (in-band, on-channel), satellite radio
and cyber radio (Internet radio) are digital audio broadcasting (DAB)
techniques used to transmit signals in a high quality digital format. DAB is
also able to transmit signals to „mobile‰ receivers.
The main advantages of the digital broadcasting network are its ability to
transmit data through radio channels to a larger audience. This system is
able to simultaneously produce quality audio and data in the form of text
and images. Now, thousands of radio stations have their own websites,
some even offering cyber radio to the audience.
ACTIVITY 10.2
What is Internet radio? Name two Internet radio stations that you
know.
(c) Film
Digital technology has helped the filming industry become more stable and
developed in line with technological developments.
(i) In early the 1990s, film production studios began to use computers for
digital editing and special effect techniques.
(ii) Toy Story (1995) was the first film that was completely computer-
generated.
(iii) In 1998, made-for-the-web films were produced using video
streaming technology.
(iv) In 1999, films began to be distributed to cinemas using in a digital
format, where the film is transmitted through satellites in form of
electronic files directed to the receiving disc of the cinema.
(v) In 2000, film is transmitted through the Internet digitally for the first
time ever (Rodman, 2001).
In film production, 2D and 3D digital animation techniques often become
an important alternative for its director in producing a film image that is
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. How do 2D animation and 3D animation differ from one
another?
2. What are the advantages of using the Internet in the magazine
industry?
ACTIVITY 10.3
Do you think that the communication technology offered by the
Internet has taken over the roles of other electronic media?
The concept of media globalisation developed due to the increased use of media
and communication mediators in the process of interaction. Globalisation in the
context of communication media involves media management and formation. It
refers primarily to the variety of media combination used as a communication
medium. One of the requirements of the globalisation process is the emphasis on
humansÊ ability to control various forms of information available in their
surroundings.
Media globalisation issues are also often related to cultural imperialism. Cultural
imperialism depicts the inequality of media flow (electronic broadcasting,
television, film, music, news and information). Cultural imperialism occurs when
certain parties control media content, specifically in media export industry,
advertising and in the ownership of media institutions.
Mowlana (1997) states that information flow occurs at two levels, as seen in
Figure 10.8.
The positive effect of the information flow can be seen from several aspects of
society, including the individual, institutions, inter-groups, ethnic groups,
minorities and nations.
From the individual aspect, the information flow has influenced patterns of
individual thought, both ideologically and in terms of the environment. The
information flow helps increase knowledge and awareness towards the
importance of rules and understanding legal implications.
(a) The community may no longer be confined to the same geographical area
but will develop into a wider community without limits. Community
members are connected through communication technology (virtual
community).
(b) The digital divide arises due to an imbalance of rights and opportunities in
owning technology due to the inability to own technology (the
technological haves and have nots). It is closely related to the idea of having
access to information. In most cases, a financially able group will have a
higher chance of owning access to technology and expertise, compared to
those who are less so. The „haves‰ group is able to access the Internet and
this situation is opposite to that of the „have nots‰ group.
The group which has no access to information and is unable to own it will
be left out and left behind. The difference in access to technology causes an
imbalance in the information flow, hence dividing the community into
different groups.
In addition, the digital divide is also related to access issues that result in
self-isolation. A consequence of this imbalance is a wealth gap between
third world and advanced countries.
Factors that cause the digital divide include economic constraints,
government policies, shortage or absence of infrastructure to support the
use of technology, such as services and telephone lines, geographical factors
(urban and rural), the ability to pay for online services, social issues
(gender, age, race), language proficiency, lack of expertise and training and
so on.
(c) Improvement in quality of life. A lot of the latest information and news can
be easily obtained through online resources to help us in our personal and
professional lives.
ACTIVITY 10.4
ACTIVITY 10.5
Media and technology literacy shapes humans into an audience that needs to
adapt themselves to the information era.
Books Newspapers
Film Radio
Information and communication Recording audio
technology
Television broadcasts
Magazines
INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we discussed the main concepts of information and
communication technology and the implications of a digital media landscape.
Today, technology has changed the way we perceive ourselves, our environment
and our relationships. Life in the cyber world allows us to reshape our identity
any way we like. Social media has changed the way we interact with society,
making relationships more complex.
Not only do we need to adapt to these new ways of interacting with each other,
but also the way we view technology itself.
This final topic will focus on the implications of technology on various levels of
human relationships including in cyberspace.
We spend a large part of our lives interacting with people around us; we build
relationships by sharing experiences and feelings both verbally and non-verbally.
So, today we can choose to form relationships either in person or online.
In this era of global communications, the Internet allows people all over the
world to form individual relationships via virtual communities and social
networks.
The effects of technology, its progress and the way we use it is widely discussed.
Communications technology has been and continues to be used to effect social
change. As societiesÊ struggle to cope with the new ways of communicating that
are currently available, they have to adapt to the ways quickly.
How does communicating online help a person see himself? How does it
influence a person and what are the implications in interpersonal
communications?
The World Wide Web (WWW) is an example of technology that forms a unique
partially interactive form of communication. In the past, individuals advertised,
printed and prepared autobiographies to introduce a product or service, or
become known publicly. Now with the Internet, documents can be published on
their own websites and can be accessed by many people.
A person has the opportunity to play the role of webmaster in writing and
publishing certain material or an article. Interaction that occurs is one way except
when there is an e-mail address for further contact.
Through WWW, a person can create a made-up identity while interacting with
others. In other words, technology does not only change what is thought about a
person but also provides the opportunity to create a desired identity. The
Internet, for example through Multiple User Domain (MUDs), allows people to
form „virtual communities‰ and distinctive self-identities. Methods of interaction
through MUDs also enable individuals to experiment and mould a new identity
as desired, and eliminate the unwanted actual identity. They can establish a
relationship and interact with other members of the virtual community.
Anyone can create an online biography which can include social activities, family
origin, gender, hobbies, life experiences, etc.
For someone who feels awkward in social situations, the Internet provides an
easy way to interact with others through social networking sites, electronic
bulletin boards, Internet Relay Chat Rooms (IRC), Multi User
Domain/Dimensions or Dungeons (MUDs) and Multi-user dungeon Object
Oriented (MOOs). These are areas open to the study of ethical issues in online
communication. Online identities are naturally questionable. Here, the
imagination is the only limit to how you can portray yourself online.
ACTIVITY 11.1
Is this statement true in todayÊs era of communication technology? What are the
implications of communication technology on personal relationships?
Today, e-mail and online Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) and chat
programmes are communication tools that are most popular among family
members and friends when they are far away from each other. For those who are
shy, interacting using e-mail or online chat groups gives them more confidence
than if they were to talk to another person face to face. People with illnesses i.e.
thalassemia or cancer can now talk to others they can relate to, and give/receive
emotional support. In this way, technology can improve the quality of life.
ACTIVITY 11.2
Technology makes it easier for people who may lack self-esteem to venture into
relationships with other people. They can express themselves in a more
comfortable environment while online, as everyone seems to be the same. No
matter how they dress, wear their hair or how affluent they are, they are all equal
in the virtual world.
This is especially true for teenagers and children. The Internet can be a
dangerous place for a child. So it is incumbent on parents to monitor the types of
websites their children visit. The cyberspace is vast and difficult for authorities to
police. The idea of „stranger danger‰ is most evident in online communication.
Not only that, the Internet has no automatic filters; so you must monitor the
types of Web content your child views.
ACTIVITY 11.3
Besides that, effects can be seen in work handling, formation and structure of
groups in the organisation, and managerial roles. For example, some operations
are now automated and this has led to a change in staffing needs. Access to
internal and external information can be obtained easily. For example, in an
organisation centred on import and export, the process of buying and selling of
products can be carried out online.
Computerisation allows for automation of many tasks that at one time had to be
done manually. Office workers today use many computer programs like word
processing, spreadsheets, desktop publishing, accounting and multimedia
presentations. These programs allow work to be done faster and be streamlined.
Computers also allow for storing, searching and sharing data more efficiently.
Staff members can communicate more comprehensively through e-mail and
other media like video conferencing.
ACTIVITY 11.4
ACTIVITY 11.5
In the cyberspace era, electronic communities and work groups are formed
online. What are the differences between groups in cyberspace and in reality?
What are the similarities between work groups and social groups?
Computers and the Internet create new modes of discussion and relationships.
The various groups – be they social or professional – have similar roles as those
in real life. The uniqueness of interacting in cyberspace is the opportunity to
communicate without taking into account the background, gender, race, culture,
appearance, vocal quality, skin colour or age of members of the online group.
ACTIVITY 11.6
Have you ever joined an online group? How does being in the group
affect your life?
Through the Internet and the services it provides, information can be obtained
and delivered easily within a short time. Through e-mail, ListservsÊ and Usenet,
group members can communicate with other members of the group. One unique
feature of the Internet, for example, can be seen in its capability to deliver
messages to a large number of group members. Among the Internet services that
facilitate group communication are instant messaging, mailing lists and chat.
• Instant Messaging: This is a „telephone call‰ via the Internet whereby the
message is transmitted by typed text. The receiver can read the text once the
„return‰ key is pressed. Examples of instant messaging are ICQ and AOL
Messenger.
• Mailing Lists: Messages can be transmitted via e-mail to a large group of
people wherever they are. Mailing lists are compiled according to certain
topics and they are privately owned.
• Chat: This can be used in interactive communication whereby feedback is
sent and received directly. Examples are IRC, ICQ, AOL Messenger and
Yahoo! All group members intending to communicate via chat groups should
enter the Internet at the same time and be active to communicate with each
other.
The advantage of a group that applies technology in its operations is the linking
of group members who are far and near through telephone and e-mail.
Cooperation between members can be obtained quickly. Computer support
systems through network and groupware software coordinate the work of
members. A document shared via an online workgroup can be edited easily,
manipulated and given immediate attention by the relevant parties. Other
implications can be seen whereby face-to-face conference or meeting is not
needed at all. Operations can be carried out without the presence of every
member. Indirectly, technology will help the process of decision-making,
improving productivity and involvement of members in the group.
ACTIVITY 11.7
The Internet has created virtual groups that meet and interact with its members,
among which are online electronic groups, virtual communities and online
groups.
Different from nasty language spoken while angry, language sent through
electronic communication has an impact on its receiver. Messages with foul
language and sent to a person will remain for a long time and can be read again
before being deleted. The receiver of such messages may eventually forget the
discourteous message but not before the damage has been done.
Ethical issues in cyberspace can be a challenge and raise controversy. The main
ethical issues in communications concern accuracy of information, truth of facts,
responsibility of maintaining freedom and privacy. Among others, ethics in using
technology also involves the use of or access to unauthorised computer systems,
software piracy, usersÊ intellectual rights, fraud, misinterpretation, abuse of
information, confidentiality, freedom and news leaks.
The preservation of personal rights and freedom is one of the main issues of
ethics in the cyber world. Online communication that is regarded as secret or
owned by individuals can actually be encroached upon by advertisers on the
Internet. Interactive media, e-mail, access to computer databases and network for
shopping from homes, for example, are mechanisms to collect information on
users. The collected information can be sold to international marketing
companies. Unlimited banner advertisements on the Internet will be seen every
time a person browses the Internet. The question of freedom without
restrictictions is becoming more complex in the cyber world. The freedom is
unlimited to the extent that even information on users of the Internet can be
collected and stored by other people.
In reality, the combination of new technology has the potential of destroying the
freedom and personal rights of individuals. What is the importance of having
ethics in cyberspace? On what grounds should ethics be taken into account in
cyberspace communication while the identity of those who communicate is
unknown to us?
Communication among people today includes online interaction that has made
relationships among people increasingly complex and full of ambiguity. The
development of information communication technology affects the process of
communication especially on the receiver. Communication established online
definitely involves etiquette of interaction in the cyber world. Therefore, etiquette
in communication relationships is very important because it is closely related to a
personÊs view of one another. „Netiquette‰ are rules on communication on the
Internet. Mutual respect while being courteous on the Internet becomes a
guideline to communication in social situations on the Internet. In other words,
netiquette helps to form an ethical communication. Researchers in the field of
computerisation identify several guidelines of etiquette for communication on
the Internet as follows:
(a) Reading FAQs before starting to ask questions that other people have
already asked.
(b) Writing in uppercase would mean that you intend to emphasise something
in the message or you are shouting.
(c) Avoid the use of the Internet during „traffic jams‰ because it will cause
difficulty in accessing the Internet. Use a suitable time to go online.
Etiquette in the cyber world includes guidelines for mutual respect and courtesy
while interacting with other Internet users. However, there are various barriers
in its application such as mastery of English on the Internet and the diversity of
users of the Internet from different cultural backgrounds.
The usual rules that are used as guidelines in communication using e-mail,
listservs, chat rooms and discussion boards are as follows:
(a) Messages are read and understood well.
(b) Messages to be sent should be read so that they are easily understood and
not misinterpreted.
(c) Use emoticons to clarify meaning.
(d) Know the audience who are going to receive the message.
(e) Be patient, have an open mind and try to understand new people in
listservs, discussion boards, e-mail, chat rooms and other communication
technologies.
(f) Reproduce (paste back) the part of message that is related to the feedback
so that the original sender of message will easily understand the context of
the feedback.
(g) Ensure name and topic of message are stated clearly.
(h) Focus on the topic of every message.
(i) Type in lowercase.
(j) Try to understand the situation of the message receiver who may be less
fluent in English. To be certain, a person should ask first before giving
feedback.
(k) Avoid making assumptions about the receiver of the message.
(l) Be courteous and sensitive towards the feelings of others.
Rules in cyberspace are very different from life in the real world. The absence of
non-verbal communication elements complicate the process of interpreting
messages received. One thing often forgotten in cyberspace communication is the
fact that interaction happens with other people who also have feelings. Non-
verbal cues that are not taken into account will cause various misunderstandings,
errors and communication conflicts.
ACTIVITY 11.8
The Internet and the facilities it provides offer opportunities for people to
interact virtually with others.
Ethical issues imply the need for a code of behaviour among users of
cyberspace communication.
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OR
Thank you.